oceaninsight-blog

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Notes from New Zealand

- Waharoa (gateway) made to face the sun so abalone shells twinkle to remind you you're being watched - People pause at gateway before entering village - Elder women traditionally sing   - Genealogy part of core values - Wh sounds like f - Relationship with land to be mindful --> priorital rights - Placenta bowl - "Cultural safety" --> All women had to go into hospitals to have their children and they refused to hold onto the placenta for them women and then a group of nurses advocated to change that - Placenta buried in earth after childbirth (placenta + earth seen as fulfilling same role, same word to describe both) - God of the earth - Hōanga (grindstone) contains red earth, ah stance of Papatūānuku (the earth mother). Creation stories = humanity cake from body of Papatūānuku - 930AD = great migration - Pacific/Polynesian rat changed ecosystem after being brought over (delicacy) bc NZ had no land mammals bc was underwater - Fruit bats were only mammals in NZ before others were introduced - Cloaks embellished with feathers - Māori calendar tells you things like when it's a good day for fishing - NZ wars = 1860-61 Taranaki war, 1863-64 Waikato invasion, 1864 Tauranga campaign = to give land to British colonists - The treaty of Waitangi (Te Tiriti o Waitangi) two different interpretations - Adopted Christianity quickly - Fanu (family ~ 20) - Hapu (community related by blood ~ 100) - Iwi (multiple hapu put together ~2000) - Only native mammals = air and sea mammals

- Maroi = only place that shows how Maori people traditionally lived - Maori creation story = sky Wanganoi + earth Papatūānuku together, one male one female (differs per tribe), children didn't want them to stay together - Maori world has roles identified for males and roles identified with females - Polwoody = traditional welcoming comes from a waring (feudal) time bc very protective of land, process of acceptance to allow visitors to explore land - Women are a sign of peace (give birth to expand tribe) and men are a sign of war (kill other tribes) - Women at from men at back to show peace offering - Caranel = form of song usually deliver by female - When standing at gate you receive a positive or negative welcome (no way of telling ahead of time) - Kapoi (good, okay) - Will tell you to sit in chairs or to go straight through into room (rescissions made in moment depending on context of what's going on) - Always about acknowledging the past, ywhat from then is relevant for now - Make from hosting side will stand up and welcome you - Then you as the visitor has opportunity to stand up and speak (male) - Then ladyy will sing again - After that, peace offering - Hongi (Oha) = intimate engagement, forehead nose pressing, traditionally once here twice sometimes breathing in involved (spiritual knowledge, share a breath with another no matter what background their from) - Our creation story is one formed out of a teardrop

Uncle Jeff - river connects all of us from the mountains to the sea - We're living in an age where storytelling is becoming less and less common - You cannot have wellbeing without some sort of spiritual attachment - Does not talk religion talks spiritual attachment - River lies at the core, holds the memories of our old people, alleviates heaviness - Don't talk about the river, talk to the river - Strongest medicine we have is our ability to love each other - Tears are an expression of when language is totally inadequate

Uncle George - Being here rather than staying in NYC shows that we don't seek education we seek understanding - Uncle Jeff just told stories that have been told here for generations - Christianity teaches individualism which helped fragment our community - In the 70s I was the only one of my generation to stay living at home which was pretty lonely. I would tell my cousins "come home, the mud beneath my toes is your mud" - Wakamoi is about all of us living in a tribal sense and thank members of our family - If you smile to someone next to you then you're expressing gratitude, people with gratitude are the happiest people in life, they have love, patients, - The inner warmth within your sole will comfort you and take you through the day - Your name is important and who you are is important - "never let schooling get in the way of your education" mark twain - Whenua

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The Evolution of Environmental Justice

Environmental justice is a notion that I have grown up to be familiar with do to the fact that it emerged in the United States around 30 years ago. The movement has developed into one that advocates for distributive justice: the fair distribution of environmental harms and benefits, as well as participatory justice: the rights of effected communities to participate in decision-making concerning such distributions. The social movement began in Warren County in North Carolina in 1982 pertaining the issue of ‘environmental racism,’ when a predominantly African-American community protested against the location of a toxic soil waste dump in their county: “It was ‘what happens when people fear that their lives and health are being disproportionately put at risk because of the cold of their skin or the sound of their accent’” (p. 8-9). Accordingly, poorer people, communities, and nations are at higher risk of environmental hazards while being less adequate in preparation and recovery efforts.


Since its establishment, environmental justice has evolved to address an array of issues both national and internationally, incorporating civil rights movements, indigenous rights movements, and more (Schlosbeg, p. 41). Different interpretations of the discourse offer enhanced concentrations on different aspects and has been described to include ‘environmental racism,’ ‘environmental classism’ and ‘environmental equity.’ One interpretation that I find interesting is that of Robert Bullard who stated that “‘[t]he environmental justice movement has basically redefined what environmentalism is all about. It basically says that the environment is everything: where we live, work, play, go to school, as well as the physical and natural world. And so we can’t separate the physical environment from the cultural environment’ (p. 10). I find this particularly interesting because, although quite anthropocentrically, reiterates the critique of the separation between nature and culture that we have been reviewing all semester.

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Men & Patriarchy

Patriarchy is a socio-political system that dictates the notion that males are inherently dominating and superior to everything and everyone considered weak (especially females) and are thus endowed with the right to dominate and rule over the weak in order to maintain that dominance through various forms of psychological manipulation and violence. Patriarchal gender roles are prescribed to us as children while society then provides everlasting guidance as to how such roles can be fulfilled. While women are the primary victims of the consequences that follow patriarchal frameworks, it is importance to understand the negative impacts on men as well. The patriarchy enforces pain upon boys and denies their feelings as well, and men abused by patriarchy later uphold it in their own practices.

In Understanding Patriarchy, Hooks notes that men are not the sole constituting patriarchy: “We need to highlight the role women play in perpetuating and sustaining patriarchal culture so that we will recognize patriarchy as a system women and men support equally, even if men receive more rewards from that system. Dismantling and changing patriarchal culture is work that men and women must do together” (p. 2). This is a result of institutional brainwashing of public opinion, as all cultures are shaped by patriarchal thinking. Upon visiting the Men & Family Center in Tweed Heads, we learned about the impacts of domestic violence on both the victims and the perpetrators. One woman dies every five days from domestic violence. One in two men experience violence, however such violence is usually from another man.The concept of toxic masculinity was introduced to my vocabulary, which includes violent or aggressiveness to support masculinity. What I enjoyed in learning about toxic masculinity is that it prompted me to think about positive masculinity, a notion that is even more alien to me. Through growing up in a patriarchal society, I have come to associate masculinity with negativity due to the harm generated by patriarchy. I now stand by my belief that thinking about the positive aspects of masculinity without any association with patriarchy is a critical disjunction and the first crucial step that the world needs to conceptualize in order to work against toxic masculinity and patriarchy.

