learn-about-korea

[learn-about-korea]

PART ONE

General information (Geographical information, demographics (dig into social configuration, ethnicity, education, income ratio, access to education), language or languages spoken, main economic activities, political configuration)

South Korea is a Republic originated on August 15, 1948, located in East Asia, limited to the north by North Korea, while to the east, west and south it is limited by the Sea of Japan, Yellow and narrow of Korea, respectively. It has an area of 100,339 km2 and an approximate population of 51,635,256 habitants, its capital is Seoul (Gobierno de México, 2019).

From before the Republic was formed, Korea had been one of the great Asian societies. The first religion that was introduced to the nation was Protestantism, this with the influence of the USA, however, thanks to globalization there are currently great diversity of religions, such as Christianity and Buddhism, also lots of people profess the idea of Confucius where here are no religions (EcuRed, 2020).

The country's economy has been one of the fastest growing in recent decades, with exports being its main driver (being a major exporter of technology in mobile devices, entertainment and automobiles), causing a developed economy with high incomes (EcuRed, 2020). Its currency is the won, and its GDP was 31,362.75 USD in 2018.

Therefore, the official language of South Korea is Korean, differing in some respects from pronunciation, grammar, writing, and vocabulary to the Korean language of North Korea, while English is the second language used. This last language is compulsory taught in the secondary schools of the Republic; education in South Korea is one of the best known and admired, having one of the most successful educational systems in the world, as well as one of the strictest and heaviest where the study hours are more than 11 hours each day, and then continue studying in private libraries called Hagwons. Both teachers and tutors are highly respected and prepared people, who have a great vocation, in addition to good salaries. It is worth mentioning that until 2010 there was a method called the "love stick" with which teachers or parents beat students in case they did not show appropriate attitudes. Access to education in South Korea is facilitated by public schools that exist at all educational levels, as well as private schools (García, 2018).

Finally, it is worth highlighting one of the most commented aspects of South Korea, its policy, which is currently democratic and multi-party, having Moon Jae-in as president, however, in 2017 its president was removed from office, as well as sentenced to 25 years in prison for corruption and influence peddling (Gobierno de México, 2019).

[learn-about-korea]

PART ONE

Explain general characteristics of this culture in terms of family configuration (nuclear/extended), social skills that are important, age grouping and gender roles.  

Family configuration

Humans are social animal therefore every interaction can be a learning experience. Even though we all share different values and opinions, we are still governed by the same cultural norms which are learned from our closet contact since early childhood (family, friends, and school). The oldest and most important institution known to mankind is family.

Belonging to a heteronormative structure, relationships are expected between a man and a woman with the intention to continue the family lineage. Uichol et al. (2012), explains that while the man is the head of the household till the age of 60, the woman’s duty is to manage it. Both of these roles are passed down to their eldest son and eldest daughter-in-law respectively. Korean family organization adheres to traditional Confucian principles, rights, and obligations which are role-attached, unequal, paternalistic, and situational. As a result, mothers and fathers serve different roles. Whereas mothers are expected to raise the children, manage the household, relationships, economy, and represent the inner world (human-heartedness) for the kids; a fathers role is to maintain or elevate the social status of the family, to educate the son to carry on the family name, and to represent the outsider world (rightness).

Age grouping

Easter societies perceive ageing in a positive light and display strong respect for the elderly. Samovar et al. (2017), postulated through storytelling kids are taught to care for their parents. Korean culture puts great emphasis on remembering those before themselves, for example, seniors are venerated and influential. Worshiping ancestors is highly value in these cultures, quoting the authors, “children are taught at a young age that grandfathers and older members of the family are authority figures” (Samovar et al., 2017, p.72).

Contrarily to what has been discussed, Yun et al. (2006) propose that urbanization has weakened values regarding senior citizens. As a consequence of accelerated economic development in South Korea, population ageing, family structure (from extended families to nuclear families), and women taking a step back from primary caregivers of elders to join the workforce are all factors that have impacted culturally. The study also notes that, “younger aged participants portrayed less complex representations and depictions of the elderly than the old aged sample” (Yun et al., 2006, p. 57). We can conclude that despite elders having a more positive outlook towards their own than younger generations, they continue to have a major unfavorable perspective towards aspects of aging.

