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THE INTERESTING SPACE REVEALED BY THE VOYAGERS (Amazing Discoveries)

We discovered that the solar system is more complex than we thought, formed by the eight known planets, the asteroid belt and the Kuiper belt inside which is the Heliosphere, a region in the form of tear influenced by the vientiane or solar composed of loaded particles and the solar magnetic field. The Heliosphere is divided between the clash of termination, the Heliopausa and the Heliofunda. In the zone of the crash of termination, about 90 astronomical units (UA) and in the Heliopause the solar wind joins the interstellar medium, the activity of the solar wind is reduced and compressed, this indicates the limit of the Heliosfera and where it begins the interstellar space. The Sun has a very powerful intertwined magnetic fields, emits flows of constant particles what we call solar wind and is melted with the interstellar medium, where there exist cosmic rays and radiation of ancient supernovas, the wind sound Lar form a magnetic bubble just to protect us from the biggest part of the high energy radiation coming from interstellar space. Solar wind and interstellar space gas do not mix and forms a bubble of a hundred UA. Another fact to keep in mind is that the plasma heats up on the edges of the Heliosphere which indicates that it is compressed, as well as the temperature of the interstellar plasma throw surprising results, from 30,000°C to 50,000°C and is colder to measure to get away from the Heliopause. The influence of the Sun apparently goes beyond the solar system, coronary mass ejections send loaded particles to the galaxy just like we received that of other stars and the gravity influence of the Sun could reach up to 3 ,6 light years. The area between the interstellar medium and the Heliosphere still has many questions that the Voyager will not be able to answer, the probes are only controlled by a team of ten people, the mission will be abandoned by budget cuts and will arrive where no other ship has ever reached, so far probes keep transmitting data. Before we stop listening to them we send a message for any civilization that may exist, a golden record with information of the earth, we send them our music, greetings in 55 languages, one in the language of whales, the words from a mother to her newborn son, the brainwaves of a young girl in love, the sound of Saturn V launch, and the sound of a Pulsar, all of this will live on for a billion years. If no phenomenon destroys the Voyager wander through the galaxy without any concrete destination, the Voyager 1 will reach a distance of 1.7 light years from the Ros-248 star in about 193,000 years and the Voyager 2 in about 40,000 years will be 1.6 light years Gliese-445, they might last more than humanity, and if someone finds them the probes will leave constancy of what we were in this distant spring, what we could create in a remote region of the galaxy, our dreams and illusions were created in this pale and tiny point or blue we call Earth, the only one home we never knew... The bubble nebula captured by the Hubble telescope is a massive star that creates a very strong stellar wind creating a magnetic bubble, so the solar system Heliosphere could appear from a considerable distance.

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Recently it was thought that Pluto was alone, we were wrong, there are many frozen worlds with Pluto and much beyond

13 billion miles from the Sun, another frozen world, Sedna, takes 10,000 years to make a lap around the Sun.

More than 23 billion km from home, the Voyager 1 space probe, but outside this probe we wouldn't have images of the outer planets of the solar system, travels 20 times faster than a bullet and keeps sending us messages.

1 billion miles away is the cloud of Oort, a billion kites surrounding the solar system from extreme to extreme.

8 billion miles from our home is interstellar space, here the solar wind collides with the most lethal cosmic rays of outer space.

40 billion km, or 4 light years from home, we found the first stellar system after ours, Alfa Centauri, three stars spinning each other, their orbital speed keeps them apart.

8 light-years-old is found the brightest star of the night, Syria, who is similar to the Sun, has a star companion, a White dwarf the size of the Earth.

10 light years from Earth, star Epsilon Eridian, contains rings of dust and gas and, somewhere, planets forming, we could be watching our young solar system, at the center of action a star smaller than the Sun.

20 light years from Earth, the star Gliese 581, is more or less the age of our Sun, in its orbit, a planet at a fair distance, with enough time for the evolution of life, they could be tuning into our programs from 20 years ago years.

At 50 light years, the planet Bellefonte, classified as hot Jupiter, is so close to its star that it is a miracle to have discovered it, an authentic hell.