Environmental justice is a notion that I have grown up to be familiar with do to the fact that it emerged in the United States around 30 years ago. The movement has developed into one that advocates for distributive justice: the fair distribution of environmental harms and benefits, as well as participatory justice: the rights of effected communities to participate in decision-making concerning such distributions. The social movement began in Warren County in North Carolina in 1982 pertaining the issue of ‘environmental racism,’ when a predominantly African-American community protested against the location of a toxic soil waste dump in their county: “It was ‘what happens when people fear that their lives and health are being disproportionately put at risk because of the cold of their skin or the sound of their accent’” (p. 8-9). Accordingly, poorer people, communities, and nations are at higher risk of environmental hazards while being less adequate in preparation and recovery efforts.


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Patriarchy - Class Reflections

In class the students were asking to list the ways in which we perform our gender norms, which was a much more though provoking process than I had anticipated. The first thing I came up with is my comfortability with asking questions and discomfort when demanding for something or telling someone about something. I am accustomed to the assumption that others are more likely to be correct compared to me. Something I also frequently do is care and comfort others with lots of love and snuggles. It is easy for me to not only be in tune with my emotions and but to have the wellbeing of others also becomes a natural concern. I am not very confident and following puberty have regarded boys as always being stronger in aggressiveness and physical strength. My body image is concerned with society’s view rather than my own. My self-consciousness towards the way I look is for the same reason. I am quite sensitive and am prone to crying, especially if you put a sad movie on. I have long hair, I put makeup on when I go out at night, and sometimes compare myself to other women for the sake of men. I occasionally wear dresses and skirts and high heels. I say sorry a lot. I can flirt my way out of or into a situation if that’s what it comes down to. I tend to prioritize pleasing others over pleasing myself. I love and constantly surround myself with children and puppies if the opportunity arises. Holistically I am not a competitive person. I manage my emotions around men for their benefit and to not come off as bitchy. I completely underestimate my potential all the time. I have a hard time standing up for myself. I try not to step on anybody’s toes nor take up too much space. Understanding the nature versus nurture of these characteristics varies in complexity, but It is ultimately blatant that no matter how hard I have tried I am a consequence of patriarchal society.

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Recuperative Work & Natural Resource Management

Indigenous ways of knowing and becoming emphasize an importance of being aware and attentive as a way of rationalizing our world that diverges from the contemporary anthropocentric worldview that predominates today. A crucial aspect within Aboriginal ontology of Australia is the concept of Country: "Country is a word in Aboriginal English which includes not just the territorial, land-based notion of a home land, but encompasses humans as well as waters, seas and all that is tangible and non-tangible and which become together in a mutually caring and multidirectional manner to create and nurture a homeland” (Suchet-Pearson et al., 2013, p. 186). The encompassing framework that the concept lays out which produces enhanced human engagement with the earth as it is understood that humans are not separated from Country and are instead deeply connected to it.

Co-becoming pertains to the comprehension generated through coexistence of humans and their environment. This grants opportunities to reimagine approaches to natural resource management. Consequently, “Indigenous peoples and local communities have profoundly challenged the dominance of industrial resource management regimes in a variety of ways over many centuries” (Suchet-Pearson et al.,2013, p. 186). This industrial sector stems Western philosophy which views the role of nature to benefit humans. In addition, co-becoming contributes to recuperative work as a mode of decolonization: Rose (2004) writes about Yulin people native to the south coast of New South Whales and their relation to the sacred mountain Gulaga: "The story of the mountain includes the story of reconciliation among people and with Nature, and thus tells us that alternatives to the status who not only exist among us, but exist in wounded and contested places such as forests" (p. 194). Gulaga mountain is a sacred site and Dreaming place for local Aboriginal peoples, connecting them together. Though the mountain faced amounting threats due to its abundance's in ecological resources. Colonialist decedents and Aboriginal peoples lived side by side below the mountain and were able to preserve the mountain through its establishment as a national park. Their joint effort symbolizes the notion put forth by Suchet-Pearson et al. (2013) of situated engagement through ontological pluralism which is the active communication between individuals or groups to resolve their situated differences (p. 188). This approach is both simplistic and profound, as it is one of the vital components lacking in the dwindling power of natural resource management today.

Rose, D. B. (2004). Love and Reconciliation in the Forest. In Reports from a Wild Country: Ethics for Decolonisation (pp. 193-212). Sydney: University of New South Wales Press.

Suchet-Pearson, S., Wright. S, Lloyd, K. & Burarrwanga, L. (2013) Caring as Country: Towards an ontology of co-becoming in natural resource management. Asia Pacific Viewpoint, 54(2), 185-197.

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A Personal Critique of Environmental Activism

Although A brief history of the Australian environment movement highlights historically prevalent pro-activism within the country’s environmental movement, I found myself frequently becoming upset when reading the article. The second sentence states that “since the late 1800s, environmental advocacy and action in Australia have been driven primarily by people with the passion and commitment to conserve, and act as custodians, of nature” (McGregor, 2014, p. 2). What particularly irks me about this statement is the use of the word ‘custodian.’ I concretely associate the term with the Aboriginal peoples of Australia because I have come across it time and time again in readings for my Global Studies and Australia’s First Peoples classes. ‘Custodian’ tends to be used when describing Aboriginal peoples connection to land, as it provides an adequate translation for their role and dedication to preserving country.

McGregor follows this affirmation by describing the success story of koalas’ protection following public outcry over koala killings in the early 1900s. This both ironic and disheartening due to the fact that well over 90% of Aboriginal peoples were killed as a result of European conquest in the 1800s. McGregor (2014) proceeds to state the following: “even in the early years of European settlement of Australia, an environment movement was nascent among the first naturalists” (p. 2). Who exactly are these ‘naturalists’ and why are they accredited with commencing environmental activism when they were apart of the British colonists who intruded on Aboriginal land and therefore contributed to the destruction of it? McGregor asserts that this also brought the emergence of the national parks movement, when in reality, mass documentations from colonizers who first reached Australia described their bafflement over the country’s immense resemblance to a cultivated park. A multitude of evidence has since proven that the reason for this is due to Aboriginal people’s work on the land as their expertise reflected their over 60,000 year inhabitance on the land.

