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Rig Vedic Period - 1500 BC - 1000 BC

These cities in Harappan Culture. Harappan Culture had declined by 1900 BC. As a result, their economy and administrative system slowly decreased. Several centuries later, Indo-Aryan speakers, Sanskrit, entered the north-west of India through the Indo-Iranian area. In the beginning, they were likely to have travelled in small groups through mountain passes that lie in the northwestern region. The first settlements they made were in the valleys in the north-west, and in the plains that comprise the Punjab. Then, they moved to Indo-Gangetic plains. Since they were mostly livestock-keepers who were mostly seeking pastures. At the time of the 6th century BC they had occupied the entire region area of North India, which was called Aryavarta. The time period between 1500 B.C and 600 B.C could be divided into two periods: the Early Vedic Period or Rig Vedic Period (1500 BC to 1000 BC) in addition to later, the Later Vedic Period (1000 BC to 600 BC).

In the Rig Vedic period, Aryans were mostly in the Indus region of modern-day Pakistan. It is believed that the Rig Veda refers to Saptasindhu also known as"the land with seven rivers. The five river systems of Punjab including Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej along with the Indus and Saraswathi. This period poses trouble for Indian historiography since the earliest historical (as as opposed to mythical] phase of Indian history didn't take position in India. Indian historiography has tends to shift the central point that is the center of Rig Vedic culture out of Pakistan to lands that are which is associated with Modern India and has also tended to alter the timeline of the disappearance in Harappan Culture to suggest a continuity between Harappan Culture and Rig Vedic culture, and a mark with greater antiquity to the more recent period, where the most reliable evidence indicates a gap of almost half a millennium.

The location of origin for people called Aryans is a subject of debate and there are a variety of opinions. Many scholars recognize distinct regions as the ancestral place of residence for the Aryans. These comprise regions like the Arctic area, Germany, Central Asia and the southern part of Russia. Bala Gangadhara Tilak argues that the Aryans originated directly from the Arctic region based on astronomical calculations. But, the theory of southern Russia is more likely and is popular with historians. The Aryans were able to move to different regions in Asia as well as Europe. They migrated to India in the 1500s BC and became called Indo-Aryans. They spoke Indo-Aryan, Sanskrit.

"Veda," as a word, comes taken from the root word "vid" which means to be aware. This means that the word 'Veda' is a reference to superior knowledge. The Vedic literature is comprised of the four Vedas, namely Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva. Atharva is the most famous. Rig Veda was the oldest one of all the Vedas, and it contains 1028 hymns. The songs were sung in the praise of gods from all over. It is believed that the Yajur Veda consists of various specifics of rules that must be observed during the moment of sacrifice. In the Sama Veda is set to tune to facilitate singing during the ritual of sacrifice. It is known as"the book that chants,", and the roots of Indian music can be traced through it. It is also known as the Atharva Veda. Atharva Veda contains details of rituals.

In addition to the Vedas and the other sacred texts, including the Brahmanas and the Upanishads and the Aranyakas and the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata. The Brahmanas are the treatises related to sacrificial and prayer. They are also known as the Upanishads are philosophical works that deal with subjects such as being the spirit, eternal nature of the universe, and the mystery of nature. The Aranyakas are also known as forests books and are about mysticism, ritesand rituals and sacrifices. The writer of Ramayana was Valmiki and the author from Mahabharata Was Vedavyas.

The social, political and cultural activities that of Rig Vedic people can be identified from the songs in the Rig Veda. The most fundamental element of the political system was kula, also known as family. Many families came together in accordance with their closeness in order to create a village, or the grama. The leader of the grama was called Gramani. Villages in a group formed an even larger unit known as visu. It was led by vishayapati. The highest level of political organization was called jana , or tribe.

There were many tribes in the Rig Vedic period such as Bharatas, Matsyas, Yadus and Purus. The leader of each kingdom was referred to as rajan or the king. In the Rig Vedic polity was normally monarchical, and lineage was hereditary. The monarch was assisted by purohita , or priest, and senani who was the general in his administration. The two bodies that were popular were known as Sabha and Samiti. Sabha or Samiti. The first appears to have been a council made up of elders, while the latter was an assembly of the entire population.