100 light years from Earth, twin stars, Ahlen, from Earth seem to blink as one passes in front of the other, closely we could see that one entered the other's gravity force by attracting its gas.

Deep in the Milky Way is a simple heavenly library in which every star is a book with a story.

At 440 light years, the Seven Sisters, the Pleiades, the closest stellar cluster to Earth, are young, at least 100 million years of life, are still wrapped in the gas and dust that created them.

At 1,300 light years, the Orion nebula, dust and gas so dense that isolate us from the outer universe, inside it a bright ball attracts gas and dust warming and initiating nuclear reactions, a star is born, it is more, hundreds of it S. Nebels are a star-making factory, incredibly violent, but the results are incredible, bright nebula of incandescent gas in space, the universe is an artist on its greatest scale.

At 6,500 light years, the Crab Nebula, supernova stellar remains, from here come the essential elements for life, oxygen, iron, nitrogen... at its center, the corpse of the star the size of a city consisting entirely of subatomic particles called neutron, so they called them neutron stars.

7,800 light-year-old Cygni is found, the remains of a giant star, of an impossible @TAG, bending the star light behind, a black hole, instead of contraband as a pulse kept collapsing to measure just a few km, with a to gravity so intense that I don't know light can escape from him.

Our milky way galaxy, whole civilizations and everything that ever lived is invisible from here, we begin to perceive ourselves from the truth.

The intergalactic space, here there are no borders, there are fine halos of gas and dust and, something else, dark matter, so mysterious that we cannot see, feel it, test it, touch it or measure it, it is only known that it exists because of the gravitational attraction work out on the galaxies.

The Andromeda galaxy, 2,500,000 light years, moves in space towards us at almost a million km/h, we see the galaxy as it was 2,500,000 years ago, in a few billion years it will collide with our galaxy.

The great galaxy of Melinte, is so far away that if we send a message it would take 27 million years to arrive.

6 billion light years away is RX J1131-1231, a quasar, the source of this amazing power is in the center of the beast, a hole black supermassive billions of times the solar mass, shatters whole stars lost by always in the observable universe.

8 billion light years ago, we found different galaxies, very small, close to each other, they are young, they are still growing and colliding, so the Milky Way was born. From here we see that they move away from us at the speed of light and perhaps more, the cause, the dark energy, but as dark matter, are only names for our ignorance, it is better to admit that we do not know all the answers, is better admit throw away our ignorance that believe in Wrong answers.

11 billion light years ago galaxies were just made of hydrogen and helium, before this there was darkness.

At 13 billion light years, the most violent and creative moment, the Big Bang, the journey ends where the universe begins, an infinitely hot, dense and small point expands a quintillion times in a second creating space, time, at first it's the size of one subatomic particle, a fraction of the second then fits in the palm of the hand, another fraction of the second is the size of the earth.

Today the light of the Big Bang is still spreading like a whistle of radio waves, your TV sees it on an untuned screen, the energy and material of creation is in you, from a marble, to the cosmos...

We who incarnate the eyes, ears, thought and local feelings of the cosmos, begin to understand the history of our origins, stellar matter to contemplate the evolution of matter and to draw that long road we arrived up to consciousness, the living beings of this planet lead a legacy of cosmic evolution that spreads for billions of years, if we take this knowledge seriously, and come to know and love nature as it really is, surely our descendants will remember us as bue links we are strong in the chain of life, and our children will continue this sacred search, and they will see for us, as we see for who preceded us, and we will discover wonders yet unsuspecting in the cosmos.

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Light is intimidating form of energy which is still a wonder for physicists. It gives us the sensation of sight. Many scientists have put forth their idea about the nature of light in different course of time. 