Upon reflecting on my criticism of McGregor’s general historical review of environmental activism, I realize that I am quick to judge due to the context of Australia context, which makes me wonder if this would be the case if a similar piece was written in the context of U.S. The two articles on Standing Rock provoked my thoughts surrounding this question as well. I barely know squat about Native Americans compared to what I’ve learned about Aboriginal peoples. As I’ve studied environmental compositions in the past, the possible appropriation of Indigenous relationship land never came to mind. In turn, I feel inclined to further explore not only Native American history but their relation to land as well.

References:

McGregor, A. (2014). A Brief history of the Australian environment movement. Melbourne: Australian Environmental Grantmakers Network.

Sacred Stone Camp. (2017) ‘Excerpts From Standing Rock Sioux Tribe resolution NO>406-15, September 2, 2015’. Retrieved from www.sacredstonecamp.org/resolution/; accessed January 26 th , 2017.

Wong, J. C. & Levin, S. (2017, January 24). ‘Standing Rock Sioux: “we can’t back down now” on Dakota pipeline fight’, The Guardian. Retrieved from www: theguardian.com/us-news/2017/jan/24/standing- rock-resistance- donald-trump- executive-order; accessed January 26th, 2017.

Worland, J. (2017, January 26). ‘What to Know about the Dakota Access pipelineprotests’. Time. Retrieved from time.com/4548566/Dakota-access- pipeline-standing-rock-sioux/: accessed January 26th, 2017.

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Western vs. Aboriginal Epistemology - Recuperation

In the beginning of Reports from a Wild Country, Rose provides an comprehensive examination of European conquest of Australia through an epistemological framework. She commences her book by examining Western time-constructs of past, present and future that center around Christ, which she deems as disjunctive and irreversible at core. Her ultimate critique is as follows: "A seemingly commonsensical orientation towards the future, in a society built upon destruction, enables regimes of violence to continue their work while claiming the moral ground of making a better future" (Rose, 2004, p. 15). Thus through conflict, the world is moving toward a conflict-free state. This notion is deeply embedded into Christianity, as societal domination over chaotic nature emerged from aspiration towards attaining a state that corresponds with the Garden of Eden. The present is merely a moment in which the future transcends into the past, therefore delegitimizing present circumstances, as current contradictions and sufferings are seen to be left behind in the imaginary state of future achievement (Rose, 2004, p. 17).

Another key component to Western thought is the focal point of ‘self,’ generating a monologue that produces a divisive outlook towards others: "in this matrix the world is formed around dualities: man/woman, culture/nature, mind/body, active/passive, civilisation/savagery, and so on in the most familiar and oppressive fashion" (Rose, 2004, p. 19). The linearity of a future-driven orientation generates a separatist mentality in which such dichotomies are based upon. Consequently, the cultural construction of North/South and West/East divisions of the globe also stems from this, as the North and West are associated with mental capacity and the future while the South and East are associated with physical ability and the past (Rose, 2004, p. 42). In regards to Australia, the country is considered far South/East which enhanced the colonists interpretation of the country and its inhabits (Aboriginal peoples) highly associated with savagery. Meanwhile the subjection and massacring of Aboriginal peoples was absolved through the idea that it was all part of the process toward reaching the desired future.    

Correspondingly, Rose highlights Aboriginal epistemology to contrast that of Western civilization. Aboriginal ideology views time not as an entity existing outside of life but instead as a quality within life. Time is oriented toward origins, moving closer Dreaming rather than toward the future: “…those behind us walk in our footsteps, as we walk in the steps of those who proceed us… Enduring yet contingent, Dreaming songs, stories and life force are held in the present by the actions of ephemeral beings who, in their ordinary lives, carry Dreaming power through sequential and repetitive patterns” (Rose, 2004, p. 55). The circularity of Aboriginal time-frames provides a more encompassing approach to life and perhaps may be a crucial step toward holistic decolonization. Rose introduces the concept of recuperative work through the dismantlement of both monologue and the linearity of past, present and future, as it perceives all time frames as ‘rich with possibility.’

To conclude this piece, I’d like to draw on another form of recuperative work Rose (2004) beautifully articulate: "Those who witness to the loss of place, especially when place is lost to the colossus of development, take up a moral burden. They break up monologue and sustain a moral engagement with the past in the present that gives voice, presence, and power to that which has been lost, abandoned, or destroyed" nature becomes part of moral community” (p. 51)

References:

Rose, D. B. (2004). ‘Recuperation’. In Reports from a Wild Country: Ethics for Decolonisation (pp. 11-33). Sydney: University of New South Wales Press.

Rose, D. B. (2004). ‘Wounded Space’. In Reports from a Wild Country: Ethics for Decolonisation (pp. 34-52). Sydney: University of New South Wales Press.

Rose, D. B. (2004). ‘The Long Transitive Moment’’. In Reports from a Wild Country: Ethics for Decolonisation (pp. 53-72). Sydney: University of New South Wales Press.

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The Rights of Nature

After gazing down over the deep crater that Minyon Falls plunged into, the landscape looked steep but not too intimidating. The majority of hikes I do tend to begin from the bottom of places, so commencing at the top immediately granted me the empowered feeling of being above such an immense landscape due to its minuscule appearance. Though before I knew it my classmates and I had already descended into the terrain and I found myself inside of one of the many trees that had initially measured to be the size of my fingers. Once we got to the bottom of the waterfall, the intensity of the surging water was both overpowering and breathtaking.

I imagine that my initial view of the waterfall and landscape was more closely aligned with the way that nature is regarded by dominating social structures, as distance creates an illusion that earth’s resources are easily susceptible to a division of resources (i.e. the water, trees, and stones I could differentiate from my perspective). Peter Burdon (2003 )touches on this concept in Wild Law: The Philosophy of Earth Juisprudence, noting that law adheres to this process, divvying up water, land, surface minerals, and airspace to be owned by different people and entities. This contrasts elementary ecological principles, which reflect a more intimate examination of nature that I was able to experience when I was climbing inside the trees and swimming below the waterfall.

The social construct of law generates a legal conclusion to uphold society’s best idea of itself. Consequently, law profoundly reflects an anthropocentric worldview of earth, as humans beings and corporate entities are allocated rights in Western judicial systems (Burdon, 2003, n.p.). What society holistically lacks is the mergence of philosophy and science through an understanding of ecology, which demonstrates the interconnectedness of humanity and the natural world. All living systems are networks that function through their “webs of relationships” (Burdon, 2003, n.p.), however human beings at this point in time have diverged from this phenomenon by obliterating species, ecosystems, and natural resources for their own benefit.  

