#of different sizes adapted for different environments and prey

[cantsayidont]

I hate when science fiction (e.g., ALIEN) makes a big deal out of how such and such creatures are Merciless Ultimate Predators, tireless, monstrous killing machines that will never stop, etc. In the real world, actual Merciless Ultimate Predators spend a lot of their between-atrocities time napping or lounging sleepily in the sun. If you look around, you might even have one or more of these terrifying relentless killing machines in your home — and if you're not sure, just try rustling the treat-bag.

[bestanimal]

Round 3 - Reptilia - Ciconiiformes

(Sources - 1, 2, 3, 4)

Our next order are the Ciconiiformes, which contain one family, Ciconiidae, commonly called “storks”.

Storks are superficially similar to the unrelated cranes and herons, with a long neck, bill, and legs, but they are more heavy-set. They have large bills, with sizes and shapes that vary between genera, adapted to their different diets. Storks usually hunt by wading in shallow water, but some will also stalk through grasslands. Most storks eat frogs, fish, insects, earthworms, small birds, and small mammals. Some are also scavengers of carrion. Storks live all over the world, except for the North and South Pole. They live in a variety of habitats, and can survive in drier environments than other waterbirds, but they are most diverse and common in the tropics. Many stork species are migratory, and soar on thermals to conserve energy.

Storks range from being solitary breeders through loose breeding associations, to fully colonial, nesting in colonies of a few pairs to thousands of pairs. Some colonies may include other species of storks, cormorants, herons, egrets, ibises, and/or pelicans. Storks use trees in a variety of habitats to breed including forests, cities, farmlands, and large wetlands. Their nests are often very large and may be used for many years, with the pair returning and building onto it each year. Most storks are generally monogamous, but some species exhibit regular extra-pair breeding. Both parents take care of the young.

Like most families of aquatic birds, storks seem to have arisen in the Palaeogene, around 40–50 million years ago, with living genera dating back to the Middle Miocene (about 15 mya).

Propaganda under the cut:

The characteristic feeding method of storks involves standing or walking in shallow water and holding the bill submerged in the water. When contact is made with prey the bill reflexively snaps shut in 25 milliseconds, one of the fastest reactions known in any vertebrate. The stork is also able to sense whether its bill is making contact with prey or an inanimate object within those 25 milliseconds, and it is still not known how they do this.

Openbills (genus Anastomus) are specially adapted to feed on freshwater molluscs, particularly apple snails. They feed in small groups, and sometimes African Openbills (Anastomus lamelligerus) (image 4) ride on the backs of hippos while foraging. Having caught a snail it will return to land or at least to the shallows to eat it. The fine tip of the bill of the openbills is used to open the snail, and its saliva has a narcotic effect, which causes the snail to relax and simplifies the process of extraction.

Various terms are used to refer to groups of storks, two frequently used ones being a “muster” of storks and a “phalanx” of storks.

The Marabou Stork (Leptoptilos crumenifer) (image 2) is the largest stork, at a height of 152 cm (5 ft) tall and weight up to 8 kg (18 lb). With a wingspan of 3.2 m (10 ft 6 in), it joins the Andean Condor (Vultur gryphus) in having the widest wingspan of all living land birds.

Although it is sometimes reported that storks lack syrinxes and are mute, they do have syrinxes, and are capable of making some sounds, although they do not do so often. However, their syrinxes are "variably degenerate", and the syringeal membranes of some species are found between tracheal rings or cartilage, an unusual arrangement shared with the ovenbirds (family Furnariidae). Instead, storks mainly communicate by clattering their bills.

The two species in the genus Ephippiorhynchus are unique among storks for having colored sexual dimorphism. Saddle-billed Stork (Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis) (image 1) males have brown eyes and small yellow wattles, while the females have yellow eyes and no wattles. Black-necked Stork (Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus) males also have brown eyes while the females have yellow eyes.

Many ancient mythologies feature stories and legends involving storks. In Ancient Egypt, Saddle-billed Storks were seen as being amongst the most powerful animals and were used to represent the ba, the Ancient Egyptian conception of the soul, during the Old Kingdom.

Greek and Roman mythology portrays storks as models of parental devotion. Storks were thought to care for their aged parents, feeding them and even transporting them, and children's books depicted them as a model of filial values. The 3rd century Roman writer Aelian, noted in his De natura animalium that aged storks flew away to oceanic islands where they were transformed into humans as a reward for their loyalty towards their parents. The Greeks held that killing a stork could be punished with death.

According to European folklore, the White Stork (Ciconia ciconia) (see gif above) is responsible for bringing babies to new parents. German folklore held that storks found babies in caves or marshes and brought them to households in a basket on their backs or held in their beaks. The babies would then be given to the mother or dropped down the chimney. Households would notify when they wanted children by placing sweets for the stork on the windowsill. Subsequently, the folklore has spread around the world to the Philippines and countries in South America. In Slavic mythology and pagan religion, storks were thought to carry unborn souls from Vyraj to Earth in spring and summer. This belief still persists in the modern folk culture of many Slavic countries, in the simplified child story that "storks bring children into the world".

[b1asho]

Species number two: Rossetians!!

Here's some more info, because unfortunately I ran out of room to cram it in between the drawings:

Rossetians are a mid-sized species that evolved in an area roughly the size of Europe, and have less extreme regional differences than other species, usually only having some vatiation in skin pattern, color, and snout shape.

They aren’t exactly adapted to live in water, but there were enough water obstacles around that they developed some useful traits like nostrils in the top of their head and semi-webbed hooves.

Their skin is thick, dry and rough, closer to scales. This bars moisture from coming in and leaving. The only place they have hairlike structures is in/around the pouch/genitals for oil secretion and for neonates to pull on to drag themselves into the pouch after birth (meaning they see hair as private and even lewd).

they use their heat-sensitive nose pits and sensitive pronged tongue to navigate low visibility places like tunnels and dense vegetation, and also to locate food and other resources that are hidden in crevices.

Their tongue in particular replaces their sense of smell, and is able to detect minute chemical changes in the air. It’s pretty long, and slides back into a hole a bit in their mouth/throat when closed.

They also use their four wide set eyes to scan more open areas, and while they have good close and far vision, they cant see in the dark and have poor color vision.

Rossetians share our iron based blood, using a large molecule that is contained in cells. It retains oxygen for much longer and in higher quantities (closer to erythrocruorin in size and effectiveness.) it is a very dark red when not oxygenated and turns a much brighter red shade than human blood when exposed to oxygen.

It is very very stable, can operate at a wide range of temperatures, and helps them manage in oxygen scarce environments between the pockets of oxygen in their tunnels (however, they can’t tolerate low oxygen for long, and need warm temperatures and abundant oxygen function well).

The high quantities of oxygen their blood can carry helped fuel them when fleeing predators, but at other times the large size of the molecule means that it takes a lot of energy to pump it around fast, and it already brings a lot of oxygen per molecule, so normally they have a slow heartbeat and metabolism. It also has anti-inflammatory properties, all of these things potentially leading to their longer natural lifespans.

This iron based blood developed because their environment was very heavy in metals, particularly iron. There were also a lot of other toxins just hanging around in the air, water, and soil. They have a very strong liver and other specialized glands and processes to help them metabolize and expel metals that they take in, it they can tolerate a lot more metals in their body than a human could (they’re very hard to kill via poison, toxin exposure, or drugs) . they actually incorporated it into more of their body (namely their horns and teeth, and for coloration of skin). Like limpets, they have metal in their teeth, making them extremely hard and strong (used for scraping off algae, moss, and lichens from rocks and crushing nuts and tubers) this also partially accounts for the color of the teeth, though some still have white teeth due to less pigmentation. Their colors vary less due to sun exposure and more due to the content of elements around them.

Rossetians were originally prey animals, with their horn and extremely thick skin/fat layer being their main protection from predators. (through selection over the years, their horns have become a bit more ornamental, though they’re still plenty sharp). They developed sapience due to their overkill sensory prowess, letting them spend less time scanning and more time thinking. Eventually, this combined with their cooperative herd structure/domestication of food sources to advance their intelligence to modern day.

As herbivores, they eat predominantly plant matter, though some also consume dairy due to a similar “lactose tolerance” mutation as humans for the taste and nutrients. They eat small and frequent meals for steadier energy to make up for their slow metabolism.

They are endotherms, though mainly due to their thick fat and skin layer helping them to trap heat. Without this, they aren't nearly as good as humans at regulating their own temperature, though they can still shiver and pant to try and regulate (they cant sweat).

They have a total of 6 teeth, two in the front and four molars in the back.

Their food tends to be boiled or otherwise processed in some way to make it easier to get energy and nutrients faster with their otherwise slow metabolism (so they can stay on the go for busy city life)

They are viviparous and can reproduce any time of the year like humans, but they lack a true placenta. infants instead develop in a pouch of skin on the mother where they drink milk.

Their pouch opens like an American opossum, and their children will stay in and out of it for a while even a little after they’ve been weaned (eventually, they get too big.) They stay in there for the first year or so, and will then start exploring outside in their ‘toddler’ stage before eventually being able to walk on their own.

They have a centaur-esque body plan that allowed them to free up a front set of arms and support brain development while also being able to lower themselves to the height needed to navigate the volcanic tunnels they lived in and move quickly. The only important thing in their front "torso" region is a small cluster of nerves that helps handle some of their sensory information.