Sir Isaac Newton in 1675, gave a theory called Newton's Corpuscular theory. In this theory, Newton state that light is composed of particle tiny, elastic, and rigid particles which he called corpuscle. When these corpuscles enter into our eyes,we get the sense of vision according to Newton. Corpuscles travel in straight line with different speed in different medium. According to Newton, the corpuscles will travel faster in denser medium as compared to rarer medium. And different forms of corpuscles lead to different types of colours after dispersion through the prism. The Newton's Corpuscular theory obeys the law of reflection and law of refraction. It also explained the rectilinear propagation. But this theory has huge drawbacks. It failed to explain interference, diffraction (as noticed by Grimaldi) and polarization of light. It could not explain partial reflection and refraction at the surface of transparent medium. This theory flawed that the speed of light in denser medium is more than the speed of light in a rarer medium which was experimentally proven wrong by scientist Foucault in 1850. Hence, Newton's corpuscular theory was rejected

In 1678, Christiaan Huygens formulated his wave theory of light, which later, in 1690, he published in his work Treatise on light. The Dutch physicist proposed that light was emitted in all directions as a set of waves that moved through a medium he called ether. Since the waves are not affected by gravity, it assumed the speed of the waves was reduced when they entered a denser medium. His model proved particularly useful in explaining Snell-Descartes' law of reflection and refraction. He also satisfactorily explained the phenomenon of diffraction. His theory was based fundamentally on two concepts: 

(a) The light sources emit spherical waves, similar to the waves that occur on the surface of the water. In this way, the rays of light are defined by lines whose direction is perpendicular to the surface of the wave. 

(b) Each point of a wave is in turn a new emitter center of secondary waves, which are emitted with the same frequency and speed that characterized the primary waves. 

The infinity of the secondary waves is not perceived by us, so that the wave resulting from these secondary waves is their envelope. However, Huygens' wave theory was not accepted by the scientists of his time, except for a few exceptions such as Robert Hooke.

In 19th century most significant scientific achievement was his electromagnetic theory of light propagation which he first presented in 1864 paper  ‘A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field’. This paper hypothesised that an electric field, a magnetic field and light could all be explained with the using sets of equations. 

This theory explained light as mutually perpendicular sinusoidal electric and magnetic fields. In his equation, for an electromagnetic waves, the curl of electric field give minus of time differentiation of magnetic field and that of magnetic field must equal the reciprocal of speed of light squared times time differentiation of electric field, remaining the divergence of both the fields equal zero. He came with the astonishing result

 c= 1/√(με) 

This was fruitful for the special relativity of Einstein later in 1905 to explain constancy of speed of light. This was not only successful on explaining most of the known features of light, but it was the only profound idea that explained polarisation which was not explained till date.

At the end of 19th century the physicists had intuition that all the problems related to electromagnetic radiation can be solved on the basis of waves theory. But in the beginning of 20th century new idea broke out in scientific community called quantum theory. It is successful in explaining things like, photo-electric effect, Compton’s effect, black body radiation and others which was still mystery for wave theory and Maxwell's idea. In an effort to explain the absorbed black body radiation, Max Plancks  put forward his quantum theory of light. Einstein used this theory and derived the equation E=nhf... This equation suggests us that, light is emitted in the form of photons or bundles each having energy hf, where f is the frequency of the photon and is the Planck's constant. This the most successful theory which explains the descrete realm of light.

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Origin of Universe

Laws of physics suggests that everything happening has certain cause. So, there must be the origin of universe to exist Since we have explored and pondered many facts of cosmos, we have many speculative theories on origin and evolution of our universe. Here is some theories that suggests origin of Universe.

Steady State theory Many astrophysicist including Fred, Hoyed, Bondi and Gold assumed that new galaxies are continuously formed from interstellar dusts in order to fill the empty space created by receding galaxies escaping the cosmological horizons. As the result the density of universe remain consistent and this state is called steady state. This approximation implies that universe was not originated but it was there all time and origin doesn't makes any sense.

Pulsating/ Cyclic theory: Edington and Cepheid developed a theory in which universe keeps expanding and contracting time and again in every 8 billion years. According to this theory, universe doesn't always expands and the gravitation force will cease the expansion when the density of universe becomes critical. And then the universe start to contracting. As the result we have pulsation of cosmos. This theory correspond the ideas of Vedic cosmology. According to it Universe continues the immense cycle of rebirth and death.