Gender roles

Expected behaviors of a person’s biological or perceived sex are strongly linked to a society’s standpoint. Stereotypical and unrealistic images of women have flooded mass media. As a result, gender roles have been reinforced into Korean society. Television and advertising are loaded with severe patriarchal ideologies and practices. As Kim et al. (2005) explains, gender representation in advertising reflects fundamental features of social structure. Advertisers use stereotypes as a tool to communicate with a target audience and sell their products. Through social base and processes, subjective reality is maintained which means it’s continued by affirming or adjusting realities. By implementing stereotypical gender roles, media has reinforced the audience’s subjective reality without portraying society’s real life.  

Through television programs and commercials, conventional gender stereotypes are reinforced. Kim et al. (2005) notes that, “according to McGhee and Frueh (1980), viewers stronger belief in cultural stereotypes correlates with increased television viewing. They reported that heavy viewers of television attributed a higher status to men than to women. Men were perceived as having more diverse and improved life options” (Kim et al., 2005, p. 902). It wasn’t till the late 70’s and early 80’s that there was a changing role for women specifically scholars.

It’s worth pointing out that, historically, female characters are prone to represent household products and to be portrayed as products rather than experts, dependent, and are meant to look younger than their male counter parts. On the other hand, men represent non-domestic products such as financial or technological commodities and are most likely to use scientific data when exhibiting products (op.cit.).

Gender roles in advertisement are limited to those that are deemed traditional and acceptable. They reinforce heteronormative norms and ignore diversity. Even though there’s been strives to adjust and revise these portrayals of an unrealistic   community, they remain prevalent in South Korean society. There’s a plethora of steps that need to be taken in order to change theme since they’ve been historically used (op.cit.).

According to the Korean Overseas Information Service (KOIS), in preparation for their roles as wife’s and mothers, Korean women were taught subordination and endurance. Confined to household matters, women could not participate in society as men did. During the late 19th century, as a result of the country opening to the rest of the world, schools were established. With the purpose of enlightening women, some schools were founded. They began to take part in the arts, teaching, and religious work.

The year 1948 marked the beginning of the Republic of Korea in which women attained constitutional rights. The female labor force contributed to the rapid economic growth of Korea and, as a result, circumstances in Korea were bettered. 1966 saw a noticeable educational acquirement for women. The percentage of girls continuing their education in middle school was 33 percent. The percentages for high school and university where 20 and 4 respectively.  By 1998, those ratios were elevated to 99.5 and 61.6 (op.cit.).

An increase between 1975 and 1998 in the female labor workforce, pushed the passage of the 1987 “Equal Employment Act” which hindered discriminatory practices against workers and increased promotion opportunities. (op.cit.). Since then, there’s been more acts implemented, for instance, “Act on Equal Employment and Reconciliation of Work and Family” (1989), “Mother-Child Welfare Act” (1991), “Punishment of Sexual Violence and Protection of the Victim Act” (1993), “Women’s Development Act” (1995), and “Prevention of Domestic Violence and Protection of the Victim Act” (1997).

Social Skills

For kids to have a notion of their own culture, social skills are taught from a very young age. Using Park et al. (2005) work as reference, one can remark that socialization enculturates children and prepares them to function in culturally acceptable ways. They must follow system of beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors in order to thrive in their own country. Through proactive behavior, parents mold children to their desired skills. Goals are established and kids must achieve them. Such goals can be moral, for example, kindness, respect, and equal treatment of others. They can also be socially conventional such as appealing to the expectations of the group.

Confucian ideologies are a repetitive theme in Korean culture. According to them, positive behavior and disposition are results of environmental influences.  This means that a child’s upbringing is heavily influenced by the creation of the right environment. Following this ideology, a kid’s gender is a factor in the attribution for social behavior, for example, daughters are perceived as innately helpful (op.cit.)

The article “Korean culture and its influence on business practice in South Korea”, illustrates social skills expected in a professional setting. Koreans strive to maintain a stable environment, consequently, they named balance and good behavior as kibun. Aligning with the previous definition, inhwa is defined as harmony.  The author, Lee (2012), also describes hierarchy in which the eldest person initiates activities suchlike eating, greeting, and entering a room. Senior members expect to be seated in the center or head position and are served first. Koreans address each other by their titles. Even in school this power dynamic is followed since freshman’s call their elders brothers and sisters. As the author explains, “Korean status is determined by age, gender, education, family background, wealth occupation, and political ideology. Social contracts determine success” (Lee, 2012, p. 187).

