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Introduction

The basketball dribble is a manipulative skill used to advance the ball by oneself while moving in a given direction, avoiding defenders’ attempts to intercept the ball during a competitive setting. It consists of bouncing the ball on the floor continuously with one hand while walking or running down the court. This skill drastically changes throughout one’s developmental process; as children develop into adults and adults into older adults, a significant amount of variation exists that can be observed between the age cohorts. The main observed components of this task include: mobility-stability tradeoff, base of support, stride length, dribble consistency and control, hand grip, hand-eye coordination, and head positioning. Apart from the age-related decline present in older adulthood, as each participant grows, their sport specific skills are developed more proficiently through increased strength, coordination and observational learning. In regards to the expected developmental pattern, we anticipated finding an inverted “U” shaped relationship between skill efficiency and age, with the adolescent group presenting optimal efficiency, and the youngest and oldest age groups illustrating inferior skill efficiency. It is apparent that individual constraints such as body size, muscle mass, strength, coordination and neuromuscular functioning account for both the progression and following regression of the basketball dribble. According to Newell’s model of constraints, motor movements are discouraged, encouraged or shaped by individual, environmental and task constraints (Chapter 1, Haywood, K.M., 1993). Environmental constraints, such as the paved ground, were kept consistent, and task constraints, such as ball size, were kept relative to the individual to eliminate such confounding factors. As well, all included participants were male and all video frames were slowed to the same extent to achieve an accurate and comparable analysis. Through research, typical dribbling characteristics for each age group have been identified and used as markers in the developmental process. As observed, some typical age-related dribbling characteristics are present while others are not, suggesting that individual variations, alongside universal principles, hold great importance in the development of the basketball dribble. This Tumblr page presents a cross-sectional analysis of four individuals in separate stages of development: early childhood (2-6 years old), later childhood (7-12 year old), adolescents (13-18 years old), and older adulthood (60+ years old). A thorough analysis of individual constraints involved in a walking dribble is shared in the videos and following descriptions.

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Age 2

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Early Childhood (2-6)

We can infer, based on his age, that his performance is a direct result of an interaction between task and individual constraints that limit certain, but permit other, movements (Chapter 1, Haywood, K.M., 1993). Since a smaller hand size relative to the ball will limit maximum control, ball size was changed to account for this task constraint (Arias et al., 2012). This allowed him to better attempt to body scale and grasp the ball with his small hands. Individual constraints, such as muscular strength, neural development, hand-eye coordination and the attention required to proficiently execute the dribble, inhibited his ability to focus and maintain control of the ball (Chapter 1, Haywood, K.M., 1993). Transitioning to a focus on biomechanical aspects, it is important to note that constant elbow extension and a lack of wrist flexion and extension prohibited him from exerting sufficient force that is required to elicit an equal and opposite force to bring the ball back up to his hand; showing that he is unable to apply Newton’s third law. At the young age of 2, this structural constraint, in combination with a lack of focus, greatly hindered his ability to properly execute a dribble.

Depicted above is a 2-year old boy attempting to dribble a basketball. When analyzing the dribble it becomes evident that this age group prioritizes the stability component of movement rather than mobility. He does this by widening his base of support and remaining low to the ground. While walking, he is able to stay supported in an upright position and accomplish 50/50 phasing between the left and right leg (Chapter 7, Haywood, K.M., 1993); however he is unable to multitask and eliminates walking to focus more on the dribbling task itself.

He relies on visual demonstration and provided assistance in order to bounce the ball since he has not yet developed the cognitive and motor abilities to initiate the dribble movement on his own. He relies on his vision of the ball, forward flexion, and activation of his whole body through block rotation throughout the task when attempting to make hand-ball interaction. In contrast, the two middle age groups are able to keep upright, use their dominant arm in isolation, and transfer their focus away from the ball to their surroundings by using their peripheral vision (Krause et al., 2008). Reaching out in front with a rigid hand, the 2 year old uses a slapping gesture and an exaggerated range of motion of the arm to dribble the ball, exhibiting expected characteristics of early dribbling (Betul, 2015). He has not yet developed proficient characteristics, such as using his fingertips to control the ball, or wrist flexion and extension to dribble the ball forward.

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Age 10

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Later Childhood (7-12)

It is also important to note that this participant is an experienced basketball player. His previous experience contributes to his development in motor learning which contributes to permanent improvements associated with techniques related to the sport, such as his ability to grasp the ball, use peripheral vision, and multitask (Chapter 1, Haywood, K.M., 1993). The individual constraint of hand size prohibited the youngest participant from maintaining ball control, but here, allows this age group to elicit proper control (Chapter 1, Haywood, K.M., 1993). Structurally, muscle mass has not peaked at this age, therefore it affects children’s ability to apply optimal force and gain maximum control while dribbling, however, it does not seem to be a constraint for our 10-year old participant who can successfully perform the task.