Cullinan (2008) distinguishes such notions surrounding this process: “Anthropocentrism maintains that value is of or for human beings. Biocentrism maintains that all forms of life, as such, are valuable. Ecocentrism emphasizes the value of ecological systems as a whole, including natural processes, relationships and non-living parts of the environment. An aspect of this debate concerns whether value attaches to individual entities or weather value must be seen holistically (Parkers 1996: 32)” (p. 153). Ecocentrism aligns with Indigenous Knowledge and is perhaps one of the only substantial approaches to fully recognize and address Indigenous grievances.

Lavander (2014) maintains that “for nature to have rights the law would have to be changed so that, first, a suit could be brought in the name of an aspect of nature, such as a river; second, a polluter could be held liable for harming a river; and third, judgements could be made that would benefit a river (p. 2).” As we conceptualized this process in class, what initially felt obscure to me began to make more and more sense. If the legal rights of African Americans, women, and gay people were once an alien concept in the United States, why should the exploitation of nature continue to be justified as well? Through the adoption of the philosophical concept of Buen Vivir, Ecuador and Bolivia have become the first countries to systematize the rights of nature in the constitutions, so if they can do it, why can’t the rest of the world?

References:

Burdon, P. (2009). ‘Wild law: The philosophy of Earth Jurisprudence’. Retrieved from http://ssm.com/abstract=1636564

Cullinan, C. (2008, January 2). If Nature Had Rights. Orion Magazine. Retrieved from https://orionmagazine.org:443/article/if-nature- had-rights/; accessed January 20 th , 2015.

Lalander, R. (2014). ‘Rights of nature and the Indigenous peoples in Bolivia and Ecuador: A Straitjacket for progressive Development politics? Iberoamerican Journal of Development Studies, Volume 3(2), 148-173.

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A Quick Glance at the Refugee Crisis

Upon entering a local church in Lismore, I felt as if a had jumped a few decades back in time. We were greeted by the priest and two women who are involved with a community organization called Sanctuary that is dedicated to supporting refugees who “may not have the opportunity to live in a fulfilled manner, respectful of their dignity and aspirations.” The two women had short hair, cardigans over their blouses, pearls lined down their necks, and gold watches around their wrists. The discussion they presented concerning Jean Claude, a refugee who had fled from Democratic Republic of the Congo. Though he was often interrupted by the others, Jean shared the story of his journey and the circumstances he now faces in Australia. The women and the priest were involved in a good cause and had good intentions in helping sponsor people like Jean to come to their town while assisting them in the integration process. However they often made un-PC remarks as they chimed in, such as talking about the fact that all the refugees run on “African time,” meaning they are late to everything. They frequently smiled when referring to upsetting situations Jean and other refugees had gone through, which may have been traumatic. Overall, there was a white savior complex that dominated the room that my classmates and I thoroughly felt.

The outmoded and perhaps underdeveloped fashion of Sanctuary falls into the array of approaches to the refugee crisis and provides a tangible reflection of much of the management techniques. Many of our readings proved that there are countless efforts attempting to help minimize the global issue, but the crisis has already reached a breaking point in immensity as it continues to further intensify. The world is facing the biggest refugee crisis since World War II, escalating from twenty million in 2000 to 67.7 million in 2016. The UNHCR attempts to spearhead and organize international action for the global protection of refugees and create solutions for refugee problems. I had initially believed the top refugee-hosting countries to be Germany, Australia and the United States, but the UNHCR 2016 Global Report states that the top five countries are Turkey, Pakistan, Lebanon, Iran and Uganda due to their close proximity to the top refugee-producing countries.

Australia’s overall reaction to the refugee crisis is quite uninspiring. Shen Narayanasamy states that both conservatives and liberals in power are failing to meet the public’s support for massive immigration intake because it is easier to promote the fear of the other, primarily ‘boat people’ for Australia, rather than proving the benefits of immigration (Narayanasamy, 2016, p. 4). Australia is fueling its own refugee crisis in particularly through the country’s stigma of ‘boat people’, or rather, people who seek asylum upon boat. Instead of accepting the immigrants into their country they send the boats to mandatory detention centers in remote, offshore camps. The public accepts this atrocity because they are told that although this approach may be harsh it is the only option to save lives at sea (Narayanasamy, 2016, p. 8).

If immigrants are able to be granted a spot in Australia they are denied benefits that they deserve such as free education. “Immigration is an enormous social good, but we keep making it hard for people to really be a part of our community. We put them on temporary visas, we block them repeatedly from getting here through safe pathways, we detain them” (p.11). Asylum seekers and refugees are dehumanized in Australia and many other countries. In order to fully debunk the complex matter, it is helpful to understand the cultural, political, economical and environmental frames of reference, since finding solutions seems to be more complex than the issue itself.

References:

Narayanasamy, S. (2016). ‘The Great Immigration Con: In Silence, Bad Things Flourish’ (pp. 1-12). Crikey. Retrieved from https://www.crikey.com.au/2016/10/06/the-great-immigration-con-in-silence-bad-things-flourish/

UNHCR. (2017). ‘Global Trends: Forced Displacement in 2016’ (pp. 1-71). Geneva: Switzerland.

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The Violence of Gardening

As my class concluded our camping trip last weekend, we stopped to eat lunch at a spot near Bluff Rock. There were two memorials that commemorated a confrontation that resulted in deaths of an aboriginal tribe that originally inhabited the area. Although neither said how many people were killed, the more minuscule testament, which appeared to be put forth by an Aboriginal person, called the event a genocide. After eating, I quickly finished Irene Watson’s reading, Sovereign Spaces, Caring for Country, and the Homeless Position of Aboriginal Peoples. As I began to read the last few pages, I began to feel the heavy weight of her words as she stated: “My Tanganekald ancestors who occupied this space were massacred, and their murders were justified under martial law for their failure to fit into the genocidal discourses of colonialism” (Watson, 2009, p. 44).

The dominant recovery narrative of Western civilization and how it has historically played out, as presented by Carolyn Merchant, can be examined through the origin story of Christianity: the Garden of Eden. “God created the land, sea, grass, herbs, and fruit; the stars, sun, and moon; and the birds, whales, cattle, and beasts—after which he made ‘man in his own image…; male and female created he them.’ Adam and Eve were instructed, “Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth, and subdue it” (Merchant, 1946, p. 134). God suppresses the rest of nature as something for human domination by creating a dichotomy, thus fueling the anthropocentric worldview in the West that continues to prevail today. In accordance, the intellectual framework of Europeans sought the recovery of a tamed garden through economic and political hierarchies, anthropocentrism, and the development of technology in order to conquer nature.