It was believed that the Rig Vedic culture was patriarchal. The primary element of society was the family, or the graham. Head of family members was referred to as a grahapathi. It was common practice to have monogamy, but polygamy was popular among noble and royal families. The wife was responsible for the household and took part in every major ceremony. Women were offered the same chances as men to develop their intellectual and spiritual growth. Women poets included Apala, Viswavara, Ghosa and Lopamudra in the Rig Vedic period. Women could also attend popular gatherings. The church did not allow children to marriages and the custom of sati was not in place.

Both genders were dressed in upper and lower clothes comprised of wool and cotton. There were a variety of ornaments utilized by both males as well as women. Barley and wheat, milk and its derivatives like curd and ghee, as well as vegetables as well as fruits are the main items of food. Consuming cow's flesh was forbidden because it was considered an animal of the sacred. Horse racing, chariot racing along with music and dance were among the most popular activities. Social divides were not as unbreakable in the Rig Vedic period as it was during the second Vedic period.

They were pastoral settlers and their primary occupation was the rearing of cattle. Their wealth was measured on the basis of their livestock. After they settled permanently within North India they began to engage in agriculture. Through the use and knowledge of iron, they could clear the trees and also bring land under cultivation. Carpentery was a different occupation and the abundance of wood from forest cleared made the trade lucrative. Carpenters built ploughs and chariots. Metal workers created a range of items made of bronze, copper and iron.

Spinning was also a significant occupation and cotton and woolen textiles were used to make them. Goldsmiths were involved in the creation of ornaments. Potters created a variety of vessels used in domestic usage. Trade was another significant business activity, and rivers were utilized as a major means of transportation. Trade was conducted through barter systems. Later gold coins, nishka were used as mediums for exchange in big transactions.

They worshipped the natural forces of fire, earth as well as wind, rain and thunder. They transformed these natural forces as a myriad of gods and revered them. The major Rig Vedic gods were Prithvi (Earth), Agni (Fire), Vayu (Wind), Varuna (Rain) and Indra (Thunder). Indra was most well-known among them in the beginning of the Vedic period. In second place behind Indra is Agni who was considered to be an intermediary between gods and the people. Varuna was believed to be the protector for the nature order. There were female gods as well, such as Aditi as well as Ushas. There were no temples , and no idol worship in the beginning of the Vedic period. Prayers were offered up to gods to seek rewards. Ghee, milk, and grains were offered as sacrifices. A complex ritual was followed in the ceremony of worship.

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ajaymodicare · 4 years ago

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Indus Valley Civilization (IVC)

The background of India began with the beginning of Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), also called the Harappan Civilization.

It flourished between 2,500 BC in the western region of South Asia, in modern Pakistan as well as Western India.

In the Indus Valley was the home of The most ancient of four urban cultures that comprised Egypt, Mesopotamia, India and China.

In 1920s In the 1920s, in the 1920s, Archaeological Department of India carried excavations within the Indus valley. The ruins of two cities were discovered. Mohenjodaro as well as Harappa were found.

In the year 1924 John Marshall, Director General of the ASI made public that he had discovered of a new civilization within the Indus valley to the rest of the world.

Phases of IVC

Three types IVC are: IVC are:

It is believed that the Early Harappan Phase is related to the Hakra Phase, found in the Ghaggar Hakra River Valley.

The earliest instances from writing in Indus script go back to 3000 BC.

This phase is marked by central authority and an increasing urban lifestyle.

trade networks were in place and there is evidence regarding an increase in the cultivation of various crops. Sesame seeds, peas dates, cotton and many others were cultivated at the time.

Kot Diji symbolizes the period that leads to Mature Harappan Phase.

In 2600 BC in the 2600 BC period, 2600 BC, the Indus Valley Civilization had moved into an maturing stage.

The first Harappan communities were transforming into cities of immense size, like Harappa as well as Mohenjodaro within Pakistan as well as Lothal within India.

during the Early Harappan Phase between 3300 and 2600 BCE,

the mature Harappan Phase from 2600 to 1900 BCE and

during the Late Harappan Phase between 1900 and 1300 BCE.

The signs of the slow decrease in the Indus The signs of a gradual decline in the Indus Valley Civilization is thought to have started in the 1800s BC and, by 1700 BC many cities had been abandoned.

But, it is possible to observe the different aspects of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization throughout the subsequent cultures.