The above video shows a 10-year old boy dribbling a basketball while walking. He is showing the typical bipedal locomotion of a 7-12 year old. Without displaying any necessary trunk flexion required for the task, he is in an upright position demonstrating 50/50 phasing between his right and left legs. His gait cycle has developed for more efficient walking, trading stability for mobility, by showing an increased stride length relative to his height (Chapter 3, Haywood, K.M., 1993). He does not present out-toeing, uses a narrow base of support, demonstrates a double knee lock at full extension and keeps his left arm down while swinging it in opposition to his leg (Chapter 7, Haywood, K.M., 1993). He shows that he is able to multitask by displaying proficient walking skills as he simultaneously performs the basketball dribble without any cognitive interference.

Displaying an additional characteristic and sign of progression in dribbling, the 10-year old keeps his head and eyes up and away from the ball, relying on his peripheral vision subsequent to gaining perception of his environment (Oliver J. A., 2004). By keeping a constant angle of gaze, he can easily control the ball and keep his body in the correct position for each dribble (Chapter 9, Haywood, K.M., 1993). With his dominant arm, he dribbles the ball close to his side to eliminate the need to reach out in front, maximizing mobility (Krause et al., 2008). He uses body scaling while grasping to accurately shape his hand according to the size of the ball (Chapter 9, Haywood, K.M., 1993). This allows him to push the ball forward with each dribble, controlling its placement and matching the forward progression of his body movement. His right palm changes position from facing downward as the ball is released, to facing medially upon interception. As the ball bounces back into his hand, his hand “gives” and gradually absorbs the force of the ball with the pads of his fingers (Oliver J.A., 2004). Slight arm flexion is present throughout the performance to slow the impact of the ball and to apply a greater downward force. His consistency to successfully intercept each dribble shows his development of hand-eye coordination.

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Age 18

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Adolescence (13-18)

Presented in the above video is an 18-year old male dribbling a basketball. As we transition from a younger to an older male, traits of proficient dribbling become more evident. In the absence of any defenders, he eliminates any unnecessary trunk flexion for this task, maintains an upright position presenting 50/50 phasing between the left and right leg, and has a narrow base of support allowing him to trade stability for mobility (Chapter 3, Haywood, K.M., 1993). Similar to the later childhood age cohort, these characteristics allow for larger stride lengths which can transfer to efficiently moving down a basketball court.

Progressing to the hand-to-ball relationship, the athlete shows proficient ball handling skills as he dribbles the ball and absorbs the force using the pads of his fingers, as opposed to his entire palm (Oliver, J.A., 2004). Similar to the 10-year old boy, he uses elbow flexion to slow the impact of the ball into his hand and is able to comfortably maintain a slight arm bend throughout. Using wrist flexion and extension, he is able to exert enough force on the ball, that an equal and opposite force from the ground is able to return the ball back to the same height, proficiently applying Newton's third law (Chapter 3, Haywood, K.M., 1993). At the beginning of each dribble, the athlete briefly puts his head down to look at the ball, a similar characteristic found in early childhood. However, after successfully gaining perception of his environment, he is then able to perform purposeful movement and maintain control of the ball by maintaining a constant angle of gaze, using his peripheral vision (Chapter 9, Haywood, K.M., 1993).

Individual constraints are both structural, regarding hand size, and functional, regarding attention, while the task constraint is ball size (Chapter 1, Haywood, K.M., 1993). Through interaction of these constraints, his large hand size enables him to accurately body scale and control the ball (Chapter 9, Haywood, K.M., 1993). Functionally, his attentional abilities enable him to engage in two tasks at once, such as dribbling and walking, while maintaining proper hand-eye coordination. Transferring this component to a basketball court is a valuable skill used to maintain both vision of the net and surrounding opponents. Compared to the other age groups, he is better able to maintain longer contact with the ball and can dribble to the side, using slight adduction-abduction of the shoulder joint to maximize forward motion. An external-internal rotation also allows for a controlled forward push of the ball to match the forward progression of his body (Hirata et al., 2011).

Lastly, it is important to note that the participant’s previous experience with basketball contributes to his development in motor learning (Chapter 1, Haywood, K.M., 1993). It is evident that with all proficient factors applied, this athlete is able to portray advanced ball handling skills such as using the crossover dribble, a skill that can be applied to the court to quickly change direction.

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Age 87

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Older Adulthood (60+)

In a similar study conducted to investigate motor performance across the lifespan, Leversen et al. (2012) found that the oldest age group (66-80 years old) performed skills at a similar level to the youngest age group, suggesting that the gradual decrease of performance, occurring in both the cognitive and motor domain, could be a general pattern of life-span development.

The above video depicts an 87-year old man that represents the expected loss of function that is associated with aging. It is evident that this age group begins to revert back to the earlier stages of walking, since there is greater importance placed on stability, shown by a decreased stride length and walking velocity (Chapter 7, Haywood, K.M., 1993). To maximize stability, the individual widens his base of support and exaggerates out-toeing. To further increase stability, the older adult keeps his non-dribbling hand in a stationary and cautious position, whereas the skilled dribblers swing their arms in opposition to their legs. Analyzing his movement through the gait cycle, the participant spends less time in the swing phase, and exaggerates the time spent in the stance phase. This is done to increase the period of double support, so that he can remain more stable and reduce the risk of falling (Chapter 7, Haywood, K.M., 1993).

