artistic-allegory

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‘Belisarius’ by François Gérard 

   Flavius Belisarius, also referred to as one of the ‘Last of the Romans’, was a successful military commander of the Byzantine Eastern Roman Empire. He was believed to be a military genius due to his impressive conquests in the Vandalic War, the Gothic War, and the Siege of Ariminum. However, Belisarius’s success was stolen from him by the jealous Emperor Justinian I.

   According to legends, Justinian became so envious of Belisarius’s praise that he ordered Belisarius’s eyes to be gouged out, leaving him to live as a blind, homeless beggar living in the streets.

   The story of Belisarius became popular with painters in the 18th century and he was often depicted as a saint. In this neoclassical painting by François Gérard, the ex-military commander is seen carrying his younger, injured guide. Bitten by a snake that can be seen still wrapped around his ankle, the young boy appears to be drifting in and out of consciousness as he limply holds on to the old man’s shoulder.

   With nothing but a wooden cane to guide him, Belisarius treks blindly yet confidently down the unknown path. His heroic stance and muscular physique give a sense of strength, vitality, and power - something he may not have felt since he was giving orders in the military many years ago. The warm glow of a setting sun in the background highlights the aura of wisdom and courage while the viewer looks up at Belisarius. He stands with a calm stability and firmness in his stature that contradicts both his age and his lack of eyesight. His instincts of leadership and initiative return to him as if they had never left, and for a moment he is more than just a handicapped beggar; he is the beacon of perseverance, determination, and willpower.

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‘Orpheus and Eurydice’ by Frederic Leighton

   This emotionally-charged painting was painted by Frederic Leighton in 1864 – it depicts the Greek mythological couple known as Orpheus and Eurydice. Orpheus, son of the Greek God Apollo, was a talented musician who was gifted with a divinely beautiful voice and musical charm that attracted even beasts and enemies. No God or mortal could resist his melodies – even the trees and the rocks were compelled to be near him. Along with his musical talent, Orpheus was an adventurous character also attributed to teaching agriculture, medicine, and writing to mankind. He was also an astrologer and intrigued the listeners of his music by exposing their minds to new and unusual ideas.

   Large audiences from near and far would gather to hear his enchanting music – it was at one of these gatherings that he met a beautiful and graceful wood nymph named Eurydice. The two fell deeply in love; their inexplicable attraction to each other was so strong that they couldn’t bear to spend a single moment away from each other and were quickly married. While their wedding day was filled with laughter and happiness, the growing shadows looming nearby signaled an impending tragedy. A shepherd named Aristaeus, who despised Orpheus, longed for Eurydice himself and planned to conquer her as he watched from the bushes. Leaping to attack the two lovers, they sprinted away into the forest trying to escape. However, Eurydice was bitten by a deadly viper and lost her life as she was dragged to the underworld.

   The devastated and grieving Orpheus was not the same after losing his beloved Eurydice; he channeled his sadness into his music and deeply touched those who listened, both living and non-living. In an attempt to get Eurydice back, Orpheus planned to enter the underworld - a feat that would kill any mortal person. However, Orpheus’ father Apollo made a deal with Hades to agree to allow Orpheus’ entry and listen to his plea. Successful in his entry into the underworld, Orpheus played his lyre and sang about his grief to Hades and his wife Persephone. Not only did Hades weep, the three-headed dog Cerberus howled in despair while covering its ears.

   Hades agreed to send Eurydice back to her lover in the Upper World under one condition – Orpheus could not look back at his wife as she followed him through the dark or else she would be returned to the underworld; he may not look at his wife until she was fully in the light. As the couple walked through the dark back to the Upper World, Orpheus resisted the urge to glance at his beloved wife who he was finally reunited with. The painting depicts Orpheus’ strained expression and weakened self-restraint as his wife begs for his attention. Fearful of losing her again, he knows he must not look at his beautiful wife who grabs him tightly.