The archaeological evidence indicates the existence in archaeological evidence that suggests the existence of Late Harappan culture till 1000-900 BC.

Town Planning and Structures

Harappan culture was distinguished by its town planning system. Harappan style of living has been distinctive by its method of city planning.

Harappa and Mohenjodaro had their own acropolis or citadel that could have been used by the upper class.

In each city was below the citadels of each city lay a lower town with brick homes which were used by people of the common.

The interesting aspect of the layout of the homes in the city is the fact that they were arranged according to the grid arrangement.

Granaries were a major element of Harappan cities.

The burning of bricks in Harappan cities is remarkable due to the fact that in the current constructions of Egypt the majority of dried bricks were utilized.

Its water drainage scheme in Mohenjodaro was awe-inspiring.

In most cities, each house, small or large included a backyard and bathroom..

In Kalibangan there were many homes with bathrooms.

In places like Dholavira or Lothal (Gujarat) The entire town was secured, and the parts of the town were separated from each other by wall.

Agriculture

Harappan villages Harappan communities, mostly situated near the floodplains provided enough grain for food.

Barley, wheat sesame, peas chickpea, lentil, and mustard were also produced. Millets were also discovered from places in Gujarat. Although rice was uncommon.

Indus people were the Indus tribe were among the first to develop cotton..

Although the widespread use of agriculture is evident from the presence of grains however, it is difficult to trace the actual practices in agriculture.

Seals' representations and Terracotta sculptures suggest it was the case that bulls were used for ploughing. bull was a popular animal, and archaeologists infer that the oxen were also used for plowing.

The majority of Harappan sites are situated in semi-arid areas, where irrigation was likely required for agricultural purposes.

Canals are found in Harappa, which is located at Harappan website in Shortughai in Afghanistan however, they are not found located in Punjab as well as Sindh.

While the Harappans practiced agriculture, animals were also raised on a massive scale.

The evidence of the horse originates from a very superficial level of Mohenjodaro as well as an unproven terracotta statue from Lothal. However, there is no evidence that suggests the Harappan tradition was certainly not entirely horse to be centered.

Economy

The significance of trade in the daily life of Indus people is evident by the presence of seals as well as uniform scripts, and weights and measurements over a large space.

Harappans conducted a significant trading in metal, stone and shells, etc.

The metal currency was never utilized and trade was conducted via barter systems.

They practiced navigation along shores of the Arabian Sea.

They set up the commercial colony the northern region of Afghanistan which , it appears, helped commerce to Central Asia.

They also conducted commerce with the people of the land that was the Tigris and the Euphrates.

Harappans were involved in long distance commerce with lapis-lazuli and this may have helped in the social standing for the elite class.

Crafts

The Harappans were well familiar with the manufacture and usage of Bronze.

Copper was sourced through in the Khetri Copper mines in Rajasthan along with Tin may have been brought by Afghanistan.

Impressions of textiles were also discovered on a variety of objects.

Massive brick structures suggest it was building bricks was a major craft. It also demonstrates to the fact that masons were masons as a distinct class.

The Harappans were adept at boat-making, beads making, and sealing. The manufacture of terracotta was also the most important art.

Goldsmiths created jewellery made of gold, silver along with precious stones.

The wheel of the potter was working at full capacity and the Harappans made their unique pottery that was smooth and shiny.

Institutions

A few writings have been found within the Indus valley and scholars haven't been able to understand the Indus script to date.

In the end that there is difficult to comprehend how the government functions as well as the institutions that were part of Indus Valley Civilization. Indus Valley Civilization.

There are no temples were found in all Harappan sites. Thus the possibility of having priests in charge of Harappa is eliminated.

Harappa may have been controlled by a group that included merchants.

If we are looking for a power centre or images of people in positions of power, archeological records do not provide immediate solutions .

A few archaeologists are of the belief that Harappan society was ruled by no ruling class and that everyone had equal rights.

Another theory suggests that there was no one ruler and that there was several rulers from each of the cities.

Religion

In Harappa many terracotta figures of women There have been some discoveries. In one figure, a plant appears to be growing out of the embryo of the woman.

The male god is depicted on a seal by three heads with horns, depicted in the sitting position of yoga yogis.

Numerous images of the female sex and phallus organs constructed from stone have been discovered.