[learn-about-korea]

PART ONE

Address a specific celebration, tradition, ritual, festivity that is related to an important historical event. Explain how it is carried out or celebrated. You should be objective and use non-biased or judgmental language.

Doljanchi

Aforetime, the death rates for children were high, as a result, it became a tradition to celebrate their first year with a feast for the whole family. Author Hwa-young (2020) explains, “in Korean tradition, the banquet held to celebrate a baby’s first year of life is called Doljanchi. Dol means first birthday, signifying the completion of one full cycle of 12 months, and janchi is a banquet or party” (Hwa-young, 2020, p.4).

The focal point of the celebration is a ritual called doljabi in which a tray with an array of items is placed in front of a baby. The objects they choose will predict their future. Noodles, thread, susu patteok (a type of cake ball), and white rice cakes represent health and longevity. Another common thing to place is money which exemplifies wealth. Although objects were gender specified, for example, boys trays usually contained books and ink while housekeeping elements were displayed for girls; now such division is not made (op.cit.).

[learn-about-korea]

PART TWO

Religion or religious practices that impact that culture in social, economical or political terms.

In South Korea there is a great diversity of religions which coexist peacefully, according to (Spanish Korea, 2019) 44% of Koreans have a religion, among the most popular are Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, Confucianism and Shamanism. South Korea has Buddhism and Confucianism as its first religions, both are the basis of culture, most of its temples and monuments are closely related to these religions. It is worth mentioning that Confucianism arises after Buddhism, but not as a religion, but as a Code of Ethics that regulated human behavior and its autonomy.

Confucianism became the ideology of the state, emphasizing respect, loyalty and ancestor worship, having the faithful belief that deceased ancestors had an influence on the reality, the present and the prosperity of the habitants, reason why they began to look for better places and better tombs where to bury their ancestors (op.cit).

Catholicism was introduced to the lowest class approximately in the year 1897, being initially persecuted by the other settlers, causing the creation of several martyrs and blessed. On the other hand, Protestantism arrived in South Korea at the end of the 19th century with the help of North American missionaries, being widely accepted and promoted in schools and hospitals (op.cit).

Currently 44% of residents say they have a defined religion, while the remaining 56% have no religion, out of 44% with religion, Protestantism is 45%, while Buddhists represent 35% and Catholics are 18%, these three being the most popular and professed. Other religions present in South Korea are won, cheaondogyo and daejonggyo, however there is not as much presence of them in the state (op.cit).

[learn-about-korea]

PART TWO

Ethnicity:  the existence of co-cultures and the way differences are adressed in the social, economical or politica setting.

South Korea has been influenced by the Chinese and Japanese cultures, however, according to Muscato (2019), Korea is one of the most ethnically homogenous nations in the world. That means that almost everybody belongs to the same ethnic category. Over 99% of South Koreans identify as ethnically Korean. The largest group of ethnic minorities in South Korea, the Chinese, only number around 20,000 people.

[learn-about-korea]

PART TWO

Racism, prejudice and/or stereotypes as issues, and their impact within that culture.

Racism and Multicultural learning

Immigration in Korea have caused rapid changes in population demographics which has resulted in increased diversity. According to Tanghe (2016), “current education programs struggle to effectively integrate issues of multiculturalism into schools, with almost 70% of middle and high school students reporting having never received any form of multicultural education at school.” (Tanghe, 2016, p. 203). Using a racial discrimination simulation activity, the author wanted to expose graduate student teachers to discrimination in a safe environment in order to promote reflection on the oppression present in society.  

It wasn’t until 2006 that terms like “multiculturalism”, “multicultural family”, and “multicultural education” where assimilated by policy makers but common definitions have not been agreed upon. As a result, government divisions understand these terms differently, for example, “definitions of ‘multicultural family’ range from recognizing the marriage o one Korean national and foreign-born national to ‘people with different ethnic and cultural background from us’.” (Tanghe, 2016, p. 204). From this information, we can gather that there’s no common grounds to define multicultural terms correctly.  