   Hearing her footsteps behind him, he tried with all his strength to not look at the woman he thought he had lost forever. His heart raced as they neared the exit, anticipating the moment he would finally look into Eurydice’s eyes. The instant he stepped into the light, he waited not a second longer and turned around to hug her. Unfortunately, Eurydice was still in the dark and she was instantly dragged back into the underworld once again – just as Hades had warned. Orpheus was filled with anguish and grief as he attempted to enter the underworld a second time. However, the gates were closed and he was denied entry.

   The guilty and defeated Orpheus was tormented by his mistake as he no longer found meaning in his life. He shunned the company of all other women and his once-joyful songs were replaced by heart wrenching tunes. While consumed with his grief, Orpheus was approached and killed by a group of scorned and jealous women who had failed to previously get his attention. The bitter women cut his body into pieces and threw them into a river along with his lyre. The river flowed to the island of Lesvos, where muses found his body and gave him an official burial; his grave supposedly emanated soft, beautiful music. Orpheus’ soul descended back to the underworld where he was finally reunited with Eurydice at last. 

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'The Late Empire: Honorius' by Jean-Paul Laurens 

   Painted in 1880 by Jean-Paul Laurens, this oil painting portrays the young emperor Honorius Flavius. He was the younger son of emperor Theodosius I, and was declared Augustus by his father on January 23, 393. After the death of their father, Honorius and his older brother Arcadius divided the empire. The young boy was crowned emperor of the ancient Western Roman Empire at age 10, and served as the emperor from 395 to 423. During his reign, Rome’s empire was declining and was sacked by the Visigoths. Honorius’ guardian and general, Stilicho, offered guidance to the young boy. Stilicho’s daughter eventually married Honorius, who died in 423, leaving no heir to the throne.

   The artist emphasizes the boy’s youth and innocence as his feet do not even touch the floor as he sits on his throne. Overwhelmed by responsibility, uncertainty flashes in the child’s eyes as he stares at the viewer. Yielding a sword and draped in expensive fabrics, Honorius cannot be prepared for the demise of his empire that awaits him in the upcoming years.

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'Prometheus Bound' by Peter Paul Rubens 

   Flemish artist Peter Paul Rubens started this oil painting between 1611 and 1612, completing it in 1618. The eagle, however, was painted by specialist animal painter Frans Snyder. Rubens kept this piece in his personal collection for over 6 years. It now resides in the Philadelphia Museum of Art, Pennsylvania. It is based on the Greek Play ‘Prometheus Bound,’ by 5th-century BC Greek tragedian Aeschylus. Inspiration for this piece can be attributed to Michelangelo’s 1532 depiction of Tityus, the son of Earth. Titian, another well-known artist, may have also been influenced by Michelangelo’s work for his own interpretation of Tityus. It is likely that Peter Paul Rubens viewed Titian’s version of Tityus on his 1603 trip to Spain, where an original copy resided in the Museo del Prado, Madrid.

   Mimicking the contorted pose of the subject writhing in agony from these pieces of Tityus, Rubens applied these methods to his portrayal of Prometheus. The reclined pose with one leg bent and the other outstretched may have become popular after Raphael's ‘The Expulsion of Heliodorus from the Temple.’ The tormented pose may also have been inspired by the famous Laocoon sculpture, which Rubens sketched many times while he was in Rome.

   In Greek mythology, Prometheus is a trickster and a hero who is known for his intelligence as well as being a champion for mankind. Associated with the human arts and sciences, Prometheus was credited for the creation of man from clay, as well as advancing civilization by defying the gods and stealing fire to give to humanity. Zeus, the king of Olympian gods, punished Prometheus as a consequence for his theft. Chained to a rock for eternity, the immortal titan was tormented by an eagle (a symbol of Zeus himself) who would feed on his liver, which was thought to be the seat of human emotions. Each day, the eagle would pick him apart to eat his liver, which would grow back overnight - just to be devoured all over again. In some versions, the Greek hero Heracles slays the eagle and rescues Prometheus from his agonizing torment. This rescue was often depicted on Attic and Etruscan vases between the sixth and fifth centuries BC.