The inhabitants of Indus region worshipped trees. Indus Region also worshipped animals and trees..

The most famous of them all is the one-horned unicorn which can be distinguished as a rhinoceros. The second most important was the bull with the hump..

Amulets are also found in large quantities.

Harappans therefore saw the earth as an fertility god and revered her in the same way that they worshiped the Egyptians revered Isis, the Nile goddess Isis.

The god is surrounded an elephant or a tiger, rhinoceros, and an animal on his throne below. On his feet, there are two deer.The God depicted is identified with the title Pushupati Mahadeva.

Decline of the Indus Valley Civilization

The IVC was a decline in the 1800 BCE however the exact motives behind its demise are still being debated.

One theory suggests that Indo-European is a tribe i.e. Aryans were encroached upon and defeated and conquered the IVC.

However some scholars consider natural elements is the reason for the decline in the IVC.

It is possible that there were radical shifts in course of the rivers, which might have resulted in flooding of the regions that produced food.

Due to the combination with these causes, there was a gradual, but inevitable decline of IVC.

In the later civilizations, various aspects that are part of IVC are discovered that suggest that civilization did not vanish in a flash because of an invasion.

The natural causes could be geo-climatic and geological.

The theory is that the Indus Valley region was subject to many destructive tectonic events that led to earthquakes. These also altered the course of rivers, or dried them out.

Another reason could be shifts in patterns of rain.

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ajaymodicare · 4 years ago

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The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

Frederic Sorrieu vision of World

Frederic Sorrieu, a French artist from France, in 1848 created four prints depicting his vision of a future world composed of Social and democratic republics.

The first print depicts the inhabitants from Europe and America taking part in a large train, and paying tribute towards the Statue of Liberty as they walk by it. It is believed that the torch from Enlightenment is carried by a woman with one hand, along with it was the Charter of the Rights of Man in the other.

In the background are the shattered remains of the symbolisms of the absolutist institutions.

In Sorrieu's vision of utopia that the inhabitants of the world are classified as distinct nations. They are distinguished by their flags as well as their national costume.

This procession was led by United States and Switzerland, and was followed by France along with France and Germany. In the footsteps of this were the German group are citizens of Austria The Kingdom of Two Sicilies, Lombardy, Poland, England, Ireland, Hungary and Russia.

In the sky above Christ angels, saints, and angels are watching the scene. They are utilized in the art of painting to symbolize unity among nations around the world.

The nineteenth century was when nationalist movements emerged as a force that led to massive transformations to the world of mental and political life of Europe. The consequence is the creation in the form of the national-state.

The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation

In 1789, Nationalism was introduced with the French Revolution along with the subsequent political and constitutional changes resulted in the transfer of the monarchy's sovereignty to a group composed of French citizens. Different measures and practices were introduced, including the notions of the patrie (the fatherland) and the citoyen ("the citizen"). The brand new French flag, called the tricolour was adopted to replace the old one.

Democracy was destroyed by France through Napoleon as well as Napoleon's Civil Code of 1804 known as the Napoleonic Code did away with any privilege based on birth and established equality before law and guaranteed the right to property.

The Making of Nationalism in Europe

Germany, Italy and Switzerland were subdivided into duchies, kingdoms and cantons, whose kings held their own autonomous territories.

The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class

The Aristocratic class was the ruling class in the continent both socially and politically. A majority was comprised of peasants. Industrialization began with England at the end of the 18th century. Social groups that were new came to be: a working class populace and middle class comprised of industrialists, professionals, and businessmen.

What does Liberal Nationalism Stand for?

The word "liberalism" comes in the Latin root liber which means libertarian. The rights to vote and be elected was only granted to men who owned property. All men who were not property owners and women were denied the right to vote.

In 1834 the customs union, also known as a zollverein was created by the government of Prussia and was subsequently joined by the majority of German states. The union eliminated tariff barriers, and also reduced the amount of currencies from more than thirty to just two.

A New Conservatism after 1815

in 1815 European administrations were fueled by a conservatism-based spirit. Conservatives believed in the monarchy, the church and social hierarchies, as well as the family and property, and believed that families must be kept.

Modern warfare with a modern bureaucracy that is efficient, an economy that is growing, abolishment of serfdom and feudalism could help strengthen the monarchies that are autocratic in Europe.