Tanghe (2016), quotes Nieto (2004) who defines multicultural education as “a process of…basic education for all students…[that] challenges and rejects racism and other forms of discrimination in schools and society and accepts and affirms the pluralism…that students, their communities, and teachers present.” (Nieto, 2004, p. 204). The global agreement is that the definition of multiculturalism and its education are terms that encompass racial and cultural diversity. Korean nationalism and identity are strongly protected because historically they’ve been invaded by ‘outsiders’ which is why foreigners can be perceived as enemies.

For this activity, students were divided into groups. One group was given a red paper square they had to clip on their shits. While half of them were told to sit in front of the class with neatly arranged chairs, the other half sat at the back sitting on crammed chairs. After half of the session had gone by, the students switched place which meant their levels of privilege had been modified. During the 80-minute class, small groups discussed race theory and race issues. All through the lesson, the experimenter favored the privileged group by praising them, giving physical contact, and eye contact. The marginalized group was ignored and criticized.

After the simulation, a debriefing session was held where students answered questions on effects and thoughts on the activity. Withing the next week, students were asked to write a blog about the experience. The results showed that the concept of ‘race’ lacked connection to Korean context. It was also found that the participants reported distance from the simulation and their own teaching contexts. Pre-participation surveys showed that the students believed racism existed in Korean did not believe race was a consideration in school classrooms. They also didn’t view race as part of their job. At the end of the day, kids go to school and teachers set an example. Therefore, the managing of a classroom is highly important.

The Asian Times reports that the National Human Rights Commission put forward that many foreigners are racially abused by Koreans. Based on interviews of migrants, 68.4% responded that racism is prevalent in Korea. Some even noted that they had been abused either verbally or physically. As we explored previously, this could be the result of historical anger built by Koreans as a symptom of the violence they lived because of invaders. It is not a reason to condone acts of racist violence but to deep dive into racial structures in Korea.

According to Hunter (2007), “colorism, or skin color stratification, is a process that privileges light-skinned people of color over dark in areas such as income, education, housing, and the marriage market.” (Hunter, 2007, p. 237). As a result of colorism, light-skinned individuals are privileged over dark-skinned people. It is no secret that light skinned people earn more money and advance to higher education. The author explains that racism is a large, systemic social process and colorism is one of its manifestations which can be traced to European colonial projects.

In some Asian cultures, light skin was associated with a higher class because they would stay inside their homes, consequently, proving their social status. The idea was that only poor and working people would be dark because they had to work outside. Therefore, dark skin tone is correlated with poverty. Like racism, colorism involves clear and disguised acts of discrimination or subtle cues of disfavor. This is why creating a habitable world for everyone (not only for white people) is imperative for the development of those who are oppressed (op.cit.).

Beauty stereotypes for Korean women

Beauty stereotypes push Korean women to endure cosmetic procedures. In their study, Link, et al. (2020), point out that there’s evidence that indicates women feel unsatisfied with their body image, for example, South Korea ranks in third place (globally) for cosmetic producers. Furthermore, eating pathologies are as high as 81%. While 20% of South Korean women undergo some type of procedure to change their physical appearance, 15% of men do it too. Citing Link, “the practice of receiving a double eyelid surgery as a high school graduation present is so common in South Korea that it has been compared with a rite of passage.” (Link, et al., 2020, p. 97).

It’s been proposed that this may be the result of beauty standards being supported by culture rather than a psychopathology. Social theory proposes that globalization has brought western ideals that promote eating and body dissatisfaction. Through media, an easily available source to the general public, depicts what is desirable. As the author explains, “constant media exposure can thus lead viewers to endorse these ideals favorably, perceive them as normative, and engage in social comparison.” (Link, et al., 2020, p.  97).

Western beauty standards have permeated Korean culture. As a result, there’s a desire to be thin, have large eyes and a high nose are now sought after. Beauty magazines feature more body related advertisements and Caucasian models. Through feminist theory, the author explains that “cultural beauty standards are tools used to oppress women, as women deplete their financial and emotional resources and undermine their self-confidence as they attempt to attain such beauty standards.” (Link, et al., 2020, p. 98).

Gender roles are accentuated by Confucian ideologies, especially for women. As we’ve discussed, a women’s main activity is limited to the domestic sphere. In a patriarchal society, girls are expected to listen to their fathers. As they get older, the male dominant figure is given to her husband (which erases queer women). Lastly, if they widow the role is inherited by the eldest son. Failing to adhere to traditional values, gender roles, brings shame and dishonor to the family, its ancestors and oneself.