   Many similarities can be found between the myth of Prometheus and biblical symbolism in the Book of Genesis, involving the creation of man and eternal punishment. During the Romantic era, Prometheus was viewed as a rebel who defied institutional tyranny (church, monarch, and patriarch), mirroring the themes within the French Revolution as well as the divinely inspired artist or poet. Prometheus was associated with Athena and Hephaestus who were also Greek gods of technology and creative skills. In Western classical tradition, he became a figure of human striving and the quest for scientific knowledge. He was described as representing “descent of mankind from the communion with the gods into the present troublesome life" by Karl-Martin Dietz, a German classicist. Often regarded as a lone genius, Prometheus sought to improve human existence despite the tragic outcome.

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'Saint Tarcisius' by Alexander Falguière

   This marble sculpture was created in 1868 by French artist and sculptor Alexander Falguière. The source originates from the 1854 best-selling novel ‘Fabiola,’ or ‘Church of the Catacombs,’ written by Cardinal Nicholas Patrick Wiseman.

   Tarcisius was a young acolyte during the 3rd century, most likely under the reign of Emperor Valerian during the Roman persecutions of Christians. Given the task to bring the Eucharist to Christian prisoners, Tarcisius was approached by a crowd as he carried the Blessed Sacrament along the Appian Way. The Pagan mob confronted him and demanded him to reveal the holy wafer, yet he refused – prioritizing his faith. The Roman martyr was then stoned by the crowd, choosing death before delivering the Blessed Sacrament he was entrusted with.

   The deadly stones lie at the elbow of the sculpture as the boy clutches the Eucharist to his chest in his last moments. Tarcisius’ robe falls from his fragile shoulders while he makes an attempt to hold himself upright after the violent attack. Blood marks his forehead and accentuates his softened facial expression while his body lays limp - holding onto the Blessed Sacrament while his life slips away.

   He was compared to the deacon Saint Stephen by Pope Damasus, who honored the young boy by composing a poem of his legacy. The inscription by the pope was placed on his tomb where he was buried in the Catacombs of San Callisto.

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Art in the Paleolithic Era: 30,000 - 9,000 B.C.E.

   Humans, which appear to have originated in Africa, began making “art” (sculptures, paintings, engravings, etc.) while many parts of Europe were still covered by glaciers from the Ice Age. The Old Stone Age, or the Paleolithic era, began around 30,000 B.C.E. and lasted up until around 9,000 B.C.E. Since precise dating is impossible with artifacts from the Paleolithic era, historians can only give a rough estimate within a range of several thousand years of when something was created.

   Different mediums were used by early humans to create various types of art such as small cave paintings, ivory carvings, clay sculptures, shell necklaces, and monumental murals. The transition from recognizing human and animal form in their environment to representing these things is a major milestone in art as well as humanity. Presenting these subjects to be observed and appreciated is where the concept of art begins.

   Cave paintings dating back over 20,000 years ago have been discovered across the globe, miraculously surviving due to being created deep in hard-to-access caverns often surrounded by stalactites and stalagmites. Chunks of red and yellow ochre were used for drawing, and water was added to these finely-ground pigments to create a form of paint. A blowpipe formed out of reeds or hollow bones was used to spray pigment in hard-to-reach areas of the cave, while twigs and bristles were used to create brushes for the paint. A large, flat stone was often used as a pallete for the cave painters. Lamps to illuminate the cave were made out of stone, and were filled with marrow or fat. A wick could have been made of moss.

   Animals such as a bison, mammoth, ibex, and horse were the most commonly painted subjects, while depictions of humans were infrequent. However, when humans were the subjects, it was almost always women that were painted; a man portrayed in the cave paintings was extremely rare. The animals were always portrayed in profile – or side view. This gave a clear view to the animal’s head as well as all of the limbs. The aim was to create an accurate pictorial definition of the animal, leaving no confusion. By painting animals on their cave walls, Paleolithic hunters believed they were bringing the animals “under their control.” It may have been believed that the paintings had magical properties, such as food prosperity or success in hunts. Dances and rituals might have been performed to ensure the effectiveness of the images. Another theory considers the animal representations were used to teach new hunters and give them a visual of what their target would be. Hand prints were left on cave walls possibly as “signatures” of the community. Positive imprints were made by dipping their hand into the pigment and pressing it against the stone wall. Negative imprints, however, were made by placing their hand against the wall and blowing or brushing pigment around it. 