The structure of a city under the backdrop of a nation-state is the glorified ramification of the dominant narrative that seeks to recover the garden. Cities provide an idea of civilization being  away from barbarianism and wilderness by encompassing comfort, purity, and perfection. Under the nation state system is human domination through a process of natural resource extraction perpetuated by human labor and the production of commodities. “Nature, wilderness, and civilization are socially constructed concepts that change over time and serve as a stage setting in the progressive narrative. So too are the concepts of male and female and the roles that men and women play on the stage of history. The authors of such powerful narratives as laissez-faire capitalism, mechanistic science, manifest destiny, and the frontier story are usually privileged elites with access to power and patronage” (Merchant, 1946, p. 153). Capitalism, which has gained global supremacy, originates from the story of a movement from desert back to garden as nature transforms from an undeveloped state to one of civility and order (Merchant, 1946, p. 136).

Consequently, the recovery narrative provided a form of legitimation for colonialism in the New World: "The land is absent of the heroes—the migrants themselves. They are transferred across inhospitable desert lands; engage in combat with hostile Indians, diseases, and starvation; receive gifts from God in the form of gold and free land; emerge victorious over nature and Indian; and liquidate the initial absence of the hero filling and replenishing the land” (Merchant, 1946, p. 143). This phenomenon pertains to the Aboriginal people of Australia, as their land was also stolen from them by British imperialists. Irene Watson (2009) puts forth that “the West has long since lost a deep spiritual and cultural relationship to the earth” (p. 37). Contrastingly, “Aboriginal law does not allow us to sell the land; we cannot sell our relative, our self, our being, or our identity [signifying] the importance of land as a relationship over that of progress (and profit)” (p. 40). The Western recovery narrative fabricated a faulty illusion that legitimatized the suppression of Indigenous peoples and their ideology. The genocide of Bluff Rock is a mere example of one of the innumerable consequences of this phenomenon that continues to weigh on the world today.

References:

Merchant, C. (1996). ‘Reinventing Eden: Western Culture as a Recovery Narrative’ in W. Cronon (Ed.), Uncommon Ground: Rethinking the Human Place in Nature (pp.132-159). New York: W.W. Norton & Company.

Watson, I. (2009). ‘Sovereign Spaces, Caring for Country, and the Homeless Position of Aboriginal Peoples’. South Atlantic Quarterly 108(1), 27-51.

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Debunking Mother Nature

As a woman I have never faced the impact of sexism quite as overtly as I have through my travels with Global College. Given my experience I have longed for a course that analyzes any aspect of the female experience, although my school has failed to provide such. Fortunately, the subject this week in our Encountering Nature class encompasses this, as it introduces eco-feminist ideology. On the walk to Protestors Falls before our class' field discussion, our professor declared that only the women can proceed to the waterfall due to the area being a designated women's sight allocated by the Aboriginals of the Bungalung Country. Although women primarily constitute the demographics of my class, the absence of the few males in a recognized and open space felt significant. While sitting beneath the massive waterfall, I was able to internally embrace the fluidity of the female energy that carried throughout the landscape which felt very serene.

Following this gratifying experience we congregated with the males of the group to discuss Eco-feminism, a mindset that merges conceptual and cultural connections between women and nature. “Eco-feminist thinking grew from criticism of sexism in the green movement and lack of ecological consciousness in the women’s movement into a critique opposing all forms of oppression” (Plumwood, 2004, p. 43). This brings to light the ecological failure of Western culture, one that is built upon the subjection of nature while denying our dependency on it, in turn generating a poor response to the current ecological crisis. Such a phenomenon is a result of key ideologies produced by Ancient Greek society, which centered itself around androcentrism (concentrated on men), anthropocentrism (concentrated on humans), and slavery, while regarding white males as representations of spirit, mind, and reason (Plumwood, 2004, p. 45). Women and slaves were viewed through material and bodily labor leading separate, devalued lives. Similarly, Ancient Greek philosophy deemed the natural, material world as both inferior and corrupting to humans and correspondingly can be left behind through death as one surpasses into a purer realm of immateriality beyond earth. As a result, “human/nature dualism is a key, linking part of the network of culture/nature, spirit/matter, mind/body and reason/nature dualisms that have shaped Western culture, and is an active force in contemporary life” (Plumwood, 2004, p. 44)

Historically patriarchal societies promotes the human versus nature dichotomy which then generates man's impulse to dominate the Other, whether that is women, people of color, or nature. All this is perpetuated through capitalism which "is seen as a distorted form of reason that maximizes the throughput of nature (in production) to generate wealth and profit without allowing for its renewal (or reproduction)” (Plumwood, 2004, p. 47). Critical eco-feminism challenges the inferiority of nature and denies its exclusive link to women (Plumwood, 2004, p. 50). Salleh (1984) argues that "women’s monthly fertility cycle, the tiring symbiosis of pregnancy, the wrench of childbirth and the pleasure of suckling an infant, these things already ground women’s consciousness in the knowledge of being coterminous with Nature” (p. 340). Although this may be subconscious to some, the patriarchal attitudes toward motherhood furthers the subsidiary treatment that women have generally experienced historically and today. If, alternatively, the female experience was deemed as legitimate and meaningful in Western culture, than we would all experience a different, and perhaps heightened, consciousness toward living.

Eco-feminism provides an understanding that goes beyond liberal feminism, where women joining men in androcentric culture is regarded as constructive for gender equity. Rather, eco-feminism argues that neither women nor men (or the planet) will benefit from a system that denies the ecological base of human life (Plumwood, 2004, p. 48). Salleh (1984) adds to this: “As Naess rightly, through still somewhat anthropocentrically, points out, the denial of dependence on Mother/Nature and the compensatory drive to mastery which stems from it, have only served to alienate man from his true self” (p. 340). The point of the eco-feminist discourse is to not substitute the dominant role of men with that of women. It merely seeks to promote the idea that exclusivity between masculinity and femininity does not need to be so distinct. Instead, if people collectively embrace more femininity, than society can contest gender inequality and ecological degradation in order to repel the critical threats they collectively pose on the world.

Plumwood, V. (2004). 'Gender, Eco-Feminism and the Environment'. In R. White (Ed.), Controversies in Environmental Sociology (pp. 43-60). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Salleh, A. K., (1984). 'Deeper than Deep Ecology: The Eco-Feminist Connection'. Environmental Ethics,  6(4), 335-341.