4 of their 6 limbs are for walking while the front 2 specialized for object manipulation, with the two digits on the sides slightly turned inwards and able to be used almost like thumbs. None of them are very good for gripping since climbing wasn’t part of their evolutionary history (though all of them are also slightly webbed, especially the back ones, since swimming was helpful to them in their environment)

Their soft lips and similarly shaped mouth make it very easy for them to replicate human language, though their tongue and teeth sometimes get in the way (and makes it harder for humans to speak their language, since some noises require the use of two or four prongs of the tongue at once).

They can see a color spectrum similar to horses or deer on earth, which is why their clothing is often dull or monochrome besides the stitched patterns. However, since it was useful for them to be able to see some color variation to tell if a plant was poisonous or not, they can see reds/greens a bit better than Prectikar, who have a similar colorblindess range.

While they can't see red, they still incorporate it into their clothing since to them it registers as a nice green to accent the blue and yellow. To us, it looks red.

They have very homogeneous cultural traits because for much of their history, they have valued unity and have been joined together under one Empire or another (most recently, the same guys who got to the Prectikar). However, similar to cultures across, say the British isle, they still have unique quirks from their regional heritage.

Males have a horn with a unicorn-like front spike and a considerably longer tail, while females lack the horn projection and also have a pouch. Unlike other species, they actually have similar sex and gender roles as human men and women, though a bit more pronounced than current humans due to their society’s particular emphasis on family units in politics and economics.

They also have stricter nudity and propriety standards year round, with traditional conservatives barely showing anything more than their face out in public.

They show marriage through pierced ears. They typically have one partner for life.

Most of their clothing is heavily layered with lots of dresses and cloaks to give them a feeling of security when in public, like a weighted blanket or something to cover their shape so they feel less exposed. Many also cover their sensitive ears when in crowded spaces.

Most of their brain is in their head, but they have 2 smaller clusters to help deal with other sensory information and leave more room for thinking in the main brain. The clusters are located between their front arms (protected by the larger vertebrae and collarbone/shoulder blade their arms connect to up there) and their pelvic girdle.

When interacting with other species, they are known to be very timid and insular among themselves. Unfortunately, xenophobia has a very literal meaning to them since most other species have traits that they instinctively find unsettling as former prey animals, like sharp teeth and claws (similar to what happens when you see a snake or spider, even if you know it won’t or can’t hurt you most people still feel fear). Without proper socialization for both parties, things can get awkward very fast.

[amerricanartwork]

RW Headcanon: Know the Difference! | An Overview of Quetzalli's Slugcats

Here’s a headcanon I’ve wanted to elaborate on for a while, and today I finally felt compelled to make it real! Also, just a disclaimer I am not a huge biology nerd nor have I studied it that heavily, so I apologize if something here doesn’t make sense or if I get something wrong. I just like fantasy worldbuilding from time to time, and I always like trying to make sense of things I’m interested in!

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Basically, I’m in the crowd that interprets slugcats as mustelids rather than literal slugs. When I say this, however I don’t mean that slugcats would necessarily be classified in the actual mustelidae family, seeing as Rain World’s world is most-likely not Earth and therefore our taxonomic classifications and phylogenetic relations can’t necessarily apply. Thus, when I call them “mustelids”, I really just mean that I imagine them as some kind of weasel with all the necessary physical traits to earn that general label. 

The first half of the name “slugcat”, in my headcanon, is thus not referring to any literal connection to slugs or other mollusks, but is instead derived simply from their appearance. Due to their long ears and thick tail, and because their fur and fat often squishes together in such a way that it makes their features blend together and their bodies appear more smooth (it’s the same physics as that whole “cats are liquid” idea), the general silhouette of a slugcat can easily be likened to that of a literal slug. The second half of their name is also not literal, and instead refers to their jumping and acrobatic abilities and their skill in hunting and pouncing on small prey, which is very similar to that of small cats.

Species Overview

Now to give a little more detail on slugcats themselves as a species! I headcanon them as small to medium-sized mammals most similar to Earth weasels in both their biology and their ecological niche, who originally served as cute low-maintenance pets for the Ancients and as hunters of small pests in facilities on the ground. They’re clever by nature and good at fitting through tight spaces, and later on they evolved greater jumping abilities to pounce on prey. They’re also very social creatures, who’ve taken to forming medium to large colonies primarily in and around the massive trees that thrive between the cracks in iterators’ rainstorm areas (like the one Gourmand, Survivor, and Monk’s colony lives in). Due to this social nature they also generally travel in groups of at least two, both for company and protection against tougher animals. Travel partners are usually siblings or good friends, and sometimes even whole families will journey out together to find food and other resources for the rest of the colony.

Despite being a small prey animal, slugcats have managed to get by not only due to their intelligence — the evolution of which would be seen as a rather unexpected twist of events if you asked their creators, for the Ancients found them cute but rather simple — but because of their impressive adaptability. It’s similar to that of real life red foxes and pigeons, and it allows them to survive decently well even in less ideal environments; a trait especially necessary for a world as industrialized as this one, even if its people are gone and most of the machinery is inactive. As such not all colonies live in trees; some find homes in the abandoned facilities, large underground hollows, and a few bold colonies have even claimed territories high up in iterator cities alongside scavengers. Slugcats are opportunists and masters at making the best of their surroundings, yet even beyond that they carry a certain other, “special” ability of their own that makes them as diverse as they are clever. But that’s a headcanon for another day…

Reasoning

Now for some out-of-universe explanation for this classification choice. I’ve always seen slugcats as some kind of small scurrying mammal (kind of a bias on my part, I just like mammals honestly, and they’re most familiar to me), mainly due to the way they look and move when on all fours, and their place in the game’s food chain. Originally though I saw them as rodents and compared them to mice and rats, which I still sometimes use for anatomy reference for these creatures. But one day a friend of mine saw me drawing slugcats and thought they were weird ferrets, and the more I thought about it and the more I developed personal speculative biology headcanons for slugcats, the more that label seemed the most fitting for them. It was also solidified when I did a bit more research and realized the main characteristic of rodents is their buck teeth, which just didn’t seem to fit with how I perceived slugcats. Not to mention rodents aren’t really predator animals, and slugcats’ implied natural diet and the gameplay itself does strongly imply if not confirm they have some instinctive hunting ability. 

Thus, it seemed “weasel” was the best classification for these creatures, and I quite like it so far! Once again it satisfies my mammal preference, but I also just think it’s a fun idea that neither part of the “slugcat” name is literal, similar to a lot of real-life creatures named after completely different animals, including fellow weasel, the polecat. Plus, I realized recently it’s kind of ironic with how I perceive the messenger slugcats, Hunter and Spearmaster, as being like hunting or guard dogs for their creators, when weasels are exactly the kind of animal humans with their dogs would normally hunt for! It’s cute, it’s familiar, it’s fun, yet I think it still has just as much potential for some interesting speculative biology ideas as the literal slug slugcat interpretations!

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I'm so glad to finally get this out! I like seeing specbio slugcat headcanons in the RW fandom, yet I haven't seen many more in-depth takes from artists who don't take the "slugcats are literal slugs/mollusks/primarily mollusk-based" angle. Not that that's a bad headcanon of course; do what you think feels right! But once again I personally prefer slugcats being mammals, and I always look for fan-content that's as close to my personal preferences as possible. And when I can't find enough of it, I make it myself!

So hopefully this serves as a bit more of that kind of representation for the mustelid slugcat interpretation. It at least helped me develop my own idea of the species a bit more; much of that stuff in the overview part was ideas I came up with while typing this whole headcanon out!

As always, I hope you enjoy this headcanon of mine! I've still got so many ideas to develop and share, and even more coming as I continue to ponder these characters and their stories, so as long as you guys still like these Rain World headcanons of mine, they'll keep coming!

[the-guppy-fish]

Cold snake.

Simon "Ghost" Riley x Reader

Tags: colleagues to friends to lovers, hesitation, confessions, callsign: Viper, its a little long, but! smut will follow, 3 parts...maybe more to come.

Content warnings: none. (other than my possible spelling mistakes)

Summary: Ghost being a little soft...for now. (2,8k words)

Edited slightly: 27.11.24 (military inaccuracies)

About Vipers: named after the family Viperidae, they are venomous and have long hinged fangs that permit deep penetration and injection of their venom. These snakes can decide how much venom to inject depending on the circumstances. Rattlesnakes for example, have evolved the strike-and-release bite mechanism, which provides a huge benefit to snakes, by minimizing contact with potentially dangerous prey animals.

Vipers come in many different sizes and colours, they are highly adapted to their environment and the type of prey they hunt.

You and Ghost fled the warehouse. The mission had been successful. While Ghost kept the coast clear, you retrieved the confidential documents, Price wanted you to secure from a target warehouse. Once the documents were safely tucked inside the pocket of your tactical vest, you gave Ghost the sign to get out of there.

Just as you left the warehouse, you heard Price in your earpiece,

"Ghost, Viper, get the hell out of there. Enemy activity confirmed by drones. Safehouse Foxtrot-Whiskey-Bravo is clear. Pick-up tomorrow at 1700 at the safehouse. Radio-silence until then. Do not answer. Price out."

You and Ghost simply nodded at each other, silently running off in direction of the safehouse, while keeping eyes and ears open for any activity in and around the warehouse. Once you had laid back a decent amount of space between you and the rusty warehouse, running through tall grass sprinkled with frost, you walked the remaining distance to the safe house in silence, still being alert to your surroundings.