   Paleolithic art was not only limited to paintings. Sculptures were also created using ivory, stone, and clay. Tools made of sharpened rock would be used to carve and shape the sculpture. One of the most famous prehistoric sculptures was discovered in Austria, now known as Venus of Willendorf. This figurine made of limestone depicts a naked woman, despite the probability of early humans wearing garments to cover their bodies during the Ice Age. It is assumed most humans portrayed in prehistoric art were female due to the appreciation of their child-bearing capabilities which ensured the survival of the human race. With no facial features carved into the figure, the emphasis of the sculpture lies in the exaggerated female anatomy. The breasts, hips, and pubic area are enlarged in almost unnatural proportions. Scholars believe the purpose of these figurines alludes to that of fertility and the female form, rather than one specific woman. 

   Although impossible to know for certain what these paintings and sculptures represented, many themes and patterns can be recognized in Paleolithic art. Animals always painted in profile-view served as an accurate method of not only identifying, but portraying the different species. Humans depicted in these prehistoric paintings and sculptures were almost always women, leading historians to believe they may have served to bring fertility to the community. The Paleolithic era is just the beginning of the timeline of art history, and is still an enigma to this day.

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'Samson and Delilah' by Anthony van Dyck

    Created in 1630, this Baroque-style oil painting by Anthony van Dyck was based on the tragic story of Samson and Delilah in the Old Testament. This particular painting is the 2nd version of Dyck’s 1620 piece which also depicts the story in a different light. The artistic style was inspired by Anthony van Dyck’s master, Peter Paul Rubens, who also created a depiction of the story. While staying in Italy, Anthony van Dyck was also influenced by the great artist of the name Titian. 

   Samson, a prophesied servant of God, was a vain and emotionally unstable Nazarite who possessed great strength and a fiery temper. His strength lied within his hair, which he was never to cut or else his power would diminish. Other restrictions of a Nazarite included never drinking alcohol (grape products), or touching a dead body. However, Samson always did what he pleased and ignored these rules by constantly indulging in alcohol, as well as touching the body of a dead lion and eating the honey out of it. 

   Delilah was a charming and beautiful Philistine woman that Samson was enamored with; he frequently visited her at her harlot’s house where she worked as a prostitute. As Philistine rulers became aware of Samson’s fascination with Delilah, they offered her one hundred coins each to discover Samson’s source of strength and return him to them. Delilah, filled with greed, accepted the offer and began to interrogate Samson. As Samson continuously denied Delilah of the secret, she claimed his love for her was not true since he would not disclose the source of his strength. She asked him three times every night as Samson would fall asleep in Delilah’s lap, teasing her with false answers. 

   Eventually, Samson told Delilah the truth, as he was madly in love with her. Delilah revealed his secret to the Philistine rulers, who captured and bound him. They cut seven locks of his hair and burned his eyes out with hot metal. While the rulers planned to sacrifice him to the Philistine god Dagon, Samson begged God to let his strength return. God forgave Samson and gave him back his power, resulting in Samson splitting the supporting pillars of the temple and killing over three thousand Philistines. However, Samson also died in the collapse of the temple, yet his body was found outside the rubble. Delilah received her money, and was never heard from again.

   Unlike the version by Peter Paul Rubens, Anthony van Dyck portrays Delilah as regretting her betrayal of Samson; she reaches out to him remorsefully as he is captured. Her act of treason appalls both of them while he glances at her, with tears in his eyes, in the midst of his struggle. Realizing he made a mistake in telling her his secret, he must face the fact that her love for him was not true.

