#overgeneralization of grammar

[langslingslinger]

@official-linguistics-post

Six year old, bouncing up and down with glee as desserts are unpacked: "I'm so appointed!"

Took me a moment to realize she had logically assumed "appointed" must be the opposite of "disappointed" and used it as a synonym for "excited."

[max1461]

Linguists deal with two kinds of theories or models.

First, you have grammars. A grammar, in this sense, is a model of an individual natural language: what sorts of utterances occur in that language? When are they used and what do they mean? Even assembling this sort of model in full is a Herculean task, but we are fairly successful at modeling sub-systems of individual languages: what sounds occur in the language, and how may they be ordered and combined?—this is phonology. What strings of words occur in the language, and what strings don't, irrespective of what they mean?—this is syntax. Characterizing these things, for a particular language, is largely tractable. A grammar (a model of the utterances of a single language) is falsified if it predicts utterances that do not occur, or fails to predict utterances that do occur. These situations are called "overgeneration" and "undergeneration", respectively. One of the advantages linguistics has as a science is that we have both massive corpora of observational data (text that people have written, databases of recorded phone calls), and access to cheap and easy experimental data (you can ask people to say things in the target language—you have to be a bit careful about how you do this—and see if what they say accords with your model). We have to make some spherical cow type assumptions, we have to "ignore friction" sometimes (friction is most often what the Chomskyans call "performance error", which you do not have to be a Chomskyan to believe in, but I digress). In any case, this lets us build robust, useful, highly predictive, and falsifiable, although necessarily incomplete, models of individual natural languages. These are called descriptive grammars.

Descriptive grammars often have a strong formal component—Chomsky, for all his faults, recognized that both phonology and syntax could be well described by formal grammars in the sense of mathematics and computer science, and these tools have been tremendously productive since the 60s in producing good models of natural language. I believe Chomsky's program sensu stricto is a dead end, but the basic insight that human language can be thought about formally in this way has been extremely useful and has transformed the field for the better. Read any descriptive grammar, of a language from Europe or Papua or the Amazon, and you will see (in linguists' own idiosyncratic notation) a flurry regexes and syntax trees (this is a bit unfair—the computer scientists stole syntax trees from us, also via Chomsky) and string rewrite rules and so on and so forth. Some of this preceded Chomsky but more than anyone else he gave it legs.

Anyway, linguists are also interested in another kind of model, which confusingly enough we call simply a "theory". So you have "grammars", which are theories of individual natural languages, and you have "theories", which are theories of grammars. A linguistic theory is a model which predicts what sorts of grammar are possible for a human language to have. This generally comes in the form of making claims about

the structure of the cognitive faculty for language, and its limitations

the pathways by which language evolves over time, and the grammars that are therefore attractors and repellers in this dynamical system.

Both of these avenues of research have seen some limited success, but linguistics as a field is far worse at producing theories of this sort than it is at producing grammars.

Capital-G Generativism, Chomsky's program, is one such attempt to produce a theory of human language, and it has not worked very well at all. Chomsky's adherents will say it has worked very well—they are wrong and everybody else thinks they are very wrong, but Chomsky has more clout in linguistics than anyone else so they get to publish in serious journals and whatnot. For an analogy that will be familiar to physics people: Chomskyans are string theorists. And they have discovered some stuff! We know about wh-islands thanks to Generativism, and we probably would not have discovered them otherwise. Wh-islands are weird! It's a good thing the Chomskyans found wh-islands, and a few other bits and pieces like that. But Generativism as a program has, I believe, hit a dead end and will not be recovering.

Right, Generativism is sort of, kind of attempting to do (1), poorly. There are other people attempting to do (1) more robustly, but I don't know much about it. It's probably important. For my own part I think (2) has a lot of promise, because we already have a fairly detailed understanding of how language changes over time, at least as regards phonology. Some people are already working on this sort of program, and there's a lot of work left to be done, but I do think it's promising.