Big Bang Theory: It suggests that universe was originated from a big bang which was proposed by Lemaitre and Gamow. According to this theory, 13.8 billion year ago our universe was concentrated in highly dense in which energy and matters existed in nothingness of space and time called as singularity. The density of that singularity was 5⨯10¹⁰ Kg⁄m³ and its temperature was 10¹² K. Due to quantum fluctuations, that singularity exploded out as the big bang, Big bang exposed out matters and energy that condensed and gradually formed stars and galaxies. Hydrogen was 1st atom formed and gradually helium appeared and formed the 1st molecules helium hydride, Methuselah was the first star formed after big bang.

Timeline of evolution of Universe since big bang

13.8 billion year ago expansion of our universe began with a big bang from the singularity of 0 volume and infinite density. It was due to quantum fluctuation.

At t = 10⁻⁴³ sec, the temperature of universe had reached 10³² K and average energy per particle was about 10¹��. The entire universe was in the size of electron then.

At t= 10⁻³⁵ sec, the temperature rolled down 10²⁷ K and average energy became 10¹¹. The universe triggered its expansion and size had increased by the factor 10³⁰.

At t=10⁻³² sec, the universe had became the isotropic mixture of quarks, leptons and mediating bosons.

At t= 10 ⁻⁶ second, the temperature of universe reached 10¹³ kelvin and the typical energy of the then universe was 1 GeV. At that time, quarks began to bind together and started to form nucleons and antinucleons.

At t= 1 min , the universe had then cooled enough resulting the collision of neutron and proton to stick and formed low mass nuclei like H² He³ He⁴ and Li⁷. Their abundancy in observable universe is very high.

At t = 30000 year, the temperature of universe was about 10 ⁴ K and electrons and nucleus started to bind into atoms.

Atoms of hydrogen and helium under the influence of gravity clumped to the formation of early galaxies and stars. Supernovas burst out varieties of elements heavier than lithium those later became intricated in stars and planetary systems that we have today's Universe.

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Darkest Secrets of Universe

In cosmology, dark matter is exotic form of matter, which doesn’t interact with any form of radiation, making it hardly detectable, but its presence can be felt by the gravitational  effects. Dark matter is postulated to explain the rotation curve of the spiral galaxy accounting the missing mass of universe. According to modern cosmology, in the large scale structure of universe, dark matter dominates the regular matter that we are familiar of. It is more massive than the galaxies and galactic clusters.

Only 4% of total energy density can be felt from the observation which infers the regular matter. And from the gravitational effect, we can see that 22% is occupied by dark matter.  The remaining 74% is occupied by dark energy , even stranger ingredient of universe.

In physical cosmology, dark energy ��is hypothetical form of energy, that permeates all of space and accelerate the rate of expansion of the universe. It is widely accepted intuition about the accelerated expansion of universe.

Some cosmologist believe that source of dark matter is massive bodies like primordial black holes, while other astrophysicist  believe that dark matter comes in the form of fundamental particles that doesn’t interact with any form of radiation.

Physical astronomy concludes that most of the matter in the universe is dark, i.e, those can’t be detected through electromagnetic radiation. Those stuffs can’t be seen directly- so what makes us think that it exist at all? Scientists indirectly infer the notion of dark matter, from the different motion of heavenly bodies at different scale, like stellar, galactic and even cosmic.

For each observation, the basic principle is that if we measure velocities in some region, then for given velocity, there has to be enough mass to gravitate, in order to have static equilibrium. When we do these observation on large scale,it turns out that the amount of mass of body not interacting to electromagnetic radiation is much more in comparison to those  who does. So, this missing mass can be assigned to dark matter.

Dark matter usually are 2 broad catagories.

Baryonic

Non baryonic

Baryonic dark matter is made of regular stuffs, but fails to interact with electromagnetic radiation. Non baryonic dark matter may be composed of tiny fundamental particles. These may be massive and these particle may have built of something we call dark matter, which we think exist.  Non baryonic dark matter can be of two types:

Hot dark matter

Cold dark matter

Hot dark matter is postulated to have particles with nearly 0 rest mass. As, relativity suggests, lesser the rest mass, higher the velocity, these particle must have high kinetic energy and if we imply kinetic theory of gasses, they must heat up.   Cold dark matter is hypothesise to be comprised of very massive  and have sub relativistic velocities, forming the cold gasses.  