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'The Convalescent' by Edgar Degas 

   Painted sometime between 1872 and 1887, this mysterious and unconventional portrait is an example of Degas’ fascination with women’s physical and emotional complexity as well as the internal feelings that can be seen through their body language.  Almost all portraits in the 19th century were commissioned and left the studio once completed; however, this painting was kept in Degas’ studio for over fifteen years. Degas’ work method was unique in the sense that he preferred to create his art by memory, rather than making sketches beforehand, or using a model for reference. Although his paintings were showcased in many impressionist art shows in Paris throughout his lifetime, Edgar considered himself as more of a realist than an impressionist. He created his art in many ways that were uncommon for impressionist painters of that era, contributing to his unique role in the history of art. Contrary to other impressionists following the plein air art movement, Degas worked mostly indoors within his studio. Many impressionists of the time deserted hard lines and replaced them with vague, almost-blurred lighting and color to create a scene. Degas, however, believed there was something important about the line.

   Unlike many portraits of the time that focused more on visual aesthetic and surface-level beauty, The Convalescent impacts the viewer on a more psychological level as the energy of the subject is more ambiguous. With little dimension or detail, the thick brushstrokes and flat perspective reflect the overall melancholy tone of the image. The unidentified woman in the scene leans against her limp hand as her weak posture indicates her illness or exhaustion. Her baggy clothes mask her unknown pose, leaving the viewer unable to tell whether she sits or stands. This simply adds to the mysterious and sorrowful nature of Degas’ painting. The pained expression on the unnamed woman’s face creates a sense of tired sadness that can no longer be concealed.

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The Chicago Black Renaissance

   Due to the Great Migration bringing tens of thousands of African-Americans to Chicago, many artists, writers, and community leaders emerged to promote black consciousness in an era known as the Chicago Black Renaissance. Before this migration, only 2% of Chicago’s population consisted of African-Americans. Similar to the Harlem Renaissance in New York City, the Chicago Renaissance brought forth an onset of racial pride and creativity within the city. However, it did not receive as much publicity due to being a smaller city, and having less wealthy patrons involved. Thousands of people lost their jobs as a result of the Great Depression, which hit the black community particularly hard. What followed, however, was the emergence of new ideas and community spirit as there was a shift towards social activism.

   Gospel, jazz, and blues all flourished and evolved during the Chicago Black Renaissance, leading to the rise of musicians like Louis Armstrong. Jazz music emerged in Chicago from migrants in New Orleans moving north as opportunities working in a factory, stockyard, or mill increased as a direct result of industrialization. The evolution of blues was a result of musicians in Chicago adding many instruments – like drums, harmonica, and piano - to blues music, resulting in the genre now known as the Chicago Blues. 

   Prominent literature during the Chicago Black Renaissance addressed identity issues, racial tensions, Chicago culture, and the search for meaning. Writers like Margaret Walker, Fenton Johnson, and Gwendolyn Brooks all had a significant role in the movement. Many jobs for black writers became available as newspapers supported the Chicago Black Renaissance by giving African-American writers a place to publish their work. The visual arts in Chicago also flourished as daily life in the black community was documented through paintings and photographs. Artists such as Charles White, Archibald John Motley Jr., and Eldzier Cortor were just a few of the major artists within the Chicago Black Renaissance. 

   Artists used their art to promote and educate about African American contributions to politics, culture, and the community. This surge in pride and artistic creativity was a result of both the Great Migration and the Great Depression. Although not as well-known as the Harlem Renaissance, the Chicago Renaissance plays a vital role in not only black history, but in art history and should be recognized as such.

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'Satyre et Bacchante' by James Pradier

   This sensual and realistic, yet controversial sculpture was created by James Pradier from 1830-1834. The piece featuring a mythological couple follows a classic theme in erotic art – the satyr coveting the bacchante. Pradier used a fresco from Herculaneum portraying a satyr unveiling a maenad as a source for his sculpture.

   The satyr, which is often confused with the faun, is known to symbolize desire and temptation. Bacchantes are represented as naked, flower-clad nymphs who are often dancing or playing music. The life-size sculpture depicts a squatting satyr unveiling himself, revealing his nudity as the naked bacchante drapes over his knee, playfully laughing and pushing his face away.

   Created with intricate detail, visible veins and body hair can be seen carved into the stone. This piece attracted scandal for multiple reasons; one of them being the method of creation involved molding a cast of an actual model, which was a practice that was condemned at the time. The soft appearance of the flesh and the revealing nudity went against the ideal of neoclassical themes that Pradier had created a reputation from, resulting in a fair amount of criticism.