Someone said to me, recently-ish, that the success of LLMs spells doom for descriptive linguistics. "Look, that model does better than any of your grammars of English at producing English sentences! You've been thoroughly outclassed!". But I don't think this is true at all. Linguists aren't confused about which English sentences are valid—many of us are native English speakers, and could simply tell you ourselves without the help of an LLM. We're confused about why. We're trying to distill the patterns of English grammar, known implicitly to every English speaker, into explicit rules that tell us something explanatory about how English works. An LLM is basically just another English speaker we can query for data, except worse, because instead of a human mind speaking a human language (our object of study) it's a simulacrum of such.

Uh, for another physics analogy: suppose someone came along with a black box, and this black box had within it (by magic) a database of every possible history of the universe. You input a world-state, and it returns a list of all the future histories that could follow on from this world state. If the universe is deterministic, there should only be one of them; if not maybe there are multiple. If the universe is probabilistic, suppose the machine also gives you a probability for each future history. If you input the state of a local patch of spacetime, the machine gives you all histories in which that local patch exists and how they evolve.

Now, given this machine, I've got a theory of everything for you. My theory is: whatever the machine says is going to happen at time t is what will happen at time t. Now, I don't doubt that that's a very useful thing! Most physicists would probably love to have this machine! But I do not think my theory of everything, despite being extremely predictive, is a very good one. Why? Because it doesn't tell you anything, it doesn't identify any patterns in the way the natural world works, it just says "ask the black box and then believe it". Well, sure. But then you might get curious and want to ask: are there patterns in the black box's answers? Are there human-comprehensible rules which seem to characterize its output? Can I figure out what those are? And then, presto, you're doing good old regular physics again, as if you didn't even have the black box. The black box is just a way to run experiments faster and cheaper, to get at what you really want to know.

General Relativity, even though it has singularities, and it's incompatible with Quantum Mechanics, is better as a theory of physics than my black box theory of everything, because it actually identifies patterns, it gives you some insight into how the natural world behaves, in a way that you, a human, can understand.

In linguistics, we're in a similar situation with LLMs, only LLMs are a lot worse than the black box I've described—they still mess up and give weird answers from time to time. And more importantly, we already have a linguistic black box, we have billions of them: they're called human native speakers, and you can find one in your local corner store or dry cleaner. Querying the black box and trying to find patterns is what linguistics already is, that's what linguists do, and having another, less accurate black box does very little for us.

Now, there is one advantage that LLMs have. You can do interpretability research on LLMs, and figure out how they are doing what they are doing. Linguists and ML researchers are kind of in a similar boat here. In linguistics, well, we already all know how to talk, we just don't know how we know how to talk. In ML, you have these models that are very successful, buy you don't know why they work so well, how they're doing it. We have our own version of interpretability research, which is neuroscience and neurolinguistics. And ML researchers have interpretability research for LLMs, and it's very possible theirs progresses faster than ours! Now with the caveat that we can't expect LLMs to work just like the human brain, and we can't expect the internal grammar of a language inside an LLM to be identical to the one used implicitly by the human mind to produce native-speaker utterances, we still might get useful insights out of proper scrutiny of the innards of an LLM that speaks English very well. That's certainly possible!

But just having the LLM, does that make the work of descriptive linguistics obsolete? No, obviously not. To say so completely misunderstands what we are trying to do.

[aihumanizerpro]

How AI Humanizer Pro Helps Researchers Turn AI Drafts into Publication-Ready Papers

Imagine investing years into a groundbreaking study, only to face rejection because your paper lacks a natural tone. Or relying on AI tools to speed up your writing—only for your content to be flagged. A survey involving 908 environmental science researchers revealed that non-native English speakers are 2.5 to 3 times more likely to have papers rejected due to language issues. These problems are usually aggravated by mechanical phrasing by AI tools. This inhibits publication and even discourages great minds from continuing research.