Being a collectivist culture, social groups are valued. An individual body not only represents itself; it does the same for the collective body of one’s social group. Consequently, Koreans may seek to improve what is perceived as flaws through cosmetic procedures. The importance of the whole group facilitates this because “individuals may view plastic surgery as a trend their larger social group partakes in.” (Link et al., 2020, p. 99). Surgery provides the tools needed to blend into the portrayals in mass media which are perceived as a representation of the multitude by the viewer.

[learn-about-korea]

PART THREE

Using The Hofstede Center website http://geert-hofstede.com/national-culture.html as a primary tool, describe from four to five different cultural patterns of your culture of expertise. You may also use the other taxonomies we discussed in class (Hall, Kluckhon and Strodbeck, Ting Toomey). Give specific examples on how the cultural patterns described are made visible within that culture.

Power Distance

A score of 60 tells us that South Korea is moderately hierarchical. As a result, society accepts a ranked order in which everybody has a place. Such organization provides space for inequalities, centralization, and power dynamics in which workers expect to be told what to do. If we look at what Kluckhons and Strodtbeck proposed, for some cultures the past can help them make decision. It is not abnormal that community that appraises ranking looks back at its ancestors and elders for wisdom and guidance. This is a result of the power distance established in Korean culture.

Individualism

A low individualism score (18) tells us Koreans are a collectivistic society. This points to commitment to groups, namely family, extended family, or extended relationships. They cultivate strong and loyal relationships in which everyone must hold their responsibilities to the highest standard. A clear example of this was mentioned when we talked about cosmetic procedures. Your body doesn’t only reflect yourself; it does the same for the collective body.

Uncertainty Avoidance

South Korea has 85 points in this taxonomy, having a high score indicates that it maintains rigid codes of belief and behavior, they maintain present rules for each situation. In this way they prevent uncertainty and avoid unorthodox behaviors and ideas. The population needs to be busy, work hard, be responsible, precise and punctual, because for them time is money.

Long Term Orientation

South Korea has 100 points in this taxonomy, indicating that it is one of the most pragmatic and long-term oriented societies, they are in constant change, they seek to save and strive to prepare for the future. It is guided by virtues and good examples; it is a society that does not believe in the existence of an all-powerful God.

Indulgence

South Korea maintains a low score of 29 points, denoting that it is a pessimistic and cynical society, where they worry about keeping busy and avoid having free time to satisfy their desires. They have strong regulations, and also consider that consent is wrong and that they are only impulses.

[learn-about-korea]

PART THREE

Describe how these specific patterns may cause communication problems and/or may lead to communication problems and/or be misunderstood when interacting with our culture. Mention at least two specific possible scenarios.

Scenario 1

Looking at the country comparison we can see a large difference in long term orientation. This details how certain societies link their past while confronting the present and future. Normative societies such as Mexico value long-standing traditions. Contrarily, those with high scores like Korea who have a pragmatic and modern point of view. It is interesting how Korea has score of 100 when they maintain strong ties to past through their rituals.

If two people from these cultures where working together, problems could emerge. While Koreans could try to innovate and bring new things to the table, Mexicans may want to persuade them to continue working as is.

Scenario 2

Comparing two countries, in this case South Korea with Mexico we can see the difference between how they enjoy and live life, as well as the attitude with which they face challenges. Likewise, the way in which they spend their income, savings and free time. South Korea is a more Restricted country, having a score of 29 points, indications that they are savers, pessimists, doctors and winners of enjoying their free time, on the other hand, Mexicans with a high score (97 points) are people who enjoy spending their money without thinking about it so much, that they seek to have free time for themselves and to spend it with their friends and family, in the same way they enjoy living together and having a positive attitude.

Thanks to globalization we can witness communication between the citizens of these two countries, so by living together we can see that it is easier for a Mexican to establish communication in the South Korean, while the South Korean can see uncomfortable in this attitude, preferring not to relate to the Mexican. Similarly, if these two cultures come together to work or study and something goes wrong, we can believe that the Mexican will react with a positive attitude, looking for a way to solve it, while South Korea will react negatively.