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'Bird's-Nesters' by Jean-François Millet

  Known for painting scenes of peasants within rural settings, Jean-François Millet created this oil painting at the end of his life, making it his final piece of artwork. Made in 1874, this eerie and unsettling image depicts an occurrence Millet had heard about through stories in his childhood. The painting portrays peasants disorienting hundreds of pigeons with torches after they had settled within the trees, creating frenzy. The large flocks of birds were hunted by being blinded by fire, and clubbed to death. Jean-François Millet had established his legacy, especially in France, by creating art involving the nostalgia of life in the countryside as more rural areas were becoming overrun by industrialization.

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‘Under the Yoke’ by Eero Järnefelt

  Painted in 1893 in Lapinlahti, Northern Savo, “Under the Yoke” is one of the most well-known pieces by Finnish Artist Eero Järnefelt. Following the popular trends of naturalism and realism that had spread to Finland from Europe, the painting strays far away from an idealistic or romanticized perspective as it sheds lights on poverty and harsh living conditions for common people. With the title inspired by the Finnish National epic Kalevala, the artwork references Finland being “under the yoke” of Russian and Swedish domination. This painting will go on to be a classic piece within the golden age of Finnish Art.

  The image depicts a young girl assisting with an old method of agriculture called “burn beating,” which is the burning of existing vegetation to increase the fertility of the soil for cultivation. Those who are partaking in the burn beating are peasants, including a young and forlorn girl. A fire blazes in the distance as ash and smoke fill the air, leaving you staring into the exhausted eyes of the soot-covered adolescent.

  Järnefelt had taken photographs of working peasants while staying at the Rannan Puurula farmhouse, and used these photos as reference for the painting, The photographs included young girl named Johanna Kokkonen, who the subject of the scene is based on. The pained expression on the child’s face appeals to viewer’s emotions, extracting sympathy and compassion for the poor citizens living such a lifestyle.

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Women’s Contribution to Art Throughout History

   It’s common knowledge that women’s art has clearly been overlooked and undervalued throughout history. A large portion of art created by women was signed only with a last name, leaving the artist gender-less – this may have been done to avoid gender bias that would affect how her work was seen and valued. These gender biases have resulted in women’s achievements in particular media to be categorized as “arts and crafts” rather than “fine art.” Stereotypes caused certain mediums – like textiles, or fiber arts (embroidery, knitting, etc.) to be feminized, despite the male participation in both. Women faced challenges while attempting to excel in their art careers as they had trouble gaining recognition, receiving training, and trading their work. Many female artists who established a career as art educators were taken much less seriously in their skill.

   Multiple factors resulted in the misrepresentation of women throughout art history such as anonymity due to works of art not being signed. Almost all female artists faced a discontinuity in their identity as their name changed after marriage - any works of art that were signed with their original name would no longer be connected to them. Some artwork created by women was reassigned, or credited to other artists, in the 18th and 19th centuries. Dishonest and greedy art dealers would even attempt to alter signatures to increase the value of the art. Other reasons women’s art became “lost” are inactivity and relocation. Many artists were quickly forgotten about if they were to stop making art for an extended period of time (raising a family was often causing these female artists to take career “breaks.”) It was not uncommon for artists to travel the world, and move from place to place. These changes in location would also result in their legacy to disappear quickly.

   Women have been creating and participating in the arts as early as the prehistoric era. The female role in art throughout history has swept across the entire globe with ancient artifacts to prove it. Evidence retrieved by anthropologists sheds light on the various mediums of art that women worked with - such as jewelry, textiles, pottery, baskets, and painted surfaces. It has also been discovered that collaboration was typical in the creation of art in the prehistoric era, with these same techniques leading into the Paleolithic era as well. As early as 460 BCE, women and men worked alongside each other to create various objects, such as painted vases – an example being the ancient Greek Caputi Hydria.