To assist in solving these problems, AI Humanizer Pro provides an enhanced solution to fill the gap between AI Humanizer and publication-ready writing.

AI Humanizer: The Assistant That Polishes Your Research Voice

AI Humanizer Pro is an easy-to-use tool designed to transform robotic, AI-written drafts into natural, readable scholarly work. Whether you are writing using ChatGPT, Perplexity, or similar software to write, this tool smoothes your writing without losing the original research intent. It refines tone, enhances structure, and makes writing read as if it were written by a human being.

Perfect for students, scholars, and researchers, it's your best companion to produce authentic and eloquent academic content.

Why AI-Generated Content More Often Than Not Fails in Academia

Though AI platforms make it easy to write, journal editors and research reviewers are now more vigilant than ever. With the prevalence of AI detection software, even well-researched articles can get flagged or rejected if they appear machine-written.

Common problems are repetitive language, ambiguous statements, and weak linkage between ideas. Even with thorough research, your paper may lose reliability and experience delays or rejections for unnatural tone.

Common Problems in AI-Aided Research Writing

Robotic Tone: Robot-like drafts are common when AI generates them, even when grammatically sound.

Overlooked Academic Purpose: AI tends to overgeneralize or misuse technical vocabulary, resulting in muddled or deceptive conclusions.

Detection by AI Checkers: Most journals now employ AI checker software to verify content originality, and machine-generated content tends to get detected.

Non-native Writers and AI: Most researchers employ AI software to polish grammar, but it can still lead to stilted or formulaic writing—particularly in abstracts or literature reviews.

How AI Humanizer Pro Fixes AI-Writing Pitfalls

Natural Academic Language Transformation: The software rewrites content in natural human fluency, as if the voice is a real researcher's.

Preserves Original Research Context: It enhances flow without changing your arguments or findings.

Evades AI Detection Tools: With advanced processing, it minimizes patterns that cause AI detection tools to activate while maintaining content authenticity.

Several Tone Presets: From academic to conversational, the software lets you control tone to suit your publication standards.

Why AI Humanizer Pro Trumps Simple Grammar Tools

Better than Grammar Checks: It rewrites content with academic style in mind, not just fixing sentences.

Addresses AI-generated Flaws: It eliminates robotic language, redundancy, and vague statements, so your writing flows and grabs attention.

Increases Trust with Humanized Tone: By humanizing AI work, the tool makes reviewers view your paper as well-written and credible—not a product of cut corners.

Your Trusted Research Partner

AI Humanizer Pro is not merely a language tool—it's a crucial friend in your publishing journey. From polishing a dissertation, proposal, or journal article, it makes machine-written text into a version that is natural, submission-worthy, and free of red flags.

Copy and paste your text, select your tone, and let AI Humanizer Pro make your research sparkle risk-free.

[inneracceptancetherapy]

10 Effective Anxiety Treatment Techniques You Can Try Today

Living with anxiety can be challenging, but it's essential to know that various effective treatment techniques can help you manage and alleviate anxiety symptoms. This blog post will discover ten evidence-based anxiety treatment techniques you can try today. These techniques range from self-help strategies to professional interventions, providing a comprehensive toolkit to address anxiety and improve overall well-being. Remember, consulting with a healthcare professional for an accurate diagnosis and personalized treatment plan is essential.

Deep Breathing Exercises

Deep breathing exercises are simple yet powerful techniques that can help reduce anxiety symptoms. You activate your body's relaxation response by focusing on your breath and consciously slowing it down. One effective method is diaphragmatic breathing, inhaling intensely through your nose, allowing your tummy to rise, and exhaling slowly through your mouth. Practicing deep breathing for a few minutes daily can help calm your mind and boost relaxation, making it a valuable tool in anxiety treatment.

Progressive Muscle Relaxation

Progressive muscle relaxation applies systematically tensing and relaxing different muscle groups. By consciously releasing the tension, you can induce physical and mental relaxation. Start by tensing a specific muscle group, such as your hands or shoulders, for a few seconds, and then release the tension while focusing on the sensation of relaxation.