A few hours pass, and the sun begins to set. You're still marching towards the safehouse, now crossing a large meadow surrounded by trees. The cold creeps into your nostrils and fingertips, as the warming rays of sunlight slowly hide beneath the horizon. Your breath is visible, pulsing through the fabric of your balaclava in small clouds. Ghosts breath-clouds are much larger than yours, his huge lungs needing a lot more air than yours, to feed oxygen to all his muscles.

You can see the small safe house not too far away, hiding in between large pine trees. While walking the last few hundred meters, your eyes fall onto Ghosts back, clad in tactical gear and tucked-in weapons. The leg of his camouflage trousers slightly fluttering in the cold breeze, the grey fabric hugging his hips just right. Do you feel bad about looking? Not at all. It is not the first time your eyes linger on him, how could you not? When he is so largely built and looks like he has been sculpted by a group of goddesses, who knew exactly what they were doing?

Your relationship to Ghost used to be very professional. You only spoke together when needed. Always kept the conversation light and work-related. When you were surrounded by the rest of the 141, you barely even glanced at each other.

It was safe to say, you were surprised beyond your imagination, the day Ghost began small-talking with you.

A few weeks back, when you were home on base, the huge brute of man asked you, if you had had a good day. Just like that. Over dinner in the mess hall. While it was just the two of you. Normally you would have just ate in silence and then given the other a polite nod once you finished, and left. But no. You carefully chatted with him, being slightly SUPER suspicious of his friendliness. After finishing your meals, the conversation naturally died, and you went to each your dorms.

The following evening it happened again, and then he evening after that, and all the following ones. But always when it was just the two of you. Ghost would go completely silent if any one else joined you.

You slowly began to talk more and more, sharing more and more details of your lives. Even though Ghost rarely shared anything from his life. If he did, oddly enough, he mostly shared about his favourite meals or new movies in the telly.

You began to talk throughout the day, not just at dinner. When he caught you in the briefing room or in either of your offices, he initiated a conversation, eyes fixed to your face, looking at every little polite smile and expression you made.

But always, when you two were alone.

One time, Soap walked in on one of your conversations in the common room. You had stood with your back to Ghost, rummaging in the small tea-kitchen, trying to make a cuppa for the both of you. Ghost watched your every move, how your clothes hugged you frame, while listening intently.

You did not notice Soap entering, before turning around and only seeing Soap.

Ghost nowhere to be found.

"Who are ye talking to bonnie?", Soap looked at you with confused eyes.

"Uhm, I was just talking to Ghost." you answered, perplexed at Ghosts sudden disappearance.

"Seems like he flew away, bon. Don't feel bad about it, you know how he can be." You tried to hide your disappointment, while Soap eyed the second cup of tea in your hands with large puppy eyes.

When you met Ghost later that evening at dinner, he initiated conversation as he did every dinner, but the conversation failed to reach around his disappearance. You let it go, thinking he had to leave for some important reason unbeknownst to you.

The conversation moved along, you finished eating and you chatted back and forth, like some table tennis ball experiencing the match of its life.

While talking you accidentally unconsciously touched his arm, which was resting on the table you ate at, while telling a (to you) very exhilarating story about your latest attempt at making a new soup at home.

You were so enthralled with your story telling, that you completely disregarded the shift in Ghosts form.

He went from sitting sluggishly, resting his elbows on the table, arms crossed, and looking at your lips, while you rambled on and on about that soup.

Ghost cared little about soup, but when you spoke about it, it seemed to be the most interesting topic of conversation ever. When your fingers found his forearm and snaked around his bare skin, he froze. His mind short circuiting and vision blurring. Still looking at you, feigning his newfound interest of soup, every fibre in him focussed on your soft skin on his rough and scarred one. He fell deeper and deeper into the blur your touch had created in his mind. All his thoughts vapourised and no sound was picked up by his ears.

All to sudden, Ghost was ripped from his hyper focussed state by your voice.

"Ghost? Hey, what do you think?" He blinked the fog away from his eyes, cleared his throat, and croaked out a quick "sorry?", focussing his eyes on yours, mind still running laps in his skull over your fingers resting on his arm.

"I asked, whether you think the soup would be better with or without garlic?", you looked at him with a small smile, expecting his answer curiously.

Ghosts ears peaked at your question, and he could not avoid the small smile forming on his lips under the fabric covering his face.

"With." was all he managed to say, which earned him a satisfied smile from you.

"I'll try that next time then."

With that, you gave his arm a quick squeeze and lifted your fingers from his skin to pick up your tray. Your touch and bold display of comfort around him made his mind grow foggy again.

"You done as well?" You stood up with your hands on your tray and nodded to the one beside him. He gave you a silent nod, and you pulled his tray across the table to balance yours on top of it.

While you went up to return the trays, Ghost sat completely stunned, waiting for you to return, so he could walk you to your dorm (another thing he had absentmindedly begun doing).

Back in the meadow, you and Ghost had reached the treeline and made it to the poor example of a safe house: a simple shed, neatly tucked away by the large pines, small enough for you to question whether there was space enough for two rooms in it.

And you were right. The sheds interior consisted of a small fireplace, a bunkbed, a large chest and a table with two chairs. Everything looked well used and ancient in your eyes, the smell of old cigarettes and firewood confirmed your suspicion about this place being many decades older than you.

Ghosts deep voice tore you from your disappointed thoughts about the safehouse.

"You're on top." While he began stripping out of his gear, placing it neatly beside the lower bunk, he had claimed for himself.

You followed along, closing the wooden door and bolting it shut with the large piece of wood acting as a lock. You laid your gear at the foot-end of your bed, as to keep it close while you slept, should anyone want to pay your shed a visit during the night. Your gut told you that this place was safe enough, for you to relax in. The remote location, the bolted door, and Ghosts presence, assured you that this was good enough for tonight.

Neither you nor Ghost lit up the fireplace, knowing the smoke outside and light from inside the shed could lead anyone to your super cozy hiding spot. The shed was safe enough to not have one of you keep watch for the night. So far away from anyone and anything, bolted and locked, no light or other visible factors making it stand out. No one knew anyone was here, besides Price.

After having settled into the thin mattress, under a thick wool blanket Ghost had pulled from the chest, you tried to get some rest.

But sleep never came to you, as the cool air crept inside and under your blanket. For what felt like hours, you laid crumpled up like a small ball to keep, whatever heat was left, close to your body. But nothing worked, the cold bore into your skin and settled uncomfortably in your bones.

You scolded yourself: as a special forces soldier, you were supposed to fend for your self in every possible way; and you usually did so, perfectly.

But this never ending, merciless cold was going to beat you.

Your stubbornness kept you from climbing down to look for another blanket. But also the thought of waking up Ghost; anyone who woke him up from his precious few hours of sleep, would feel his wrath in the morning.

So you stayed. Freezing and shivering under your heavy blanket. Just existing in the coldness, hoping that some heat would come your way, at some point.

Heat never came, but a deep voice did instead.

"Viper?" Ghost called out quietly.

Your teeth clattered at you let out a weak "yeah?".

Ghosts gravelly voice made its way to your ears again, "If you don't stop shaking my bunk with your shivers, you can sleep on the floor." His oh so humorous comment made you shiver even harder, and you mumbled a quiet "sorry", wrapping the blanket impossibly tighter around you.

Once again you tried falling asleep, willing the shivers to stop, only for them to return with even greater force than before.

You heard Ghost sigh from his mattress beneath you. The bed croaked and you sensed a shadow move in line with your eyes, over the edge of the bunk bed.

Ghost had gotten out of his blanket-cocoon and stood centimetres from your icy face.

"Did you not hear me before?", his hot breath fanned over your frozen features, warming you just enough to answer him in a full sentence.

"I did..sorry.. I just can't get warm." Your voice came out much weaker, than you had hoped for, and seemingly did nothing to stir empathy within Ghost. As if not accepting your weak apology, he pulled the blanket from your shivering form and quietly said "get down."

Puzzled, you unfolded your cold body in a sloth-like motion, slowly climbing down the bed. You stood in front of Ghost, not believing that he actually wanted you to sleep on the floor.

After all, you were the same rank, so he could not order you to do it. So you stood before him, shivering furiously, waiting for him to actually tell you to sleep on the hard, wooden floor, just so you could weakly scold him for trying to punish you.

He said nothing, sat down on his mattress and rolled in under his blanket, his back facing the wall. You stayed on your feet, absolutely confused beyond your mind.

You knew Ghost could act weird from time to time, but this was beyond the usual weirdness of him.

The moonlight from outside only cast enough light inside, for you to make out the outline of his body. Once he had settled, he opened the blanked towards you, which only sent a waft of cool air towards you. As you stayed on your sock-clad feet, still so, so confused, Ghost quietly told you "come 'ere. Can't 'ave you freezing like that."

And like a much faster sloth you slid into the oh so warm comfort of his strong arms and the thick blanket covering him. He wrapped his arms around you, making sure that the blanked covered every millimetre of you.

"Christ Viper, you're like an icicle." His hot breath fanned over your head as he pulled you into his warm embrace.

Your shivers slowly ebbed out, leaving you smushed up, face first, against Ghosts t-shirt covered chest, arms awkwardly tucked close to your own chest. You became embarrassingly aware of just how close you were to one another.

You tried to shimmy away from him, just a little bit; get a some space between the two of you. Keep it professional, you know. But a strong hand around your middle kept you close.

"Stay", Ghost whispered, hugging you closer again, wordlessly telling you that he didn't mind you being this close to him.

With the warmth seeping into your body, the words returned to your mouth in a quiet whisper, "I thought you wanted me to sleep on the floor."