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Global Studies: A Continuation

As my readings this week once again focus around the examination global studies, my professor asked the class to come up with our own definitions. My group came up with the following: Global Studies is a relatively new academic field that has emerged as a response to the rise of modernity and development. The study analyzes human relations with each other and the world. This interdisciplinary subject examines culture, history, social systems, and the environment through questions of epistemology and power structures. Through this, the deconstruction of colonialism and imperialism are a necessity, as such phenomenons have greatly contributed to the differentiation between the “Global North” and the “Global South” dichotomy. It encompasses the process of globalization as a key asset, which has heightened with the increase of technology, international institutions, and the influence of globally dominant nations. Although there is no concrete definition of Global Studies due to its vastness, the field ultimately uses diverse perspectives to address local, transnational, and transregional issues that are challenging the world today. Nederveen Pieterse (2013) echoes that “this involves analytical functions and critique--discussing which types of data are relevant and which categories, concepts, and classifications matter; criticizing structures and the role and functioning of institutions; questioning epistemological premises and cultural assumptions, and so forth” (p. 2). She then describes the three levels of global knowledge: global data and information (i.e. international institutions, governments, corporations, social movements, media, and foundations), globalization studies categorized by social science and humanities disciplines, and global studies, which integrates these two bodies of knowledge (Nederveen Pieterse, 2013, p. 2).

Juergensmeyer (2014) suggests that “[global studies] takes a problem-focused approach, looking at situations such as global warming or the rise of new religio-political ideologies as specific cases” (xv). I find this central to the academic field as I look at the concepts and critiques that my current and past class discussions tend to revolve around. During the Global Studies session we had today, the dominating conversation tended to surround access to knowledge and education. What kind of history are we (as Americans) learning, and through that, what kind of stories are being told? We used the example of Native Americans (which parallels the stories of Aboriginal peoples of Australia), and how their narratives are generally condensed into a romanticized interaction with British colonialists while their genocide is completely disregarded. We also brought up the fact that academia, which derives from western epistemology, is exclusive and historically for elites and evidently translates into today. We brainstormed about a more ideal approach to education through multi-centrism, which collaborates diverse perspectives and audiences in order to debunk the idea of having one single historical truth. Although key ideas tended to bounce around the room breaking the normal flow, I chose to examine our class conversation this week to display how, through global studies, the more we learn about other cultures and epistemologies the more that we learn about ourselves. This teaches us to not accept things the way that they are presented to us and instead delve beyond the norm in order to properly examine the historically colonialist and extractive based society that my classmates and I are inherently products of.

Jeurgensmeyer, M. (2014). Preface. In Thinking Globally: A Global Studies Reader (pp. xiii-xvii). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Nederveen Pieterse, J. (2013). What is global studies? Globalizations, 1-16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14747731.2013.806746

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Fiji Development Journal

Development is a term coined by 'developed' nations in order to measure desirable change in society; today the dominant focus pertains to growth of gross national income, quality of life, sustainable development, and the millennium development goals (Dang & Sui Pheng). According to Bucknall (2013), economic growth is the change in national income over time per year, while national income is the amount produced by a country per year (p. 1). An effective aspect of economic development is that it is a broader measurement of 'growth' that does not simply rely on the economy. In addition, the Human Development Index is a tool that is increasingly becoming a standard, which evaluates countries based on "the standard of living, GDP, living conditions, technological advancement, improvement of self-esteem needs, the creation of opportunities, per capita income, infrastructural and industrial development and much more" (Surbhi, 2015, p. 2-3).

However the abundance of problems with development begin with the ambiguity of the term itself, which pertains to a set of beliefs and assumptions about the nature of social progress: “'Development' was no longer considered a social construct or the result of political will, but rather the consequence of a 'natural' world order that was deemed just and desirable. This trick – which is at the root of what Bourdieu calls 'symbolic violence' – has been highly instrumental in preventing any possible critique of 'development', since it was equated almost with life itself" (Rist, 2010, p. 486). Along with this particular term, over the past few weeks I have been deconstructing English words such as 'modernity,' 'nature', and 'coloniality.' As a result, it has been brought to my attention that, as Rist (2010) explains, dominant views of development bring colonizers and the colonized into seemingly equal members of the same family (p. 20).

With that, there is general disagreement over the strategies used to measure growth rates within countries, especially under the globally dominant economic system of capitalism, which prioritizes monetary profits over everything else: “According to Marxist theory, the development of human society is driven by material productive forces. These productive forces and the productive relations form what Marx calls the economic base, which is the material foundation of all societies. It is the contradiction between the productive forces and the productive relations that brings about class struggle, and transforms a society’s superstructure, including its political system, its legal institutions and its ideologies" (Yanbing and Ying, 2012, p. 26).

After spending the first two of my three weeks in the capital city of Suva, Fiji, I was immersed in heavy discussions about climate change and the vulnerability of the Pacific Island nations. Fiji is spearheading COP23 in November, where the "Implementation Guidelines" from the Paris Agreement will be finalized. Fiji, along with other member nations of SIDS (Small Island Developing States), is at the forefront in the demand for 1.5 degrees Celsius temperature cap to replace the two degrees Celsius decision of COP 15. Through a variety of guest lectures at our local community center and the University of the South Pacific, I became increasingly aware of Fiji's efforts to combat climate change. As I examined development and the notion of sustainable development simultaneously to this experience, the contradictions in their connotations became exceedingly apparent: "The essence of 'development' is the general transformation and destruction of the natural environment and of social relations in order to increase the production of commodities (goods and services) geared, by means of market exchange, to effective demand" (Rist, 2010, 488). Consequently, the prioritization of development exceeds that of climate change.

My final week in Fiji took place in the country's third largest island of Taveuni. I stayed in a Native Fijian village called Waitabu, studying village dynamics and being introduced to the land. A key ideology of Native Fijian livelihood is Vanua, a concept that evokes a meaningful conjunction between people and the land as non-separate entities. Although the time I spent in Waitabu did not circulate around my Introduction to International Development class, it opened my eyes to a new interpretation of 'development' in which I hope to explore throughout the semester.

The classical Western development theory that has led to the global supremacy of capitalism is one that propagates modern Eurocentric tradition based on the extraction of earth's resources. In order to effectively address modern development and capitalism, I conclude that alternative modes of development that are increasingly coherent with indigenous epistemologies is necessary in order to move toward a more community based and environmentally friendly world. Waitabu is merely one example of the peacefulness and sustainable manner of indigenous peoples livelihood.