   Artists in the medieval period - some of which were women - were either nuns or wealthy aristocrats who could afford not doing more strenuous work. The wealthier female creatives often worked with embroideries and textiles, while the nuns created illuminations. Art training moved from workshops to universities as the study of nude males and corpses was used to educate artists of the human body, which was especially important when painting group scenes and prestigious religious compositions. However, women were prohibited from these spaces, thus restricting them from creating such works of art. The women who were successful artists of the time were almost always children of painters, receiving training from their father’s workshop to gain the necessary knowledge and skills. Most aristocratic women who created art ultimately ended up choosing marriage over pursuing an artistic career. The female artists of the 15th century that are known today were nuns associated with convents, meaning they did not have to sacrifice their art for a marriage.

   While no mention of specific female artists, there have been references made by Homer, Cicero, and Virgil regarding the creation of textiles, music, and poetry by women of the time. Although the increase of trade, travel, and universities in Europe in the early 12th century lead to an increase of women’s involvement in art, that progress was set back as the printing, woodcut, and engraving movement was taken over primarily by men. Major cultural shifts, such as humanism (the philosophy stating the dignity of all people) led to a major increase of female artists’ reputations in the renaissance era. The individual creating the art, and their identity became more valued at this time – including the women. Italian humanist Baldassare Castiglione stated that both women and men should be educated in the social arts - which resulted in more women engaging in visual, musical, and literary arts. This was the first time in renaissance history that noblewomen were given the opportunity to study painting. Self-portraits became a popular subject matter among women artists of the renaissance era, depicting themselves as not only artists, but as musicians and scholars as well. A prominent difference between craftsmen and artists soon became clear as those wishing to identify as an artist would be well-versed in perspective, human anatomy, mathematics, and ancient art – where a craftsman would not be.

   In the emergence of the baroque era, the depiction of women in art changed drastically. Although female artists were still unable to study human anatomy from male models, they were naturally very familiar with the female body and depicted women in a new light. As most male painters of the time created images of women as expressionless muses, female artists began depicting women as conscious, independent, and self-aware beings that determined their own destiny. In the early 1600’s, still-life painting grew in popularity and was mostly dominated by female artists considering all of the materials - like flowers, vegetables, fruit, and everyday objects - were readily available to women. 

   Large-scale historical paintings emerged in the 18th century depicting events and situations throughout history – but preparing to make these works of art required the study of casts of antique sculptures and study of male nudes, almost always in an academic setting. This is why there are no large-scale historical paintings by women around that time. Many academies in Europe which promoted the sale of art, trained artists, and exhibited artwork, usually did not accept any women. The Academy in Paris, which had around 450 members, had permitted only 15 of them to be women, although they were daughters or wives of members. They stopped admitting any women at all in the late 18th century.

   The beginning of the 19th century opened up many opportunities for female artists as the various styles of painting branched out. Impressionism, landscapes, and animal paintings were common for women to paint at the time. The emergence of photography gave creative women a new outlet considering there was no restrictions or required training to hold them back. A well-known female photographer in this era includes Dorothea Lange, who traveled and documented the Great Depression. The 20th century brought many art movements, such as abstract expressionism, art deco, and surrealism - all of which artists like Hilma af Klint, Lyubov Popova, and Hildreth Meiere emerged from. Contemporary art and environmental art also could not have progressed without the works of many female artists. Japanese artist Yayoi Kusama - who created sculptures, collages, paintings, performance art, and environmental installations – depicted feminist, surrealist, psychological, sexual, and autobiographical themes in her work. Environmental artists like Betty Beaumont and Vernita Nemec created installations to bring awareness of ocean pollution as well as educating society and challenging modern beliefs/actions.

   Clearly, the struggle for equality and respect in the art world throughout the years has not been easy for women. Even today, gender and race disparity are prominent in the art scene. Out of 10,000 artists displayed among 18 museums across the United States, 87% are male. The alteration of many works of art created by women, as well as their work being sold for less, plays a major role in the reason we see so little successful female artists throughout history. It is incredibly important to recognize and appreciate the work and skill of not only modern female artists, but those in the past who never received proper recognition for their contribution to the art world.