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is a widely recognized and effective anxiety treatment. Working with a trained therapist for anxiety treatment in Houston, you can better understand your anxiety triggers and develop practical strategies to manage them effectively. Here are some of its best benefits:

Understanding the Thought-Emotion-Behavior Connection - CBT focuses on the relationship between our thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. It helps us recognize that our thoughts can influence how we feel and behave in anxiety-provoking situations.

Identifying Negative Thought Patterns - CBT involves identifying negative or distorted thought patterns contributing to anxiety. These may include catastrophizing, overgeneralization, or jumping to conclusions. Recognizing these patterns is the first step towards challenging and changing them.

Mindfulness Meditation

Mindfulness meditation involves cultivating present-moment awareness and non-judgmental acceptance of thoughts, feelings, and bodily sensations. Regular practice can help you develop a more balanced perspective towards anxiety-provoking thoughts and reduce the tendency to get caught up in anxious thinking. Mindfulness can be practiced through formal meditation sessions or integrated into daily activities, such as mindful eating or mindful walking.

Regular Exercise

Regular physical exercise has been shown to benefit anxiety treatment significantly. Exercise releases endorphins, natural mood-boosting chemicals in the brain, and helps reduce stress hormones. Aspire for at least 30 minutes of moderate-intensity exercise, such as fast walking, jogging, or dancing, on most days of the week. Find activities you enjoy and make them a part of your routine to experience the anxiety-reducing effects of exercise.

Journaling and Expressive Writing

Expressive writing and journaling can be therapeutic tools for managing anxiety. You gain clarity and a sense of release by setting your thoughts and emotions on paper. Write freely, without troubling grammar or structure, and let your words flow. You can explore your fears, worries, or any triggers contributing to your anxiety. Additionally, you can write about positive experiences, gratitude, or affirmations to cultivate a more optimistic mindset.

Social Support

Building a solid support system of friends, family, or support groups can be invaluable in managing anxiety. Reach out to trusted individuals who understand and empathize with your struggles. Talking openly about your anxiety can provide relief, perspective, and connection. Consider joining support groups, either in-person or online, where you can share experiences and gain insights from others facing similar challenges.

Limiting Caffeine and Alcohol Intake

Caffeine and alcohol can make worse anxiety symptoms in some individuals. Caffeine is a stimulant that can increase heart rate, trigger jitters, and worsen anxiety. Alcohol, on the other hand, can initially induce relaxation but may lead to rebound anxiety as its effects wear off. Pay attention to how these substances affect your anxiety levels and consider reducing or eliminating them from your routine.

Time Management and Stress Reduction

Managing stress and maintaining a balanced lifestyle is crucial for anxiety treatment. Identify stressors and explore effective time management techniques to prioritize tasks and avoid feeling overwhelmed. Incorporate stress-reduction activities such as meditation, hobbies, or engaging in activities that bring you joy. Creating a balanced routine with relaxation and self-care can help ease anxiety and improve overall well-being.

Seeking Professional Help

If anxiety significantly impacts your daily life and interferes with your functioning, seeking professional help is essential. A mental health professional can deliver a thorough assessment, diagnosis, and individualized treatment plan tailored to your needs. They may recommend therapy, medication, or both to manage your anxiety effectively. Don't hesitate to seek professional support when needed to find our effective anxiety disorder treatment in Houston.

Conclusion

Managing anxiety is an ongoing journey, and different techniques work for different individuals. By exploring these ten effective anxiety treatment techniques, you can begin to develop a personalized toolkit for managing and reducing anxiety symptoms. Remember, finding the right combination of strategies may require patience and experimentation, so be gentle with yourself as you navigate your anxiety treatment path.

In addition, you can discover transformative anxiety treatment in Kingwood at Inner Acceptance Therapy, where we provide compassionate support and evidence-based techniques to help you find inner peace and live a life free from anxiety's grip.