A quick, exhale blew onto the top of your hair and his low voice sounded above your head, "I did" , followed by an even quieter whisper, "but then i remembered, that i like you."

Heat rose to your face, warming your cheeks. You knew Ghost tolerated you, maybe even enjoyed your company from time to time, he definitely liked looking at you, based on how often you felt his eyes on you.

But that he liked you. Oh boy.

"I didn't know you liked me", you whispered into his chest, raising your face to look up at his moonlit, masked one.

His eyes found yours in the dim light, "I do. 'ave for a long time."

Ghosts rough fingers slowly slid up along your spine, fingers gliding over the soft fabric of your shirt. His fingers reaching and curling around the, now warm, skin of you neck. You felt his thumb soothingly swipe back and forth on that very soft patch of skin on the side of your neck.

You hummed at his admission, melting into the touch of his fingers on your skin.

Not knowing how to respond verbally, you turned your palms from your own soft chest, to his much more muscular one, gently squeezing his muscles, to let him know his whispers were heard.

The warmth had truly settled inside you by now, and your eyelids grew heavy, threatening to block the view of Ghosts dark, moonlit eyes looking at your tired ones.

During a dangerously slow blink of your eyelids, Ghosts hand squeezed your neck; just enough to get your attention, but not hard enough for you to open your heavy lids in attention.

"Get some rest Viper. Sleep well." His whispers made a tired smile tug at your lips, and you responded with another whisper.

"Goodnight Ghost."

In front of your closed eyes, a satisfied smile grew behind Ghosts mask. His eyes glanced over your face, taking in the sight of your calm face: eyes closed, brows at ease, just a hint of a smile on your lips and deep, steady breaths blew quietly through your nostrils.

He almost couldn't believe that you were actually sleeping in his arms. He could almost not believe that he had had the courage to pull you close and be soft with you.

His troubling and traumatic past made him fear close relationships, afraid that the people close to him would get hurt. With you though, it was different. Ghost knew you could handle any challenge thrown at you, just like himself. He knew how strong and capable you were, and it pulled him closer to you. Made his heart skip a beat or two, when ever your mere presence filled the room with authority and control.

He had wanted to let you this close to him for a while the last many many weeks, but could never muster the bravery, and did not want to scare you away. To not make you think he was some creep, like other soldiers on base, he took it slow; showed you more and more of himself in adequate amounts.

Ever since your soft fingers had snaked around his arm that evening in the mess hall, he had wanted to reciprocate the comfort and affection, but an occasion had never come along.

Until now. And he was filled with glee, deep into the marrow of his bones.

Ghost held you a little tighter, feeling your body against his. He sucked in the warmth of your skin against his and sweet smell of your hair. His smile only growing larger and more giddy (not an emotion, Ghost was truly familiar with yet)

Gently, he brought his masked lips down on your forehead, giving you a feather light kiss.

"Sweet dreams little snake"

[tribbetherium]

The Late Rodentocene: 20 million years post-establishment

Scrub Suited: The Mixed Scrublands of Easaterra

The continent of Easaterra, in the Late Rodentocene, is a warm, tropical environment conducive to the growth of various vegetation. Here, there are only two seasons: a hot, dry season, when rain is few, and a wet season, where rain comes in pouring droves, and the dry, dusty landscape gives way to lush greenery, influenced by an intertropical convergence zone and its associated rainfall, that shifts north and south of the equator at different times of the year.

One of the most widespread biomes of the continent are the mixed scrublands: a biome dominated by low-to-medium growing plants resembling bushes and shrubs: but are, in fact, a wide array of the various ancestral crop plants seeded into the planet. Some are small plants grown bigger, such as clovers grown into bush-like forms, cabbages that had reverted to herbaceous forms resembling wild brassica, and even dwarfed stonefruit trees that adapted to need fewer resources in the fickle clime of the scrubland, growing no taller than five or six feet at most.

Easaterra, at this point, had not yet been colonized by the hamtelopes, and thus, in the meantime, have been dominated by herbivorous jerryboas, ones that, like many other groups, have grown much larger to fill grazer, browser and forager niches. Some, such as the tawny brushleapers (Xanthosaltocricetus easaterrus), grow to sizes of about twenty kilograms and feed primarily on the grasses and softer vegetation, while others, such as the dwarf kwonkas (Minimacropodimys albacauda), are much smaller at about five kilograms and specialize on the woody stems and shoots as well as seeds and fruit. Small relatives of the kwonkas, the klingaroos (Arbosaltomys tropicus), adapted into agile climbers, able to scale the few, sparsely-spread tall trees with the help of gripping paws and prehensile tails, and eat the leaves out of reach for most other herbivores of the scrubland.

Other species are found here too, while jerryboas may dominate the landscape. Present here are the now-abundant ratbats, which roost in the few trees present but travel far and wide to dine on the abundance of insects attracted to the bounties of flowers and fruit, with a few predatory ones, such as chestnut brushswoops (Aquilonyctus rubropterus) picking off small furbils and duskmice from the ground. Tiny shrubmice (Virgultumys spp.) take shelter in great numbers among the bushes, hiding from predatory ratbats as well as opportunistic rabbacoons, such as the scrubby bushcoon (Procynolagus arbuscula) which may catch and eat small animals on occasion to supplement their diet of fruits, seeds, leaves and insects. Heckhogs, like the shrub thornrat (Paliuruechinomys spinatus) are also prominent in these regions, rummaging through the ground for insects, ground vegetation and fallen fruit, and confidently emerging even during the day due to their sharp quills granting them decent protection.

Early carnohams, unsurprisingly, are the top predators of the local ecosystem, including jerryboas, rabbacoons, ratbats and occasionally heckhogs in their diet. Forms found in the scrublands tend to be ones of longer bodied, shorter legged species that are better suited to chase prey in dense bushy vegetation, such as the slender jagsel (Pantheromustelomys brevipus), remaining concealed in the thick vegetation before attacking in short bursts of speed to chase its prey.

The continent of Easaterra thus fills the ecological gaps of species from other continents with its own native species occupying niches of those absent here. Easaterra, thus becomes the birthplace of new evolutionary forms, most notably the oingos: eventually becoming the forebearers of the walkabies and rhinocheirids in the future epochs to come.

--------

[unidentifiablelifeform]

How to Get Into Bugs

"A world of dreams and adventures with bugs awaits! Let's go!"

What are bugs? In this document when I say “bugs”, I refer to small invertebrate animals like insects, spiders, snails, and worms. These creatures are underappreciated, and their importance to the health and function of life on Earth cannot be overstated. Bugs aerate the soil, pollinate plants, spread seeds, clean up dead plants and animals, provide food for countless species, prey upon countless others, and cycle nutrients across the planet, among other services.

Bugs are amazing creatures. They come in a vast variety of shapes and colors, from the shining wings of a blue morpho butterfly to the pebble-like body of a toad bug. Their habits and behaviors are just as complex as those of larger animals. Stick insects sway as they walk to mimic a branch blown in the wind, mud dauber wasps gather mud to build earthen nests, and moths read the stars to navigate in the dark. Because they are small, bugs can be supremely adapted to their environment. Many insects will form relationships with specific plants, only pollinating or laying their eggs on these species.

There are many mysteries left to uncover about bugs. Insects alone make up 75% of known animal species, with more being discovered every day. These species are not only being found in remote forests and grasslands, but in woods, parks, and other habitats closer to home. You may be the first to discover a rare creature found only in your area! It is not only new species that present us with mysteries. There is ongoing research into even common species, to answer questions like how flies land upside down, how beetles fold their wings, or how bees make decisions on where to build their nests.

If you appreciate them, the world will become more vibrant. Wherever you are, you can almost certainly find bugs. By noticing these creatures living around you, you will become more aware of nature not as an untouched ideal found only in mountain rainforests or ocean trenches, but as the life that permeates even the most “average” places.

How Can I Get into Bugs?

Go for a walk! As you are walking, take the time to look closely at your surroundings. Notice the different species of insects you see flying around. Look at the leaves and branches of plants. Turn over rocks and bricks. Do you see any bugs? Focus on one of the animals you see. What is it doing? Searching for food? Resting? Building a nest? Have you ever seen this bug before? What is it called? What is its life cycle like? These questions provide starting points that you can use to learn about the creatures that live alongside you.

Get acquainted through books, websites, and videos! Field guides and websites like iNaturalist serve as great first steps to familiarizing yourself with the species found in your area. Select a favorite species or family of bugs, then go out to search for them in the wild. Online resources can also be used to overcome phobias. If you find yourself creeped out by an animal, you can look up videos online to get used to its appearance and movements.

Gather some useful gear! If you are looking to catch bugs for photography or collection, you'll want to have a jar of some kind to contain them. Mason jars work well for large specimens and 2 oz. travel sized jars work well for smaller animals. Flying insects like moths and dragonflies can be captured with a butterfly net, while sweep nets can be brushed against vegetation to collect crawling animals. Dip nets are made for use in water and can be used to capture shrimp and snails along with aquatic insects. In addition to bug-specific equipment you may want gear like a bookbag, sunscreen, hiking boots, canteen, and long pants if you are going out into wilder areas.

Know where to look! Different species of animals need different resources to survive, so they will be found in different places. Look beneath logs or dead leaves to find isopods, millipedes, and earthworms. Ponds and other water bodies are often home to water skaters, crayfish, and water beetles. Flowering plants are a good place to find bees, butterflies, and wasps. Caterpillars, aphids, and planthoppers can often be found on leaves and branches. Some species of insects can only be found on particular plants. Whenever you find a new plant species, take a closer look to see what is living on it. Also be aware of what time you go out searching. If you go to the same location during the day and night, different creatures will be active.