A year ago, the representatives from the European powers comprising Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria came together in Vienna to discuss an agreement for Europe.

The Bourbon family was restored to power , and France was able to regain the territories it had annexed during Napoleon.

The major issues taken up by the liberal-nationalists, who criticised the new conservative order, was freedom of the press.

The Revolutionaries

In 1815 Secret societies were established in a variety of European states to help train revolutionary leaders and to spread their ideas. The revolutionaries opposed monarchy fighting for freedom and liberty.

It was the Italian revolutionary Giuseppe Mazzini, born in Genoa in 1807, created two other underground groups First, Young Italy in Marseilles.

Then, he established Young Europe in Berne, who were a group of like-minded youth who were from Poland, France, Italy and the German states.

The Age of Revolutions: 1830-1848

In the month of July, 1830 Bourbon monarchs fell to liberal revolutionaries who established an unconstitutional monarchy, with Louis Philippe at its head. In 1830, the July Revolution sparked an uprising in Brussels which resulted in Belgium being separated of it's United Kingdom of the Netherlands. The year 1821 was the time when Greeks were fighting for their independence.

The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling

The role of culture was crucial in the creation of the concept of a nation. Art and music, stories, and poetry contributed to the expression and shaping of nationalism.

Romanticism is a movement in the field of culture that sought to establish the nationalism of a specific spirit. The language also played a significant part in promoting nationalist feelings.

Russian language was adopted everywhere and in 1831, an armed revolt against Russian rule erupted that was later destroyed.

Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt

Europe had to contend with economic challenges during the 1830s. The early part of the nineteenth century witnessed a massive rise in the number of people living in Europe. The rising cost of food or a poor harvests led to widespread poverty in both the city and the country. The year 1848 saw food insecurity and massive unemployment forced the inhabitants of Paris out onto the streets.

The Revolution of the Liberals

A movement that was led by educated middle classes was gaining momentum. The women and men from the liberal middle class wanted to establish the nation-state based on parliamentary principles such as an constitution and freedom of the presses and free association.

A number of political groups gathered in Frankfurt to cast their votes for the creation of an All-German National Assembly. On May 18, 1848, 831 representatives elected were marched to their seats in the Frankfurt parliament , which met at the Church of St Paul.

The Constitution that was drafted for the German nation was overseen by a monarchy that was subordinate to the Parliament. The Crown was given by Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia however he refused and joined with other monarchs to challenge this elected body. In the middle, Middle Class dominated the Parliament and a majority of women were part of the liberal movements.

Women created their own political groups established newspapers, and participated in

Demonstrations and political gatherings however, they were denied voting rights in the elections to the Assembly.

After 1848 the autocratic monarchies in Central as well as Eastern Europe began to introduce the changes that had been in place throughout Western Europe before 1815. So, serfdom and the bonded labor were eliminated both within the Habsburg rule and also in Russia.

The Making of Germany and ItalyGermany - Can the Army be the Architect of a Nation?

The nationalist sentiment in Europe dissipated after 1848 . Germany and Italy were unified as nations-states. Prussia assumed the direction of the movement for unity across the nation. The person who initiated this process was the chief minister of Prussia, Otto von Bismarck, executed with the aid of the Prussian military and the bureaucracy.

In the month of January, 1871 The Prussian King William I, was named German Emperor. A meeting was held to announce this new German Empire. The nation-building process proved the supremacy of Prussian power. The banking, currency and legal structure in Germany were upgraded.

Italy Unified

Italy split into 7 states at the beginning of the 19th century and, among those seven countries, only one, Sardinia-Piedmont was the one that was administered by the Italian Princely House. The entire region was ruled by various monarchs. The 1830's saw Giuseppe Mazzini formed a secret society known as Young Italy.

The group was led by the Chief Minister Cavour. In 1859, Sardinia-Piedmont defeated Austrian forces. In 1859 they took on South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and were able to win the trust of local farmers. In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed as the new king of unification Italy.

The Strange Case of Britain

Great Britain was the model of the nation. Prior to the 18th century, there existed no British nation. The nation grew in power because it steadily increased its the amount of wealth, importance and power.

The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland led to the creation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain'. This which meant that England could exert its influence over Scotland. The year 1801 was the day that Ireland became a part of the United Kingdom. The emblems of the brand new Britain such as the British flag (Union Jack) and the national hymn (God save Our Noble King), the English language were all actively propagated.