[dinamicus]

 @philosopherking1887​ First of all, i see  that you selected very well  to which from my arguments to answer or not 

 oookey you also answer but you do not let room for the answer and even offers me a bet and you do not let me answer you about it

okey  mmm 

am I supposed to give you a reading of my professional credentials now? no, thanks 

No memory of the entrance to the psychoanalysis that was not psychoanalysis ?. Quiet, I'm sure you'll reminder it

 Why  the argument  about that emotionality is overtaking the debate  is invalid? Will it be because it's true?

 There is nothing wrong with separating the emotion of reason when evaluating the merits of an event. Rationalization as defense is bad, but emotions are just  a guide, they can not dictate your appreciation of things. 

Well,at least Freud tried to analyze why it happened that people resort to humor in complex  and even grotesque situations, not only acting on the defensive, and saying that people are being too rude I love the meta, but this ? it’s destructive, many people here is young people that really  talks  about thing, as psichoanalysis ,or systemic psychology, or personality, or whatever they are trying to do, just taking what serves to emphasize your point and leaving the rest out

You are romanticizing the possible (and I emphasize possible) status of Loki as a mental patient, and that bothers me. He is so special, he is so misunderstood, he has no responsibility, no need to have empathy with anyone, because he  only that important

Please put yourself a moment in Thor's place. he have spent the last weeks as a gladiator slave, with no real hope of getting out of there. Finally he succeeds, meets his brother who promises help to get him not only, but all the people who participated in the rebellion, suddenly he says some things to Loki that he does not like and Loki threatens to betray him?: As much as it fascinates me, that bothers me. I think, what should Thor do? expect Loki to fulfill his promise . Not according to you, he should ask forgiveness and take full responsibility for the things that have happened between them Do you want  overgeneralization, personal experiencies ? well , here goes  one:My best friend has had to deal with two suicide attempts of her sister in the last six months.  I know that a pathology  carrier can to be creative, fascinating and charming, but also self centered, and life around them can become miserable just for those who love to him/her. They’re no turn into villaIns either, even families wil lbe  have personal background with mental illness.

You are also being elitist , 

one thing that never occurred to me that Loki could do if the damn power really fell into his hands, but you're doing it and your speech you have acquired some power in this bubble that is tumblr, and you are here counting your troops and  being snarky of the fallen because they are fools (oh, snarky comments,sin!) and counting the number of converts that you have achieved 

this depresses me more than challenge me you hope more for someone who quotes Freud and Lacan, well I expect something more from someone who reads Nietzsche

EDIT FOR TUMBLR ES UN HELL FOR GRAMMAR, TOO AND MY DESTINATARY IS VERY SENSIBLE TO THE FORMS

[lovlae]

Maya!! For some people it’s impossible to communicate in a different Spanish speaking country even if they’re from a place who speaks Spanish !! Yes it’s “all still Spanish” but spoken two completely different ways. I am studying Spanish/ am fluent and even then there’s still so many differences in grammar and vocabulary. There’s times when I’m reading Spanish literature (from Spain) and I need to read over several times because it almost feels like a different language vsjsgwkuwjsjsggjehneksj

thats so interesting!!! language is so complex!!!! I don’t mean to offend or overgeneralize of course :–) I’ve just talked to spanish-speaking friends from mexico and my family-friends who live in spain and they said that there are obvious differences but they can still communicate mostly because it is spanish, thats where my point of view was coming from! but I’m obviously not educated on it! thank youuuuu sm for your input 

[clearui]

“Too Literal” in Japanese-English Translations

I was planning to make a paper for my intercultural study about this, but I decided to go with other topics ww. However, I think this is an important issue, so I want to talk about it. You can ignore me since I’m just having my usual stressed ramblings.

For someone like me who has been in translating for both my carreer(part-time) and my hobby. I've encountered the most common mistakes in Japanese-English translation works, either they are texts, books, games, etc.