Keep a record of your adventures! Whether it be a digital photo album, a collection of preserved insects, or a written diary, records will provide you with an easy way to revisit memories of your exploits. You might also have more fun exploring the world of bugs if you have a personal project to develop.

Raise bugs in captivity! Caterpillars and beetles can be raised over a season and released when they undergo metamorphosis. Snails and isopods are easy to keep so long as they are fed vegetable scraps and have humid places to hide in their enclosure. Many insects, spiders, snails, and other invertebrates are easy to care for in vivariums. Just be sure not to overcollect! While many bugs have healthy populations, others need as many wild breeding individuals as possible. Entirely avoid collecting endangered species or taking animals from protected areas.

Help Your Local Environment!

Insects, arachnids, and other invertebrates serve as essential building blocks to the global ecosystem and help to keep our world functioning. There are many ways you can help bugs:

If you enjoy gardening or landscaping, grow some plants native to your area. Native plants provide local species with food and shelter, and because they are adapted to your habitat, often require less care than exotic plants.

Avoid spraying pesticides and herbicides unless truly necessary. Not only can these substances kill off non-target species, they can also increase the populations of pesticide-resistant species, runoff from their site of application, and seep into local soil and water supplies.

Select a woodland, meadow, or section of waterway and keep it clean of litter. Pollution may be a global issue, but the world is made up of places, and you can make tangible change in your local area. See if you can get some friends together to help out. Cleanup efforts are most enjoyable with a few extra hands!

You can protect your local woods, creeks, or other wilderness spaces by working with your community’s hobbyists and environmental organizations, learning about your local ecosystem, and sharing your thoughts with others.

Many of the environmental, societal, and health issues we face are interconnected. Thus, improving one situation will make it easier to address others. Whatever problem you are most equipped to face, do your best. Even the smallest action you can take changes the future and makes it that much better.

Online Resources

https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/ - Explore worldwide observations of living things.

https://xerces.org - The Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation is an international nonprofit organization that protects the natural world through the conservation of invertebrates and their habitats.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Arthropods - Wikipedia information on arthropods, their habits, and biology.

https://bugguide.net/node/view/15740 - Information on bugs from the United States and Canada.

https://www.pbs.org/show/deep-look/ - Explore big scientific mysteries by going incredibly small.

Chromatophone Nature Youtube Channel – No-Commentary wildlife footage, like a virtual nature walk.

Thank you for reading! For a PDF version of this post, visit my blog an check the pinned post.

[bonefall]

Hi! How would you draw a tool-evolved cat paw?

Aeons ago I wrote some speculative biology thoughts on what a tool-focused cat would begin to look like, and mentioned the way that a caw's paw might evolve. I can try to draw it out as a sketch; but fair warning that I put my art style points into cartoony anime stuff SO you're not gonna get a realistic drawing lmao

Evolution doesn't "think." It's many changes over generations that snowball into bigger ones. So I tried to look at WHAT exactly is happening between an animal with less sophisticated tool use (chimp) and one that COMPLETELY relies on tools (human) to predict where the cat's paw would end up in a few thousand generations.

Please note! My paw would still be a "link" between the ancestor, and something even more reliant on tool use. This proposed species would still be 100% capable of doing what the cats in-canon do, like hunt alone. It's for a feline species that is tool-ADAPTED, not tool-RELIANT.

(In that way, it's more comparable to, say, a lemur and a chimp. But lemur palm refs were hard to find and I did this quick because I've already thought about it.)

This paw would exist in-tandem with a "tool tooth;" A V-shaped gap in the jawline that a single fang would nestle into. Early tool-using felines would likely use their mouth to "break" or "shear" their crafts, leading to broken teeth that would make them less successful. So there would be a lot of evolutionary pressure to have better, stronger teeth.

Evolution doesn't do "one thing at a time," so if you happened to port yourself into a group of these cats and watch them craft stuff, you'd see them using their mouths as well as their paws!

Finger Size + Tool Claw

When you see real cats batting stuff around and manipulating things, and when you look at canon where they like to "hook things on a claw," it's usually the index "finger" they favor. In fact, they do a LOT of "poking," even when a cat bats at something they seem to mostly explore with the tip of their paw.

So I figure that would actually be a big difference between this species and humans.

Unlike us, who usually have our middle finger as the longest (though there are exceptions) so we can "stabilize" the things we grab, I'd give these guys a "Tool Claw" which is not involved in grappling at all. It's longer, more deeply grooved, but also more fragile than the "hunting" claws.

When at rest, the Tool Claw would stick out from the rest of the foot, straight upwards. The fur is able to "sheathe" the other three, but the index's would be too long to be fully hidden.

Because one of those fingers is now mostly taken out of combat, the pinkie would probably thicken up to compensate. Another difference from the human hand. I can imagine that if the trend continues, they might end up supporting their full frontal weight on the pinkie pad to free up the other fingers for tool use.

(But evolution's not always predictable! They might end up becoming more "back heavy" like raccoons, or rely on the invention of shoe/gloves, or just abandon silent hunting all together to become tool-reliant.)

Paw Pad Changes

Cats use the pads on their paws to move silently. As long as the species is relying on silently stalking prey, they will need to have these pads in contact with the ground to be good hunters.

So instead of the digital pads sliding down to create the "top" of the palm, I figured the metacarpal pad would split in two. So now there's a snug, dipped "shape" with which they could nestle an object into as they work with it, but also there is ALWAYS still pad in contact with the ground.

The amount of fur in-between the bottom (metacarpal) and top (supercarpal) pads probably just depends on culture and genetics. It wouldn't really have enough of an impact on the paw to be selected for to be furry or hairless.

I can imagine some groups being weird about it and thinking it should be shaved or braided or something, lmao. Or cats who live in muddy environments clipping it for hygiene reasons.

[dastardly6sharkzz]

Another commission by the same clients as Pavaavak, this time the Mollusceron Kounekros! Client also included lore so I feel obliged to include it here aswell if anyone else wants to know more! Kounekros’s lineage and origins are mostly unknown to the guild though, being appart of a recently discovered group of monsters they dubbed molluscerons, they evolved from intelligent bottom feeder worms that feed on anything they could to survive of which were being outcompete at the time in the ancient past of the Colbron Reef, luckily for them the sudden draining of the inland mountain ocean gave them a sudden big advantage as they were one of the few organisms that have adapted to be able to go onto dry land for significant amounts of time. Being now able to take full advantage of the great die off at the time being able to reproduce and grow rapidly onto the passage of time. They have now grown from flatworm sizes to colossal might, reaching on average a length of 30 meters long and could look a lagiacrus in the eyes if it wanted too, despite its lack of eyes itself. They detect potential meals weather it be dead monsters, living ones, vegetation and so on via two methods. One being its hyper sensitive whiskers that smell both water and air for any scents that would lead it to food or for the case of moving foods it uses its ability to detect vibrations from the ground with the help of its water retaining skin and fatty tissues that make up its skin and flanks or its whiskers via changes of water or air pressure to detect prey from far away. If a hunter steps within 20 meters of kounekros, it can see you. Luckily for the inhabitants of the Colbron Reef it spends most of its time in the brine filled depths of the now former great ocean feeding on decay that drifts to it when rain is plentiful and pushes the food to it. Though when it hasn’t rained for a few days or weeks at times as the environment takes on a bleached look, the now great hunger of kounekros takes hold, leaving its home and leaving a trail behind of brine behind it take is toxic to most life that interacts with it.

Lucky as well for the inhabitants of the Colbron Reef Kounekros retained its rather slow speed from its ancestor, though it can still keep up with a jogging hunter. It aids it though that as well as its slow speed they kept their intellect and camouflage abilities, changing their Color’s like a cuttlefish with very similar skin to them with some differences, their skin is extremely water retaining similar to a ludroths mane though now elastic as well, with all the brine water it Carrie’s as well any prey or threats that attack it would find themselves now covered in brine if their not careful giving an effect on them similar to effluvium from the rotten vale, additionally it is capable in cause of flying prey or when it’s being feeling highly threatened or in need of going away it has one last trump card for defence, it uses the chromatophores in its skin to release a dashing array of Color’s messing with its prey or adversaries senses of sight and giving them confusion though for a more immediate effect it would delivery a flash of brightness with its Color’s though that puts its color changing abilities on cooldown so that the chromatophores do not get damaged, changing its truth Color’s rarely seen outside of its home. For when it needs to go onto the offensive it uses its slimy and sticky 10 meters long at maximum proboscis which branches out into many tendrils like the ribbon worms of our world to apprehend prey. Wrapping and swallowing anything that is small enough to fit into its mouth and with being the biggest organism native to its ecosystem and that the only hard parts of itself are its human sized hooked sharp Mandibles and armor plates on its back, there’s little that won’t fit, additionally like an octopus it can squeeze into any Crevaces or cracks that is human sized thanks to its elastic and tough skin, depending if it has had a decent sized meal already or not that would cause some blockage.