Although the older adult is able to dribble successfully, there are a variety of anticipated motor changes when compared to the previous age group. This is largely due to the increase in individual constraints that is associated with aging. Haywood, K.M (Chapter 5, 1993) states that by 80-years old, 30% of muscle mass is lost, on average. This individual constraint could limit his ability to apply greater force on the ball. Flexibility and strength often greatly decrease as one ages, affecting postural stance and confidence in movement. It is possible that the elderly man is suffering from kyphosis due to his extreme trunk flexion (Chapter 5, Haywood, K.M., 1993). The resulting reduced height and increased curvature of the spine affects his posture, a structural constraint, which is an important factor regarding stability. As well, in comparison to proficient dribbling, there are significant losses in functional capabilities. Proficient dribbling requires the ability to dribble without having to keep your vision constantly fixed on the ball ("Critical Elements - Dribbling," 2017). This older adult keeps his vision directly on the ball to maximize his control, a result of losses in cognitive function. During hand-ball interaction, rather than using the pads of his fingers, he loses control as he uses his entire hand to slap the ball, which is a trait similar to the first age group. In contrast to the proficient dribblers, the older adult maintains constant elbow extension while reaching and dribbling out in front of him. By lacking a controlled forward push of the ball that matches the forward progression of his body, these combined factors result in an inconsistent control of the ball during this task.

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Concluding Thoughts

As the human body progresses throughout normal development, the interaction of individual, environmental, and task constraints either hinder, encourage, or shape motor movement. This Tumblr page has thoroughly analyzed the developmental stages of a walking basketball dribble in four separate age groups; early childhood, later childhood, adolescence, and older adulthood. Following the criteria outlined for a proficient dribble, it was apparent that body size, muscle mass, strength, coordination and neuromuscular functioning accounted for the majority of individual variation that influenced each participant’s performance. The youngest age group displayed the most apparent deficits, such as lack of hand-eye coordination, mobility, attention, and control, which, in combination with task constraints, greatly affected their affordance for the ball. It was also evident that the early childhood and older adult age groups presented similar motor behaviour. Both groups maintained short stride lengths and a widened base of support, prioritizing stability over mobility. On the contrary, in both the later childhood and adolescent age groups, it was anticipated and confirmed that there would be a stability-mobility tradeoff by means of an increased stride length and narrowed base of support, maximizing mobility. They also showed signs of proficient basketball dribbling by using peripheral vision, exerting sufficient force on the ball, and absorbing resulting reaction forces with their finger pads. After comparing and contrasting each age group, an inverted “U” shaped relationship between motor performance and age was anticipated, supporting the statement that systems may develop slower in the young and degrade faster in elderly populations; all of which are evident in the presented videos. Overall, our findings were synonymous with our initial expectations that performance of a basketball dribble improves up to adolescence then declines as a result of underlying physiological processes. It is evident that the technique associated with proficient dribbling is age-related and primarily dependent on the development and deterioration of the muscular and nervous systems.

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References

Arias, J. L., Argudo, F. M., & Alonso, J. I. (2012). Effect of Ball Mass on Dribble, Pass, and Pass Reception in 9–11-Year-Old Boys' Basketball. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 83(3), 407-412. doi:10.5641/027013612802573058

Betul, B. (2015). The Effects of Basketball Basic Skills Training nn Gross Motor Skills Development of Female Children. Educational Research and Reviews,10(5),648-653. doi:10.5897/err2014.2020

Critical Elements - Dribbling. (2017). Astro.ocis.temple.edu. Retrieved 20 March 2017, from http://astro.ocis.temple.edu/~phete/phete/pht249/dribble.html

Haywood, K.M. (1993). Life Span Motor Development (2nd Ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Located from Online Kindle:

Chapter 1, Location 484, “Defining Motor Development”

Chapter 1, Location 514-585, “Newell’s Model of Constraints”

Chapter 3, Location 1181, “Moving Against Gravity: The Application of Force”

Chapter 3, Location 2815, “Understanding the Principles of Motion and Stability”

Chapter 5, Location 1942,“The Skeletal System in Adulthood and Older Adulthood

Chapter 5, Location 2030, “The Muscular System in Adulthood and Older Adulthood”

Chapter 7, Location 2815, “Developmental Changes in Walking During Older Adulthood”

Chapter 7, Location 2889, “Proficient Walking Patterns”

Chapter 9, Location 3878, “Grasping”

Chapter 9, Location 4190, “How Do Children Learn to Arrive at the Right Place?” (Catching)

Hirata, K., Sawamura, M., Ae, M., & Kobayashi, Y. (n.d.). Comparison of the Hand-Dribbling Motion Between Skilled and Unskilled Subjects. Retrieved March 24, 2017, from https://ojs.ub.uni-konstanz.de/cpa/article/view/4779/0

Krause, J., Meyer, D., & Meyer, J. (2008). Basketball skills & drills. Leeds: Human Kinetics.

Leversen, J., Haga, M., & Sigmundsson, H. (2012). From Children to Adults: Motor Performance across the Life-Span. Plos ONE, 7(6), e38830. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0038830

Oliver, J. A. (2004). Basketball fundamentals. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.