References:

Bucknall, K. (2013) The Differences Between 'Economic Growth' and 'Economic Development'. http://www.keweipress.com (accessed 1-10-2017)

Dang, G. and Sui Pheng, I. (2015) 'Theories of Economic Development', in Infrastructure Investments in Developing Economies. Springer Science+Business Media, Singapore, 11>26

Rist, G. (2010) 'Development as a buzzword,' in Andrea Cornwall and Deborah Eade (Editors) Deconstructing Development Discourse: Buzzwords and Fuzzwords. Practical Action Publishing, Warwickshire UK, pages 19 > 27

Yanbing, Z. and Ying, H. (2012) Foreign Aid: The ideological Differences between China and the West, in Journal of China and International Relations (CIR) Volume 22, No. 2, pages 20 > 36

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The Cold War & Globalization

The more I learn about globalization the more my bewilderment deepens, as each explanation and interpretation of the phenomenon brings new and diverse conceptions to consider. This week, the readings of Inter-Asia Cultural Studies and Asia as Method: Towards Deimperialzation illuminate the drastic impacts the Cold War had on globalization by analyzing its effects on the region of Asia. After the Allies' victory in World War II, the rise of the United States and the Soviet Union as the two world superpowers reached a tipping point due to their shared desire for global ideological and strategical domination.

As the Cold War gained momentum, each nation's adverse economic and political structures brought an era of polarization for other countries around the world. Despite their size, countries had to choose to side with Soviet Union communism or American capitalism. Thus, “the othering of the imaginary communist is the precise historical reason why the suppression of grass-roots democratic movements by authoritarian military regimes and right-wing governments are strongly supported by U.S. neoimperialists” (Chen, 2010, p. 8). This brought desperate effects on many nations, especially those recovering from the fundamental effects of colonialism. The example of Taiwan embodies this: as a nation recovering from its imperialist history with Japan, it had to postpone its reformative efforts of decolonialzation led by independent institutions and instead become subservient to the U.S. during the Cold War. Thus a focus on economic development heightened under the umbrella of the American capitalism after the U.S. victory, as the nation became the compulsory model of political structure for countries like Taiwan (Chen, 2010, p. 10).

Another result of the underdevelopment of deimperialization that the Cold War brought is the effect it took on knowledge production and self identity across Asia. The editorial statement in Inter-Asia Cultural Studies (2014) articulates a more generalized interpretation of this condition: “Long-term complex-antagonisms generated by uneven histories of global capitalism, colonialism and imperialism, the imposed nation-state structure and regressive forms of nationalist identity politics have rendered meaningful dialogues within the region very difficult” (p. 1). With that, the "rise of Asia" was further complicated by the uneven distribution of wealth and resources coupled with the region's lack of linguistic unity. This also contributes to the idea of Asia as an imaginary space, which is increasingly expressed in the light of decolonial thought. Chen (2010) states that knowledge production is one of the major approaches in which imperialism operates and exercises its power, creating serious structural limits for the subject countries.

Chen (2010) introduces “Asia as method,” which is the critical proposition to transform the existing knowledge structure using Asia as an anchoring point. He then suggests that the Asian societies that find alignment in methodologies of dealing with societal problems should develop new paths of engagement to overcome unproductive anxieties and transform self understanding. Through deimperlized and decolonial approaches, the rise of inter-Asian cultural based studies along with the regression of orientalism have advanced. This has inspiring self-reflexive movements within Asia to examine issues emerging out of the general understanding of world history perpetuated by Euro-American imperialism and capitalist expansion. However, it is important to note that if both the colonized and colonizer do not address the history of imperialism and colonialism together, it is impossible to build solidarity among global assemblies.

References:

(2014) Editorial Statement. Inter-Asia cultural studies, 15(2), 171.

Chen, K.-H. (2010). Introduction: globalization and deimperialization. In Asia as Method: Towards Deimperialization (pp. 1-16). Durham: Duke University Press.

Chen, K.-H. (2010). Asia as Method: overcoming the present conditions of knowledge production. In Asia as Method: Towards Deimperialzation (pp. 211-256). Durham: Duke University Press.

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Environmental Racism: A Consequence of Anthropocentrism

My interest in ecology and economy heightened during my senior year of high school, as I was introduced to the separate subjects of environmental science and economics. Every time I attended each class I felt like I was part of a completely different world and it felt deeply contradictory and confusing to me. What particularly stood out in economics is that it centers around the management of home, although purely through a monetary and extractive platform. Not only does this approach disregard the livelihood of the earth, it ignores the livelihood of human beings as well.

This is a main factor in fueling what Welsh (1999) calls environmental racism, which the world increasingly faces each day. At the heart of this phenomenon is Anthropocentism, or the ideology that human beings are the most significant entities in the world (Boslaugh, 2016, p. 1). This derives from the book of Genesis in the Judeo-Christian Bible which ascribes Adam as superior to all other entities and beings on earth, ultimately resulting in the mindset that prescribes the natural world as a resource to benefit humankind. Alternative viewpoints have emerged regarding the Holocene Epoch, which is the current geologic period that began at the end of the Paleolithic Ice Age over 11,700 years ago and is said to continue today. Stromberg (2017) introduces the Anthrocopocene Epoch approach which centers humans at forefront of our time due to the fact that we are the first species to have a planet-scale influence (p. 1). Through the immense carbon footprint we emit, humans have changed the face of the earth, and as a result there is nowhere on the planet that is unaffected by us.

The 1990s has been deemed the decade of focusing on environmental and ecological issues within social, political, and economic agendas. However this has not evidentially translated into our globalized institutional practices which remain Caucasian-male dominated. The continuation of humans depletion of earth's resources coupled with two thirds of the Global South’s direct ecological reliance has produced a heightening crisis of climate refugees across such regions. Welsh (1999) articulates this phenomenon as resources move from the poor to the rich while pollution moves from the rich to the poor resulting in an environmental apartheid. This past month, the extreme degradation that Hurricanes Irma, José, Maria and Nate caused nations is a profound example of environmental racism. They demonstrate how environmental hazards like these are endured by the poorest countries and peoples, in this case pertaining to Latin America and the Caribbean as well as the underprivileged communities located in the most vulnerable areas within the Southern and Eastern regions of the United States.

In regards to all of this, it is apparent that the conjunction of environmental and social justice is in need to meet human rights demands. This is a valuable approach since humans are the only voice of nature that can bring about more equitable and sustainable change for all the threatened communities that makeup our world. With that, Welsh (1999) notes that "alliance-building within the environmental movements seems yet to provide another forum within which 'black and white unite and fight' strategies can be attempted" (p. 66). Thus it is vital for both the indulged and endangered communities to come together in order to successfully build the environmental revolution that is crucial to saving the state of our earth for generations to come.