Its last ability in prey handling that it can’t just swallow up easily, its intellect uncommon for a worm as made way for a fascinating and yet terrifying ability to uses the skeletal and digesting remains in its iron stomach to "puppeteer" them giving way to be able to utilize them too attack as weapons or use them as tools, used in different ways depending on what they have eaten recently, they have also been known to regurgitate bones they find useful back into their lair for later use. Due to this ability it has been given the nickname. Master of death and decay from the local Lynian inhabitants. All of this makes it the apex predator of the region, having no rivals appart from invaders or elder dragons that can easily overwhelm it, additionally if left out of moisture for too long it will die of dehydration and despite its intelligence it is an uncaring parent, for a short period of time after laying its thousand of eggs onto a carcass and not eating it and defending it from other kounekros, that’s all it shall do for them, as soon as they hatch into feet sized worms their on their own to survive and are likely to be devoured by the parents later for reducing competition for food and space for their homes, as a matter of fact their highly cannibalistic eating their own kind with little to no hesitation at all if they can just swallow them. Though adult and fully mature kounekros rarely fight and they live for up to a maximum of twenty years before dying. Reaching adulthood at 8 years of age. Taking into account as well, that other predators and creatures are keen to feed on the now bounty of young worms their numbers are kept rather low at all times usually. Nonetheless when the bleaching comes all evacuate the shore of the remaining great bodies of water. So to not be devoured by the great worms.

Hunts for kounekros don’t happen that often due to their secluded homes and rarity of events that allows for uncontrolled population booms, though their kind are sought often for their materials like their elastic and tough skin for light weight water resistant armor and swimming gear and Mandibles and armor back plates for tools and weapons, their young are also hunted as a odd delicacy often boiled and then roasted eaten similarly to either escargot if small enough or as a strange roast by locals and outsiders, though only the young is to be eaten not having spent long enough time in the brine filled homes and feeding on the rather small and sweet sea fruits and other small life and not feeding much on decay yet their known to taste quite fruity and spongy as a result. Their some times served as sugar wrapped or hard candied as wel

When hunting kounekros it is important to aim for either the head or back since they don’t retain much water filled brine there, their proboscis when out can be broken as well as so to their whiskers to reduce their range of attacks and their abilities to detect hunters, though it is advised to not hide from a kounekros and just run if possible as it is nearly impossible to do so for hunters. When forced to attack the flanks be sure to clear the area after wards so to not be affected by the splash of brine left all over the place as a result of impacts, piercing weapons too have been known to be more effective on the flanks as well so bludgeoning and slashing weapons are recommended to stay at the head and back. Though ranged weaponry is highly effective as well, kounekros are non incapable of ranged attacks, throwing remains from their a stomachs with its proboscis.

[uncharismatic-fauna]

Mosey On with the Mojave Desert Tortoise

Also known as the California desert tortoise, or more simply the desert tortoise, Gopherus agassizii is one of the few tortoise species native to North America. As its name implies, it is found only in the Mojave and Sonoroan deserts, from northern Mexico into the southwestern United States; there it is the state reptile of California and Nevada. Their habitat consists mainly of of desert scrub, where temperatures can reach over 60 °C (140 °F); however, in the southern reaches of its range, the desert tortoise can also be found in tropical deciduous forests.

To beat the heat, G. agassizii digs burrows where they can rest when its too hot or too cold to forage, and where they can aestivate during the hottest months of the summer and hibernate in the winter. These burrows can be quite extensive, reaching 10 m (32 ft) long, and up to 25 tortoises may share the same burrow. Individuals will often dig out several burrows in their territory, which can range anywhere from 3 to 25 hectares (7 to 61 acres). Many of these burrows will also become homes for other animals, including rattlesnakes, gila monsters, squirrels, burrowing owls, and quail.

Like all tortoises, the Mojave desert tortoise is herbivorous. Most of its food is grass, but due to the limited choice in the desert they may also consume wildflowers, shrubs, and cacti-- both fruits and new growth. Due to their hard shells, this species has few predators as adults, but hatchlings are vulnerable to foxes, coyotes, birds of prey, and gila monsters.

Very little rain falls in the desert, and so the desert tortoise is well adapted to do without; the species stores up to 40% of its body weight in water in its bladder, to be absorbed later. Individuals will also dig shallow 'watering holes' in the ground, to be visited after rainfall. G. agassizii also gets much of its water content from its diet, and can go up to a year without drinking.

Desert tortoises typically mate in the spring, from March to May, though mating can continue until autumn. Males seek out and fight each other for access to females, typically by ramming each other or attempting to flip each other over. However, this species is also one of the few known to engage in homosexual activity, particularly between males. Because this is not a species that mates for life, or maintains strict social hierarchies, the purposes of this intercourse is unknown.

Females can store sperm for up to eighteen months, and typically lay their eggs in the following year from May to July in clutches of 3 to 8. These eggs are laid in a deep nest dug into the ground, and take 90 to 135 days to hatch. Young emerge in the fall, and receive no parental care. If they survive, individuals may take between 10 to 16 years to become fully mature, and can live to be 80 years old.

Desert tortoises are well adapted to blend into their environments. The shell is typically a brown or dull yellow, while the body is tan or dusty grey. There is little difference between males and females, save that males are slightly bigger and have a concave plastron (lower shell) to accommodate mounting onto a female. The species is medium sized, ranging between 11 to 23 kg (24.23 to 50.66 lb) in weight and 25 to 36 cm (10 to 14 in) in length.

Conservation status: The IUCN has ranked the Mojave desert tortoise as Critically Endangered. Their primary threats include habitat fragmentation and loss, predation by feral dogs, and road mortality. The population is estimated to have declined by 90% since the 1980s. However, conservation programs are being implemented to preserve critical habitat, and several zoos and conservancies have captive breeding programs for the species.

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Photos

Dana Wilson

Bruce D. Taubert

Sandra Leander

[three-crows-in-hiking-boots]

Wings of Fire Worldbuilding: SeaWing Subspecies

Subspecies: While SeaWings live in all parts of the marine biome, some groups have developed enough adaptations and appear physically different from their more generic counterparts. These subspecies can interbreed, resulting in offspring having a mix of traits from the parents or their family, though they may favor or even fully resemble one parent over the other. Currently, the recognized subspecies are:

Hadal: Largest of the subspecies, Abyssal SeaWings are the most unique in appearance when it comes to the subspecies. They have large eyes, and their bioluminescence is used not only for communication but also to lure prey. They have large wings and long bodies, but move slowly to preserve energy due to the lack of consistent food. They tend to travel alone or in pairs with their partner(s), but are otherwise fairly isolated and spread widely through the deepest regions of the oceans. Unique to Abyssal SeaWings, their scales can range from darker generic values (similar to the scale color of NightWings) to red, rendering them invisible in the depths. They range from the Abyssalpelagic to the Hadalpelagic zone.

Pelagic: Similar in size to generic SeaWings, Pelagic SeaWings are usually the most muscular of the subspecies with m. They have large membranes that are often scarred and ragged due to conspecific interactions as well as predator-prey interactions, as well as long chin barbels that aid in navigation in low-light environments. They’re the fastest of the subspecies, with large, angular, and sharp features and long, sharp snouts. Their scale colors range from dark generic values, generic values, to pale, grey or silver-toned, generic values. They range from the Epipelagic to the Bathypelagic zone, with the lightest individuals being found closest to the surface, and darker individuals being deeper. They often travel in groups, working cooperatively to hunt other fast-moving pelagic species. 

Polar: Polar SeaWings are the closest in appearance to those of the generic SeaWing. They are often considered fat or chubby by those outside the polar region, but their structure is best for their frigid home. Their scales are the most flexible, of the SeaWings, to accommodate the seasonal gain and loss of the blubber layer as they move between polar and more temperate waters to allow for any dragonets born to the subspecies to gain their own blubber layer. They also have the thickest membranes of any subspecies, to the point where they’re opaque rather than translucent, which allows for thermoregulation through them. Their horns resemble those of some IceWings, with them laying almost flat against their body when they swim, reducing the risk of ice-related injury should they get caught on floes. Some individuals have muted and/or paler scale colors, but they also have generic scale colors as well. They, like Pelagic SeaWings, travel in large groups to hunt cooperatively, feeding on seals and other marine mammals.  Royal: Royal SeaWings, while not really a true subspecies, have been given the designation for their unique appearance. They have additional bioluminescent scales on their wings and body, as well as more curled horns. Royal Seawings also have the potential for animus magic, with many animus being listed in the histories of the tribe. They have a higher chance of showing pale scales like those of the Pelagic subspecies, but, without other Pelagic traits.

[credus99-blog]

Between 100-130 million years ago on Atterra, lophiiformes (anglerfish) split off from other teleost fish and began diversifying much like their Earth counterparts. During this period, a group of early anglerfish began to crawl along the ocean floor, just like the extant frogfish of Earth. This lineage of anglers found their way into the hollows through flooded or underwater tunnels. Slowly transitioning from salt water to brackish waters before finally becoming freshwater fish as they adapted to their new environment. These underground anglers began to use their diminishing swim bladder as a basic lung as they clumsily walked across the cavern’s floor in search of new hunting grounds and/or water sources to breed. Each new generation of these amphibious anglers became increasingly efficient at terrestrial locomotion. As time passed, the rays of the amphibious angler’s fins fused to resemble tetrapod limbs. This adaptation allowed them greater survivability from predation by anthropods (arthropods that diverged early in their evolution, developing an internal skeleton, lungs, and a closed circulatory system). Enabling them to diversify into different niches.