The core difference between cold dark matter and hot dark matter is the key role for the formation of structure, because the hot dark matter tries to wipe out the structure on small scale because of higher velocities.

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Components of Universe

Galaxies: A galaxy is a gravitationally bound system of stars, stellar remnants, interstellar gas, dust, and dark matter. They are vast cosmic islands of stars, gas, dust, and dark matter held together. Normal Galaxy The galaxy that has inactive super massive black holes at the center that governs all the stars, and their respective planetary system, gas and dust by the force of gravity in association of dark matter. It may be lenticular, Elliptical Spiral or Irregular on the basis of appearance. Examples: Andromeda Galaxy, Milky Way Galaxy, Messier 87 Galaxy Milky way galaxy Milky way galaxy is the galaxy that we and our solar system is located. It is the type of spiral galaxy. It extends millions of light years in girth and thousands of light years in its thickness. It has many extended arms like Orion arms that may have millions of stars and planetary system like our sun and solar system. There is a super massive black hole at the center of our milky way galaxy named Sagittarius A*. Milky way has the mass of trillions of suns. Radio Galaxy: The galaxies these emits the radio waves signal from its core is called radio galaxy. These waves may be strong enough to displace the planets from its position in the space. Their core may contain heavenly bodies like Pulsars and Blazars. Pulsars: A pulsar is a highly magnetized rotating compact star that emits beams of electromagnetic radiation out of its magnetic poles. This radiation can be observed only when a beam of emission is pointing toward Earth, and is responsible for the pulsed appearance of emission. Quasar: A quasar is an extremely luminous active galactic nucleus, in which a supermassive black hole with mass ranging from millions to billions of times the mass of the Sun is surrounded by a gaseous accretion disk. Blazars: A blazar is an active galactic nucleus with a relativistic jet directed very nearly towards an observer. Stars Stars are the illuminating heavenly bodies of universe. The visible part of universe is dominated by the stars. The intense gravity of star causes the fusion reaction at the core of star. This is the source of energy for stars. Stars like our sun behave as perfect black body radiators which emits the thermal radiation that follows the Stefan’s law. It means the intensity of radiation highly increases in the increase in surface temperature of the star. The electromagnetic radiation follows the Wien’s displacement law it means the wavelength of light emitted by stars is directly proportional to the surface temperature. Surface temperature of stars increases when it gets old. So the younger stars are bluish and older star are reddish. Some examples of stars are Sun, Antares, Canopus, Betelgeuse, Aldebaran, Rigel etc. Planetary system Planetary system is the structural organization of star, planets, dwarf planets, comets, asteroids, meteors and comets. The planetary system that we live in is solar system. Sun is the core of solar system that governs all other heavenly bodies with the force of gravity. Mercury, Venus, Earth are Mars are rocky planet that lies before asteroid belt and Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune lie after the asteroid belt. Pluto and Ceres are some famous dwarf planets. Each planet revolves around sun and their respective natural satellites revolve around the planets. Moon is the natural satellite of our planet Earth. Asteroid: The mass of rocky bodies that lie between mars and Jupiter and revolve round the sun. There are 1000s of asteroids in our solar system, of which some comes very near to earth and make an approach. Their size may differ from a small grain to large rocks. They may be the potentially hazardous also. The extinction of dinosaurs in late cretaceous period became extinct due to collision of Asteroid and Earth. It is believed that the asteroids are the minute fragments of heavenly body which once existed between mars and Jupiter due to unequal gravity of jupiter and mars. Meteor: The pieces of rocks that creates the fireworks in the sky by burning due to friction and has a very high speed. They get burnt in atmosphere completely before reaching Earth's surface giving huge amount of heat. So they appears glowing and they are often called shooting stars. It may be the ejected part of Asteroid or may be an space debris coming from other parts of milky way. In specific month the meteor coming from direction of different constellation causes the meteor shower in night sky. Perseid meteor shower is the king of the meteor shower. Some remnant of the meteor that is able to reach the ground is called meteorite. Comets: Fast moving rocks covered by icy bodies and ammonia that periodically comes near the sun and follows the same elongated elliptical path. It is noticed by its distinguishing head and tail. Head may extends to thousands of kilometers and the tail can extends upto millions. Shoemaker levy, Halley and Neowise are example of comets.