Resources:

Boslaugh, S. (2016). 'Anthropocentrism'. Retrieved from www.britannica.com/topic/anthropocentrism

Stromberg, J. (2017). 'The Anthropocene'. Retrieved from www.smithsonian.com/science-nature/what-is-the-anthropocene-and-are-we-in-it-164801414

Shiva, V. (2000). The World on Edge. In W. Hutton & A. Giddens (Eds.), On the Edge: Living with Global Capitalism (pp. 112-129) London: Jonathan Cape.

Welsh, I. (1999). Risk, "Race" and Global Environmental Regulation. In A. Brah, M.J. Hickman & M. Mac an Ghaill (Eds.), Global Futures: Migration, Environment and Globalization (pp. 47-69). Houndsmill, UK: Macmillan.

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What the F*ck is Global Studies?

“Easy life you’ve got there,” “you’re so lucky,” and “why didn’t I know about that program at your age?” are the general responses each time I attempt to explain the innovative and complex educational approach that I take part in formally known as Global College. My brief description tends to entail the following: “I attend a small university program where I generally live and study in different countries every semester while majoring in global studies.” If any interest is shown beyond the traveling aspects of my college I proceed to say: “Global Studies centralizes on the effects of globalization in the world. It focus on different aspects of culture, language, politics, economics, and the environment depending on where I am based in the world.” A big assumption of my experience is that I gallivant around the world as if I’m on some sort of permanent vacation. I can’t pretend that this doesn’t have any sense of validity to it, but global studies is truly at the heart of my motivation and adoration for traveling. The reason I even stumbled upon Global College is due to my interest in the major my school concentrates on. Although, what really is global studies when you think about it in a more elaborate way? Even after two years into my major, I occasionally find myself doubting the subject’s validity and relevance as I jump from country to country.

As Steiger (2013) argues, there is “the simplistic impression that globalization [is] an inevitable techno-economic juggernaut spreading the logic of capitalism and Western values by eradicating local traditions and national cultures” (p. 1). Although this notion correlates, the danger in this disillusion is that it takes away from the true meaning of the discipline, which, broken down, “refers to the expansion and intensification of social relations and consciousness across world-time and world-space” (Steiger, 2013, p. 15). Globalization is a highly contested concept due to disagreement over what particular social processes constitute its meaning. These aspects include politics, culture, environment, economics, religion, and ideology. Through that, the field of global studies has emerged in recent years, as an attempt to conceptualize the relevance and interconnectedness of each and to promote global imagery, or “people’s growing consciousness of global connectivity” (Steiger, 2013, p. 10).

All in all, the origin of globalization is heavily debated as well, from the breakup of Pangea to the establishment of maritime trade routes, to the end of the Cold War. (Juergensmeyer, 2014, ). Though in my opinion, the overarching relevance of global studies pertains to the effects that global capitalism and the increase of international connectivity has produced: "What are shaping up to be the two most daunting tasks facing us in the 21st century: the reduction of global disparities in wealth and wellbeing and the preservation of our wonderful planet” (Steiger, 2013, xiii). As global manifestations and tendencies that fall short of counteracting this, I find it my role as a global studies student to broaden my perspective and dedicate my life to creating just solutions to effectively combat the falsities of globalization and modernity.

References:

Steiger, M.B. (2013). Globalization: A Contested Concept. In Globalization: A Very Short Introduction. 3rd ed. (Pp. 1-16). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Juergensmeyer, M. (2014). Globalization over Time. In Thinking Globally: A Global Studies Reader (pp. 30-49). Berkeley: University of California Press.

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Who’s Really Wild?

Today the globe is facing a climate crisis that poses an existential threat to humanity due to the immense environmental degradation that the industrial revolution spearheaded in the eighteenth century. The separation of nature and culture is at the heart of such environmental issues, and is a result of coloniality. Disassociating the two have led to the creation of wilderness areas such as the Outback in Australia and national parks such as Yosemite National Park. These constructs create boundaries between humanity and the outside environment, generating a privileged idea of the concept of wilderness.

Gill (1999) states that "wilderness quality is defined as the 'extent to which a location is remote from and undisturbed by the influence of modern technological society'" (p. 56). The term roots back to classical & biblical traditions that articulate wilderness as uninhabited, wild, and unknown in contrast to nature groomed by humans. Gill (1999) notes that such colonial legacies of wilderness generate social and spatial hierarchies between the "civilized" world (i.e. colonialist societies) and indigenous peoples. Wilderness created an us versus them mentality where the Aboriginal peoples of Australia were not viewed as humans and as apart of the 'wild.'

As a result, Aboriginal have been dispossessed and marginalized since their colonization and the creation of Ausrtalia in 1778. However Gammage (2012) sheds light on the invaders reactions to the land, describing it as parks instead of wilderness. He explains that this is noteworthy because at the time, parks were never before associated with nature by Europeans. What has come to be known as a park today is different from what was thought of then: "parks of the gentry, tastefully arranged private estates financed by people comfortably untroubled by a need to subsist" (Gammage, 2012, p. 15). In addition, today, people see wilderness not parks in Australia (i.e. the Outback)

Aboriginal peoples altered the land though people concluded that it was 'nature' that did: "They did not see, but their own records show how carefully made, how unnatural, was Aboriginal Australia" (Gammage, 2012, p. 4). All of Australia is a cultural landscape due to the thousands of years Aboriginal peoples have interacted and shaped its ecosystems. In no way was Australia a wild country, and, as Rose (2014) describes, "Captain Cook, the emblematic figure of invasion, [was] running amok in a country that is not his, and thinking that the original inhabitants are wild while failing to recognize his on wildness" (p. 3)

Through countermodernity, "we should abandon the 'dualism that sees the tree in the garden as artificial... and the tree in the wilderness as 'natural' as a way to shedding arrogance and engaging with other places, spaces, natures, and peoples" (Gill, 1999, p. 68). Alternitively we can adopt an approach that's more cohesive with that of Aboriginal peoples, and perhaps create a more just relationship with the earth in order to effectively combat global warming.

References:

Gammage, Bill (2012), "The Biggest Estate on Earth." Alex & Unwin. ProQuest Ebook Central, pp. 1-20.

Gill, Nicholas (1999), "The Ambiguities of Wilderness." Melbourne; Oxford University Press, pp. 48-68.

Rose, Deborah Bird (2014), "Introduction: Into the Wild" in Reports from a Wild Country; Ethics for Decolonialization. Sydney; UNSW Press, pp. 1-8.