Visualising the Nation

In the 18th and 19th century, artists represented a nation as a whole and nations in female representations. In the French Revolution, female figures depict ideas like Liberty, Justice and the Republic. Liberty is represented by the black cap with a red color, broken chain. Justice is represented by a girl in blindfolds wearing weigh scales.

Nationalism and Imperialism

Nationalist sentiments were no longer a factor following the end of the 19th century. After 1871, the region with the highest turbulent region was known as the Balkans which was a region that included the countries of today: Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro.

Ottoman Empire created the Balkans region explosive , and throughout the 19th century, they consolidated themselves through reforms and modernisation. Due to various conflicts , the Balkan became a zone of conflict.

In the course of this time, intense rivalry developed between European powers in the area of colonies and trade as also military and naval power, which eventually led to the outbreak of several wars in the region before culminating in war in the First World War.

The year 1914 was the time when Europe had a disastrous time due to Nationalism that was aligned with imperialism. There were anti-imperial movements, however each struggled establish autonomous nation-states. However, the concept of 'nation-states were recognized as a natural and universal idea.

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Constitutional Development In India

Before the country gained independence in 1947 India could be divided in two major segments of the society, including the British India (which comprised of eleven provinces) and the Princely States that were administered by Indian princes in accordance with the Subsidiary Alliance System. The two sections later joined together to create The Indian Union, but many of the regulations and rules of British India are being observed even today. The history of the Constitution of India can be traced back to a variety of rules and Acts that were passed prior to when India achieved its Independence.

It was a string of events and events that resulted in the formation of the Constitution of India, the largest written constitution in the world. India is a multi-faceted nation in terms of its society, people and terrain. This made it a tough job for the creators of this constitution create an ultimate rule book to which this diverse and rich nation could be effectively controlled. This article outlines numerous Acts, Regulation and Declarations which shaped the Indian Constitution are mentioned.

Indian System of Administration

The Parliamentary form that is a form of Democracy in India in which the executive is accountable for the oversight of Parliament. The Parliament is comprised of two houses, Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha. In addition, the style of government that is in place India can be described as Federal, i.e. it is divided of power in between Center in India and between the States. But, the governance system is of a quasi-federal nature. There is also self-government at the local level of Government. Each of these systems owes their origins due to British administration.

Regulating Act of 1773

In 1765, following the Battle of Buxar In 1765, following the battle of Buxar, The East India Company (EIC) obtained it the Diwani right (Right to earn revenues) across the States that included Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. This established it possible to establish the EIC as a commercial and established political entity in India. The result was chaos in the administration along with the accumulation of a staggering amount of money by EIC employees was being investigated by Parliament. British Parliament. The British government created an in-house committee to inquire into the operations of the firm. The report that was presented by the committee set the stage for the legislation that was drafted by the Parliament dubbed Regulating Act to enforce the government's control and regulate the operations of the company.

In the Regulating Act, various clauses were mentioned , such as:

It was the Presidency of Bengal was made superior to those of Bombay as well as Madras. In the end, Governor Bengal was later designated Governor-General for the three provinces. This governor was granted the power of superintendenceand the direction, and supervision over two other provinces;

Warren Hastings was appointed as Governor-General by the act;

There were four members of the council who assisted him. The term of their office was set for five years.

The Governor-General was obliged to obey the directives from the directors of the business and keep them updated of all issues relevant to the interests of the business at that moment;

The Governor-General was granted the authority to create regulations, ordinances and regulations to improve oversight of the territories owned by companies;

The Supreme Court of Judicature at Fort William was established at Calcutta as the supreme court. It comprised Chief Justice and three other Judges.

Pitt's India Act of 1784

In this Act the company's territories were referred to by the title of "The British possessions in India" It was a obvious evidence that British Crown claimed ownership of the land purchased from the East India Company in India;

It created the control board, that was chosen through the Crown itself. The Board was given the authority to supervise and direct every aspect of revenues, civil and military operations of the corporation;

The Act also created a department within the British Government in England to exercise its authority over directors from the Company as well as the Indian administration.

Governor's Councils were created at Madras and Bombay in the wake of this act.