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Particle physics in Single Memorandum.....

WHAT IS PARTICLE PHYSICS ABOUT?

The point like structure that makes up our nature is called particles. Elementary particles are those point like structure that can't be further disintegrated into substructure are elementary particles. Particle physics is the study of Nature in the scale of elementary particles. When the universe came into existence, at its earlier state, it was ocean of radiation. Radiation further condensed to form matter that is elementary particles started to evolve in Nature. Now the problem was the conservation of energy , so it is believed that mathematically those elementary particles were formed along with their pair antiparticles. This phenomenon is called pair production and the antiparticles are opposite in charge (if they have ) and there respect conserved quantum numbers. It assumed that if antiparticle and its pair particle approaches each other, they both destroy themselves and the phenomenon is called annihilation.

HOW MANY FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES DO NATURE HAVE?

Particles are of many types. Some obey the Pauli's exclusion principle and execute under the Fermi Dirac statics. Those particles have half integral spin. They are fermions. There are also such particles in the universe those do not give a sh*t to the Pauli's exclusion principle and they are identified under Bose Einstein statics. They have integral spin. They are called Bosons. Bosons are merely divided as Higgs boson and Gauge Boson according to their fundamental properties. Higgs boson generates the mass to other particles as the quantized Higgs field by lossing the fraction of its energy in interaction. Gauge bosons are the mediating particles means that they mediate the fundamental forces of Nature. Gluons is a massless Bosons that mediate the strong interaction and thus can hold the quarks in the protons and neutrons. Photons similarly are massless and they mediate the electromagnetic interaction such as the force of attraction of unlike charges and poles. W and Z bosons mediate the weak interaction that can be observed in nuclear decay. An hypothetical particle graviton is supposed to mediate the gravitational interaction. Similarly fermions on the basis of composite properties are 2 - Leptons that doesn't have substructures and the Hadron which have quarks as the substructure. Leptons are lightest and stable-most of all Fermions. They are 6 electrons, muon, Taon and by the virtue of conservation of momentum, electron neutrino, muon neutrino, taon neutrino and their respective 6 antiparticle partners. Hadron on the basis of mass can be divided on 2- the Mesons and the Baryons. Mesons are bit heavier than leptons but are light in comparison to the Baryons. Mesons are composed of the quark and antiquark pair. Hence they have shortest life span as both quark and antiquark doesn't like each other. They have 3 group- K mesons, π meson and η meson. Baryon has 2 group Nucleons that made up the nucleus of the atom like protons and neutrons along with their antiparticle brothers. Hyperons are the baryons that were recently discovered and has a numerous particles like Ξ hyperon ,Ω hyperon , Σ hyperon. It is found that the Baryons are made up of the 3 quarks.

WHAT ABOUT CONSERVED QUANTUM NUMBER???

Quantum numbers in particle physics are conserved quantities associated with each particles. For an example lepton number is 1 for leptons -1 for antiparticle of lepton and 0 for non leptons, Baryon number for baryon is 1, antibaryon is -1 and non Baryon is 0.

WHAT DOES QUARK MODEL SAYS?

Quark model states that the "Quarks are the fundamental make up of Hadrons. Mesons have 1 antiquarks and 1 quarks. Baryons have 3 quarks. There are 6 quarks namely up, down, top, bottom, strange, charm. They have different charges."

WHAT IS STANDARD MODEL ALL ABOUT?

Standard model is the theoretical approximation to study the fundamental particle in unified frame. It state that " All together 6 leptons 6 quarks and Bosons are the fundamental make up of the nature."