    As their limbs became more specialized for movement on land, the terrestrial anglerfish split into three distinct lineages found in the second and third layers of the hollows. The more basal ambush predators who continued to live a more amphibious and sedentary life stayed close to water, utilizing camouflage and their lures to hunt prey in competition with small amphibians inhabiting the hollows. Most species specialized in running down prey lost their lure entirely, filling small to medium grazers and predators niches. Those specializing in climbing and arboreal life developed long, prehensile tails to help them navigate their environment. A handful of these species have colonized Atterra’s surface to varying degrees. Due to terrestrial anglerfish having four legs instead of three like the terrestrial mudskippers, terrestrial anglers can reach larger sizes on average than terrestrial mudskippers. With the average height of many terrestrial anglerfish species being waist to chest height of most humans.

Anatomy/ Physiology:

                Terrestrial anglerfish have four-chambered hearts like birds, mammals, and other terrestrial teleost fish. The hyoid bone and inner ear bones are formed from the gill arches of the terrestrial anglerfish; the gill arches ossifying and attaching to the back of the lower jaw to form the ear bones of the animal. Like terrestrial mudskippers, the terrestrial anglerfish has four nostrils, the two on the end of their snout, and the two under their back legs evolved from their gill openings, which were used in the same way as frogfish as a means of jet propulsion by gulping in water through the mouth and pushing it out through their gill openings.

    Like in other terrestrial teleost fish, the gill covers form into an outer ear to help it detect sounds. Since anglerfish devour prey through suction feeding, terrestrial anglerfish adapted their jaws to hunt prey on land efficiently. An extra jawbone attached from the back of the bottom jaw and the temple (as seen in some anglerfish, such as monkfish) enables terrestrial anglerfish to extend their jaws forward in the same way sharks can. Once extended, the top jaw swings downwards to shut the jaw to grab its prey. The jaws are then retracted as the extra jawbone is pulled back into its resting position. To aid in prey capture, some terrestrial anglerfish also possess an extendable tongue like a frog or chameleon to secure prey and pull it into the animal's jaws.

Specializations:

    Species that have lost their lure use their two remaining dorsal spines for display and as a signifier of their health to fellow competitors and possible mates. The aboral species of terrestrial anglers use their long prehensile tails to grip tree branches and fungal towers as a fifth limb. Some species even use their tails, like boa constrictors, to constrict their prey. 

[headfullof-ideas]

Some dragon lore that might be considered more headcanon that I made up for my fic that I’m just gonna share with the rest of the HTTYD fandom, because I’m fully aware many may not read my fic as it’s a crossover with a teeny tiny show relatively no one’s heard of

- Gronckle’s, Catastrophic Quakens, and Eruptodon’s are related species that evolved in different ways (other related species chains will involve Night Fury-Light Fury-Woolly Howl-Sand Wraith, Hideous Zippleback- Venus Snapptrapper, Boneknapper-Armorwing-Sword Stealer and maybe Timberjack-Typhoomerang)

- Monstrous Nightmare’s are surprisingly strong swimmers and fond of the water, considering they’re a staple Stoker Class dragon with their ability to set themselves on fire

- Deadly Nadder’s have horrible depth perception and used to be a smaller and typically prey-dragon for the cannibal species, which is why they evolved both their spiny tails and such a heightened sense of smell. Lack of depth perception that helps you pinpoint where something is doesn’t mean much when you can either sniff it out or shoot spines in almost every direction as a defense mechanism

- Hideous Zippleback’s are the most well-adapted to life on the ground, especially in wooded areas, amongst the other more common dragon species, and are also the fastest runners. They’re almost better runners than they are fliers. They’re also incredibly good ambush predators, with perfect camouflage in forest environments and impressive stealth, and in areas where there are little other dragons, especially a dragon larger than them, are usually the top of their food chains, which is why they’re one of the bigger of the common breeds (Ala Nightmare’s, Gronckles, and Nadders)

- Speed Stingers fight each other in a similar manner to jousting, but on a much faster and dangerous level, with a bit of the game Chicken thrown in as well

- Deadly Nadder’s are actually a Dual Class dragon, fitting perfectly enough in both the Sharp and Tracker Class that they were categorized into both

- Bewilderbeast’s and the Red Death’s species are both sexually dimorphic, but more in regard to size. Male Bewilderbeast’s are the ones that get so large, hence the name ‘King of Dragons’. The same applies in reverse to the Red Death’s species, with the females the ones that grow to the giant sizes, earning them a similar name ‘Queen of Dragons’. This is also why there are so few of these giant dragons around; there’s a very short window in which they can mate with the opposite sex, before it becomes too dangerous or risky for the smaller partner. Few naturally born males or females of the respective species ever hatch, so they evolved to have long lifespans as a whole, and the smaller sex of each species also evolved the same trick the dinosaurs in Jurassic Park and the frogs they were made with developed; instant transgenderism

- Singetails evolved their complex fire-breathing system as a defense mechanism against the Skrills that were hunting them, and Skrills evolved their long-ranged electrical attacks in retaliation

- The type of lava blast a Gronckle shoots can vary depending on what kind of rocks they ate to prepare for the blast, or what kind of rock diet they usually eat

- Light Furies are glittery because they can often be found near warmer but still polar regions, where the sparkling helps them blend in with the snow. Light Furies also get chunky with blubber the colder the area they live in gets; they adapted to adjust their body weight depending on how much heat they needed to retain due to their surroundings

- Woolly Howls and Snow Wraiths often fight with one another as they live in the same environments and clash over territory

- Monstrous Nightmare’s aren’t necessarily a species that mates for life, but they are one of the species that will keep going back to a certain partner if they liked them, and sometimes refuse other suitors in favor of a repeated partner they’re fond of. They also raise their hatchlings well into young adulthood, unlike some species who wait until the babies can fend for themselves. Some Monstrous Nightmare chicks will even seek out their parents and siblings well into adulthood to check up on them and catch up, or even stay with them

- Night Furies and their related species are like whale pods, who teach lessons and skills through generations and live in family units. Many of a Night Fury’s hidden skills have to be taught by another dragon of the same species, unlike other species who instinctually learn them as they grow. They also age at relatively the same pace as humans, mentally and physically

- Some Gronckles can actually develop allergies to certain rocks and minerals, and have preferences for what rocks they’ll eat in the same way other dragons will prefer a certain kind of fish or game over something else. Gemstones and jewels are kind of like candy to Gronckles

- All the ‘cannibal’ species (Deathsong, Skrill, Deathgripper, etc.) don’t rely on just dragons for their diet, as dragons are some of the hardest prey to catch. Even Cavern Crashers don’t rely on just dragon eggs for their food; they’ll eat any small animal they can get their teeth on, and if they’re lucky, nests of other egg laying animals

- Skrills will also hunt Flightmare’s if presented with the opportunity, as well as some of the smaller ‘Terror’ dragons species (Night Terrors and Terrible Terrors), but they’re also really fond of sheep. They don’t eat fish like most other dragon species unless they find it dead somewhere else, or steal it from another dragon, and that’s if the Skrill even has a taste for fish. This is due to the fact that water is their biggest weakness, and fishing means getting wet and making themselves very vulnerable, which means most don’t even develop a taste or liking for seafood

[trashiejunkyard]

Black rovers are canine evolved to live in the void. These have awful eyesight but they have extraordinary sense due to their more developed sensors from their snout. Combine with good keen sense, they able to navigate through the void and find food. They often travel in pack and viciously guarding their food.

Phantom rays are descendent of flying lizards that once reside in the Ahms region. They glide through the void and outer void in search for food as insects that gather around the pile of food fallen from the surface.

Hollow hares are descendent of unknown species of hare that once reside in Ahms Region. Their extremely powerful legs and long ears that can be use as glider to allow them to safely traverse between landmasses in the void. They are prey animals for other predators that stalk the void.

Stag striders are elongated elk that often found traveling in pack where they use their long limbs to navigate through the void. The leader of the pack which are the male use the glows on his antlers to guide his pack. They migrate throughout the void to find the next food spot. During their migration, their young are vulnerable to the predators due to their size.

Void stalkers are strange predators that lurk the void. Their balloon-like upper body allow them to hover between landmass and use their harpoon limbs to cling onto land. Their hunting tactic is lurking on the under surface of the land mass and ambush their prey.

Void Phytoplanktons are larger organism compare to those in the ocean. It's unknown what cause them to evolve to this proportion or if they are relate to the phytoplankton of the ocean at all but they still serve the same role as their oceanic counterpart did in the void ecosystem.

Voiders are descendent of the sellans of Ahms region that fallen in the void and now force to adapt to the environment of the void. They are relatively same as their ancestor with only minor physical difference which are paler skins, taller, and skinnier body.

Voidborn wyrms are descendent of dragon that escape into the void where they evolve to become apex predator in the world below. Individual wyrms form large territory that they ferociously defend where they use it to hunt for food such as smaller creatures or large mass of phytoplankton. They are known for their aggression to the point intruding their territory is enough to provoke them. They are formidable in term of strength just like their ancestor despite the lost of many abilities that dragon once have. However to make up for it, they can consume gas from the outer void and store it inside their body where they can release from either the mouth for breath attack or their propulsion in their belly to allow them to traverse faster in the void.

[dballzposting]

There's really no plainer way to put it but that Goku's love language is fighting.

As in, that's how he communicates, that's how he expresses himself, that's how he comes to understand, that's how he bonds; the pattern of empassioned push-into and push-back. The resistance and deflection, the purposeful direction, the pinpoint strikes.

It's really not a tug-and-pull yin-and-yang dance between two people, as much as it is that each party is BOTH yin and yang. They enter with their own completed prerogatives, and they have a physical argument to test their stance. Each party has their choice of tactic, their own rhythm of when to roll aside and when to spin and strike back and when to dig their heels in and block.