Charter Act of 1813

The Company's monopoly on trade with the Indian trade was scuttled with this law;

The trade with India was open to all British citizens. The only exception was however tea trade as well as commerce with China;

This was the reason for the foundation of the Church, at the expense of the company operating in India and this was done to allow the English to follow their faith.

Charter Act of 1833

In this way that governor general of Bengal was appointed the Governor-General for India. The Governor General who was the first Governor General in India was Lord Bentinck;

He was given the total authority to supervise, direct and manage the administration of all regions of India including those issues concerning military, civil and revenue administrations.

The governor general of India was given the task to adopt a resolution in order to improve the living conditions of Indians without affecting the feelings of the indigenous people.

Through this act that the activities that were carried out by the East India Company ended as an entity for commercial purposes and changed into a strictly administrative body.

Charter Act of 1853

The Board of control was awarded the power to establish rules and regulations that would aid in the governing of appointments to the various services in India. In response to this and the need for a new system, an open exam was established in India, dubbed"the Civil Service Examination. The examination was open to all and entry into civil service was granted through the competitive examination;

It was because of it that this law, the governor's executive council was extended for legislative reasons.

Government of India Act of 1858

Through that Act which the rule of East India Company was completely substituted through the British Crown.

The act conferred powers on secretary of state for India (one among the ministers in the Cabinet of the British Government). The salary of Secretary of State was paid out of revenue from the Indian revenue;

The Secretary was supported through The Council of India, a body of 15 members. He was given complete authority and control over Indian Administration through his representative, the Viceroy.

Through this act in this act that Governor General of India was appointed Viceroy of India and the first Viceroy of India was Lord Canning.

Indian Councils Act of 1861

Indians were elected for the for the first time on the council of legislators to serve the purposes of the statute;

It was estimated that the number of Indians on the legislative council was six at most, and it could go at least 12. These members were selected by the Viceroy for a period of two years.

The act also established the local legislature to govern Madras as well as Bombay and also empowered the Viceroy to set up similar local organizations in Bengal as well as other provinces.

Indian Councils Act of 1909

This Act originates from the Sir John Morley, the Secretary of State for India and Minto who was Viceroy of India;

The act contained provisions to increase the size of the council. simultaneously it made them more efficient. The number of Council members was dramatically increased.

The council that was representative of the whole state the majority of elected members were deemed to be exactly the same numbers;

On the other hand in state or provincial councils there was a significant majority of non-official members however, they were not elected members however, with the exception of Bengal in which there was a tiny majority of the elected.

The law allowed for appointments of Indians for the viceroy's executive council. Executive councils were also expanded. Members could now have a variety of reasonable questions, and even debating the budget, however they were not permitted to vote on the budget;

It also gave separate elections to Muslims. Muslims (a way of representation in the community for Muslims) and provided a system of communal representation for Muslim population).

Government of India Act of 1919

This law originates from E.S Montagu, who was the Secretary of State of India as well as Lord Chelmsford who was then Viceroy for India;

The law is also referred to as the Montague-Chelmsford reforms;

The concept of dyarchy came into existence by the act under which ministers were accountable towards their own subjects and were charged with the responsibility as "Transferred subjects" while the governors of the provinces and their councillors would be responsible for"Reserved Subjects" "Reserved Subjects";

A bicameral legislature was established in the very first instance in the center and with this legislation added a two-third Indian member was added to the Governor General's Executive Council;

The Act included the creation of the Public Service Commission of India;

The Act allowed the community electorate to minorities who were in the country at the time, such as the Sikhs and the Europeans The Anglo-Indians, the Sikhs and Christians.

Government of India Act of 1935

This was the result of Simon Commission Report, deliberation in round table conferences along with the white paper, which was introduced by the British Parliament.

The longest as well as the final constitutional law enacted by Britishers within India;

The act established an Federation of India consisting of Governor Provinces as well as Princely states.

The dyarchy established through the GOI Act 1919 was abolished and the introduction of provincial autonomy came instead. The province's administration and all its subjects were in the control of Ministers, who were part of the legislature elected by voters.

The Act granted specific powers and responsibilities to Governors of the states. This effectively curtailed the authority of the minister and weakened the autonomy of provincial governments;

As a result of this act, British India was divided into two parts: the 2 governor provinces as well as the five chief commissioner provinces.