[learn-about-korea]

PART THREE

Give at least three examples of non-verbal communication practices in this culture (signs, gestures, space and distance, body behaviour, silence, eye contact, gaze, touch, facial expressions, perception of beauty, the message of skin color and the message of attire. 

Bowing

Courtesy, politeness, and respect are highly valued in Korean society. Subsequently, this is conveyed through their greetings. Bowing, commonly called, jeol in South Korea is done by placing both arms down your body and avoiding eye contact. When doing so, one must communicate a verbal greeting to maintain respect. A 90-degree bow called keunjeol is expected at weddings, funerals, ancestral ceremonies, and other important gatherings. Lastly, navel bows are commonly used by service industry employees.  This is not to say that Koreans don’t shake hands, but they must follow specific manners which involve hierarchical positions. Those in a lower status must place their left hand to the right side of their chest while also giving a bow.

Korean women do not always shake hands and may slightly nod instead of a full bow

Despite the fact that reverence is the traditional and ancient way of greeting each other in South Korea, as well as in most Asian cultures, it is an act mainly directed at men, which is why, although it has been acquired by both genders, women are more likely to lean fewer degrees (15° -30°) while men lean close to 45°.

It is insulting for Koreans to be touched by someone with whom they are unfamiliar; don’t pat them on the back or hug them.

Koreans prefer to avoid physical contact with unknown or unfamiliar people, which is why they prefer to greet and say goodbye with a bow. They avoid it since they consider that it is personal space is something intimate, so to show appreciation, respect and trust they prefer to bow.

[learn-about-korea]

REFERENCES

Commisceo Global. (n.d.). Resources. Retrieved June 16, 2020, from https://www.commisceo-global.com/resources/country-guides/south-korea-guide

EcuRed. (2020). Corea del Sur. Obtenido de EcuRed: https://www.ecured.cu/Corea_del_Sur

García, C. (26 de Noviembre de 2018). Corea del Sur: donde la educación sobrepasa los límites. Obtenido de elEconomista: https://www.eleconomista.es/ecoaula/noticias/9543388/11/18/Corea-del-Sur-donde-la-educacion-sobrepasa-los-limites.html

Gobierno de México. (2020). Corea del Sur. Obtenido de Gobierno de México: http://www.exteriores.gob.es/Documents/FichasPais/COREADELSUR_FICHA%20PAIS.pdf

Goh, D. (2020). In Korea, double standards on racism. Asia Times.

Hunter, M. (2007). The persistent problem of colorism: Skin tone, status, and inequality. Sociology compass, 1(1), 237-254.

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Kim, Uichol & Park, Young-Shin. (2012). Confucianism and family values. Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft. 3. 229-249. 10.1007/s11618-000-0023-6.

Kim Hwa-young. (2020). First Birthday Wishes. Koreana, 34(1), 4.

KOIS, K.O. (2016). Women’s Role in Contemporary Korea. Asia Society.

Korea.net: http://spanish.korea.net/AboutKorea/Korean-Life/Religion

Lee, C. Y. (2012). Korean culture and its influence on business practice in South Korea. The Journal of International Management Studies, 7(2), 184-191.

Link, K.L., & Raval, V. V. (2020). Understanding body image and appearance management behaviors among adult women in South Korea within sociocultural context: A review. International Perspectives in Psychology: Research, Practice, Consultation, 9(2), 96-122. https://doi-org.udlap.idm.oclc.org/10.1037/ipp0000124

Muscato, C. (05 de Noviembre de 2019). South Korea Ethnic Groups. Obtenido de Study: https://study.com/academy/lesson/south-korea-ethnic-groups.html#:~:text=In%20terms%20of%20ethnicity%2C%20Korea,only%20number%20around%2020%2C000%20people.

Park, S. Y., & Cheah, C. S. (2005). Korean mothers’ proactive socialisation beliefs regarding preschoolers’ social skills. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 29(1), 24-34.

Samovar, L. A., Porter, R. E., McDaniel, E. R., & Roy, C. S. (2017). Communication between cultures. Nelson Education.

Tanghe, S. (2016). Promoting Critical Racial Awareness in Teacher Education in Korea: Reflections on Racial Discrimination Simulation Activity. Asia Pacific Education Review,

Yun, R. J., & Lachman, M. E. (2006). Perceptions of aging in two cultures: Korean and American views on old age. Journal of cross-cultural gerontology, 21(1-2), 55-70