It's because he's a Saiyan and also because of his upbringing. He grew up with the rhythm of the wilderness, where everything is self-defending and self-righteous; and where everything communicates through subtle fights, those inter-organismic interactions, all utilizing the basic moves of offense, defense, or avoidance.

Different animals utilize different techniques, habits, forces of nature; they fall in different niches in the environment. The rabbit does not want to be preyed on, but if he is caught, he is able to accept this inevitability of present reality with grace; the tiger does not want to be caught, and if he is, he'll size you up and make sure you're worth it before rolling over.

It's driven by instinct and biology, but from Goku's budding perspective, it was no different from how warriors learn and adapt and have the volition to utilize different techniques.

The only other person he knew was his Grandfather, who was one of the best martial artists on Earth at the time, and thus: Goku's early bonding behaviors were ruled by the training he did with his grandpa. This also informed his general understanding of the world at large.

Once Goku started on his epic swag adventure and met new people, he had the capacity to love them all, and he continues to fight for them. But the way he loves his friends is maybe not what people have in their head when they think of deep bonding. He loves them, in a sturdy and firm way, in a "of course I do" way, as upfront and practical as any other observation of the natural world.

It's not deep, raw, or passionate; it's not vulnerable, it's not sustaining, it's not supporting; it's not messy or emotional, it's not blood-red or heart-pink ... Goku just stands with a perfectly straight spine, perfectly secure, and he loves his friends, that's all there is to it! He has fun with them, he enjoys their company, he worries for their well-being ... And he will easily go years and years without ever seeing them. When he does see them, he just picks up where they left off like no time had passed at all.

My point is that Goku doesn't NEED his friends, he does not need to see them or to be with them or to feel their support. You know how humans are social animals and need to interact with others in order to stay healthy and functioning; and you know how Goku isn't a human!

He's a Saiyan, so it's by nature, but it also very much has to do with his lived isolation during his formative years. His roots of stability are in boundless nature, the art of fighting, and confidence in his own body; not in the presence of a community.

When he DOES bond deep with people, as in connect on an intimate level, it's in the context of fighting. That's how he understands them and makes himself understood! Through the language of technique, through the specific combinations of offense, defense, and avoidance.

He routinely makes friends with people whom he originally fights as an opposing party, such as the case with Yamucha, Tenshinhan, Yajirobe, Vegeta ... And he makes a habit out of mercy and requesting teamwork with everyone he fights.

He doesn't take fight to be only an aggressive thing, and he takes to friendly sparring or methodical training really well - thinking very fondly of Master Roshi, Master Korin, Popo, King Kai - and having a DELIGHTFUL time with Krillin when they trained close in their younger days.

Of course, fighting CAN be a purely angry, aggressive thing. But he's always ready to let it Not Be, too. Except in the cases of righteous, seething anger (his battles with the biggest bads who have done much to hurt his friends, planet, and order of the universe), Goku loves it when an opponent wants to hang around and fight again.

It's like how predator animals play with each other by tussling for fun. It's not just when in the pursuit of food do those animals utilize predator behaviors, but it's ALL the time, because they have been endowed by nature to be Of A Certain Make & Model because it helps them to survive, and it's just who they are always. They notice certain things, make certain things out to be important, they are intrigued by certain things, they like to move in certain ways - it's everything about all of them that puts them in their ecological niche.

EXAMPLE: Think about how cats are wired to recognize the visual pattern of a snake and to respond quickly, and that's why they sometimes swat at bananas. Or how they hiss, a behavior that emulates the sound of a snake, but they don't know that, they just get angry and hiss. Or how their eyes and brain are designed to notice and follow Movement, and they find this A.) Important and B.) Intriguing; they often orient toward it. This intrigue is selected for because the movement could be food, but, to the lived experience of the animal, it's also just fun. Cats will play with inanimate objects and rodents all the same.

For comparison, non-predatory birds are wired to find importance in things like color and size and shape when it comes to finding food - and they AVOID movement, taking flight away from rather than orienting toward it like the cat.

Another detail about predatory animals: when hunting, they require the element of resistance to stimulate their predatory instincts. This has the advantage of steering the animal away from already-dead-and-possibly-contaminated prey, and toward still-alive-and-delicious prey. This is why the freeze response works in deterring predators; because when the prey isn't moving and fighting back, the predator doesn't feel stimulated enough to hunt. Who knows what animals feel, but the lived experience may be a sort of disgust or repulsion; a definitive avoidance.

At any rate, cats find a lack of movement and a lack of resistance Boring, which is why your cat loves to chase the string toy you just yanked away from her, and why she gets bored when you stop.

My ultimate point is that that's what Goku is like, as a Saiyan, as a mountain boy, as himself.

It's no surprise that his ONLY goal in life is fight. So it's not bizarre to think that through this is how he comprehends and connects with others.

Since this is the case: I honestly think, that on some level, he has loved every opponent he has ever faced. Even Freeza, who introduced him to the purest and most earnest form of righteous rage - Goku hated him more than he had ever hated anybody; but I think that he still loved him as the living, fighting being he was. It's an undercurrent of love that comes with the territory whenever Goku fights, whenever his body gets to move and express himself in that way; and that LOVE I think is the source of his strength. Fighting for anger or other corrosive emotions dirty your soul in the long-term. Goku loves to fight, and has loved deeply every opponent, even if only at the most basic and required level - but he loved, and he loves, and that's why he's the greatest. It's an expansive, nurturing, positive force that he brings into the world.

He loved his grandfather. He loves Roshi and Krillin and all the rest. He loves his sons, and he bonds with them when he trains them, because it's through this that he comes to understand their deepest ways; and he's honored to do so, and he's proud of them beyond measure.

Chichi has long since been out of the ring, but I think that the most vivid memories that Goku has of her are when she is yanking on his ear or slapping him for his ignorance. Like how the cat attaches importance to patterns of movement, Goku attaches importance to such physical engagement; and he retains those impressions for longer.

What he has with Vegeta is the realest shit right down to their bones and shared Saiyan physiology, and it's imperative that they continue to fight each other for forever.

So I guess my point is that if you want to bond with Goku: you'll have to come at him a bit, and offer meaningful contact, and when he comes at you, never roll over like a possum - actively resist, dodge, and strike back.

[mushroomcrepe]

It's time to make that one obvious critic about dr stone : the biology part of science wasn't exploited enough.

Disclaimer : i'm not a biologist

Firstly, plants are the exact same. I don't expect trees and the general look of plants to change, but would the domesticated for thousands of years whead stay perfectly the way it was and not need any adaptation once humans stopped harvesting it ?

It's also a shame that there were no discovery, like Senku discovering new mushrooms/plants and learning from Chrome which ones are poisonous, Senku trying to get a use from them and experimentating...

The author's choice was to use geology to display how the world changed in 3000 years (ex : Mount Fuji changing the ground aspect) and how mother nature doesn't have feelings and science can make us adapt to her dangers (the discovery and collect of sulfuric acid). I agree it fits Senku knowledge of minerals and with how important they are to the story.

However, i think it would have been an interesting way of showing the mother nature thing by using poisonous plants/mushrooms as meds or something therapeutic (Paracelsus my beloved lol). For the massive change 3000 years makes, simply showing plants that modern characters knows nothing about because they didn't exist before would be enough. It wouldn't be as grandiose as the volcano or sulfuric acid lake sure, but it would show the very daily life of the characters is altered. How they aren't adapted to their world anymore without science, they are stranger on these lands they used to walk on and consider known.

Yeah there is a big waterfall and big acid lake ok but watch out you have to eat and there's only berries and you have no idea if they will be good or your last meal because they didn't exist before.

On another note the Ishigami village people knowledge of their environment would be more important in the story and furthermore show their undeniable contribution to the Kingdom of science.

As for the animals, it's the exact same thing. New fishes, insects, mammals, and you don't know if they are dangerous, venenous, hosts of illnesses of parasites... Which is primordial to know, because in 3000 years difference, the immune system isn't adapted to the new environment anymore.

i think the adaptation aspect of nature was also put aside. Let's take as an exemple the tiny dog we see when their owner got petrificated while on a walk. It's typically the tiny white dog that have difficulty breathing and gets cold easily. It's shown his breed survived all this time, but it always baffled me. How could he hunt and survive for millenias ? Some of the species domesticated by humans would logically go extinct because unable to survive on the long run in the wild.

The reasons for the tiny dog breed would be the many predators bigger than them, rival species for hunt like cats (i guess they both would eat rodents considering their size), and their absolute lack of predisposition for a successful hunting despite their survival instinct (claws, jaw and teeth aren't fit for killing preys). It's logical, because this breed was bred by humans for their "cute" look. Not for security, hunt, defense, or anything like that.

And the most obvious weird biology thing of all : the astronauts descendants. It's a population starting with only 6 people that ends up after 3000+ years with the population of the ishigami village + treasure island people. I am not saying Kohaku, Suika and Chrome were born from millenias of very probable consanguinity, but i just think that with only three couples, it would be difficult for that to not happen. Especially knowing there is like 40 villagers in Ishigami village.

It shouldn't work as easily as the story made it look since consanguinity reduce the survival chances, pneumonia and other illness was also running, there were many deads from hunger... But they still could have enough descendants to survive 3000 years. I guess they would need to be very lucky to not have any problem with the genetic factor.

Anyway i understand the new biodiversity wasn't revelent for Senku's crazy ideas and that the plot needed to focus on the minerals and such. It's just that i find the "it's a whole stone age world since 3000 years passed" under exploited.