The Act increased the size of the legislature across the provinces. Six provinces, which include the provinces of Assam, Bengal, Bihar, Bombay, Madras and the united province were to be able to have a bicameral legislature under the act.

Dyarchy was abolished at provincial level, however it was instituted at the central level. It meant the Subjects Reserved (Defense External Affairs and tribal Affairs, Etc.) were to be managed by the Viceroy. Viceroy;

Burma (now Myanmar) was separated from India by this act.

Sind along with North West Frontier Province were to be granted provincial status by the act.

Indian Independence Act of 1947

The Act allowed an opportunity for partitioning India and the creation of two dominions, by dividing India in India as well as Pakistan on the 15th of August 1947. Therefore, all laws that were enacted in British India would remain applicable until modified by the legislatures of both nations.

Every nation as well as each of its provinces was to be administered according to the Government of India Act, 1935 until the creation of their own constitution.

The Act stipulated the terms for ending the rule by the British Crown over the Princely States;

The treaties and powers exercised by the monarchy over princely states and rulers would cease to be in effect after August 15th in 1947.

The Constitution of India (January 26, 1950)

The Dr. Rajendra Prashad as the President of India made a draft version of the constitution for India on February 28, 1948.

India's constitution India was therefore finalized by the constituent assembly on the 26th of November in 1949. it was put into effect on the 26th of January in 1950 (which is considered to be the Republic Day in India) which was the day that it was the time that the Republic of India was born;

Thus, India was declared as an independent and sovereign state by this law and established responsible governments at both levels including the central as well as states or provinces;

It is believed that the Constitution of India was inspired by several other Constitutions in use in their countries The drafting committee adopted various features from different Constitutions of these countries. These characteristics as well as the Constitutions that served as the basis of this Constitution of India are discussed below.

Sources of Indian Constitution

Constitutional India is the primary legislation of India. It is the longest Constitution in existence. The late Dr. B. R. Ambedkar is known as the founding father of the Indian Constitution. The provisions in the Constitution of India are taken from various Constitutions and ideals of various nations around the globe. Let's look at the sources that assisted the committee in drafting to draft this Constitution of India.

British Constitution

The system of government that is parliamentary;

Nominal or symbolic importance of the head of state;

Single citizenship;

Cabinet system;

Different privileges granted by Parliament;

Bicameralism.

American Constitution

Fundamental rights;

Independence of Judiciary;

The principle of judicial reviews;

The Vice-President's post;

Removing judges from the Supreme Court and the High Courts

Impeachment of the President.

Scottish Constitution

DPSP (Directive Principle of State Policy);

Methods of Presidential Election;

The process of naming members to members of the Council of State.

Canadian Constitution

The Federal system, with powerful States;

Residuary power vesting at Centre;

Governors of the state are appointed by the Centre;

Affirmative jurisdiction of Supreme Court.

Australian Constitution

The Concurrent list

Freedom of Trade and Commerce;

A joint session between both Houses Parliament.

German Constitution

Suspension of fundamental rights in an emergency.

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics' Constitution

Fundamental duties;

The concept of economic, social and political justice is enshrined in the Preamble (introductory section of the Constitution).

French Constitution

Republican structure;

The concept is Liberty, Equality and Fraternity.

South African Constitution

Constitutional amendments;

The election of the representatives in the Rajya Sabha.

Japanese Constitution

The law-enforcement procedure.

Government of India Act 1935

Federal system;

Governor's office;

Structure of the judiciary;

Public Service Commission;

Emergency assistance;

Three lists to distribute power.

Conclusion

It is the Constitution that governs a country in its essence, is adjectival instead of substantive. It is not designed to dictate what must be done, but rather define how the power of the nation's government is to be applied. India is a country with a variety of cultures with regards to its culture, its citizens and the territory that is the reason why the committee that drafted it took so long to finish the draft. As a result the development of the Constitution of India can be traced to a variety of statutes (which are discussed in the article) prior to the country's independence.

The Constitution of India is the longest-written Constitution across the globe. It took two years, eleven months, and 18 day with a cost at Rs6.4 million to draft and draft the entire of the Constitution. It was influenced by a variety of different constitutions of other nations. It is the Constitution of India is the supreme law in India and its in its spirit is defended by the Indian justice over time.

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