The issue of "Too Literal" is the most common thing I've seen in localizing and translating works, and some of them are just.... bad. 

1. What do I think is the difference between a good and a bad translations/localizations?

Grammar? Typos? Punctuations?

Nah, those things are trivial for me. You can fix them by hiring professional proofreaders and quality checkers. 

The essence of translation is delivering messages(meanings) from the source language to the target language. Hence, it is easy for me to tell the difference. A bad translation/localization would have misplaced meanings, and most of times, I cannot understand what this work is telling me. Instead, a good or decent translation would have messages clearly delivered, even there are times the wordings are totally different(paraphrased.)

2. Why being too literal is that much of an issue for me?

Hahaaa, I actually discussed this with my senior translator in work. She said that Japanese is a multi-layered language, and she doesn't want to deal with it as much as possible. I actually kind of understand what she was getting at since this was the common issue when I first studying Japanese by textbook. Okay, it was a failure for me. I am not capable of learning language by textbook, thus I just forced myself with frequent exposure in Japanese, in which I tried to converse in Japanese as much as possible, thus right now, I can understand Japanese most of times without having to translate anything to my mother tongue or English inside my head.

Back to the topic, there are actually various answers, but the problem essentially lies in the differences of languages' respective natures.

We know that Japanese and English are different, but what makes it so different? I am not talking about grammar or structure this time. Of course they're different.

It is something I learned in inter-cultural communication class, but languages and cultures can be categorized to two categories, thus "high-context" and "low-context."

English as language is considered as a language of a "low-context" culture, which means that English-speaking cultures expect communications to be explicitly stated so that there’s no risk of confusion, and if a message is not clear enough, it will slow down the process of communication. In the most extreme cases, leaving any sort of rooms for misinterpretation can be disastrous. Meanwhile, Japanese as a language is a considered as language of a "high-context" culture, in which that most Japanese communications relies on underlying context, meaning, and tone in the message, and not just the words themselves.

Since this is not my formal paper, I’ll just give a simple example to make it a bit easier to understand..

Example:

X 「もし、良ければ繋がっていただきたいです。」

Let's see how many interpretations you can get from the line above. (If you understand what it means, it's really ambiguous, but I did it on purpose. ww)

Literal Translation (Google Translate) (I don't hate machine translations like GT, but I cannot find them helpful since they're too literal, and it's not helpful in translating sentences.)

Can you make sense the English translation without context? It doesn't make sense to me, sorry. Even you can make sense out of it, it’s because you have a prior knowledge or context to understand what/why/when/where X said that sentence.

As I infered above, Japanese relies on underlying context, meaning, and tone in the message, and not just the words themselves.

We can get multiple interpretations based on the situations(contexts) where/when X says this.

X is introducing himself for the first time;

X "If it's alright, let's talk again next time."  or... X "If you don't mind, I want to get acquainted with you."

X is asking permission to contact you for next meeting or arrangement;

X "If possible, I would like to contact you next time."

X is planning to have a phone-call with some higher-ups, but somehow, his call is directed to the secretary's desk instead;

X "Please connect me to ______(possibly the superior or the person in charge)."

X wants to reconcile with someone;

X "I want us to reconcile, if that's okay with you."

or etc. (It’s possible for me to write down some... *coughs* situations, but my blog is a safe blog. You have your brain to imagine.) 

You can see how many interpretations can be made from one sentence depending on its situation. Thus, translating Japanese-English needs CONTEXT, CONTEXT, and CONTEXT.

Most likely that bad translations are resulted by translators  overgeneralizing that Japanese is also low-context culture's language like English, or the translators have no idea about the differences at all.

[neednothavehappenedtobetrue]

just used Thesaurus.com to look up a word.

I am usually quite opposed to thesauruses because they are overgenerous with the concept of “synonyms” and then people use words they don’t know the connotations of, so I am feeling a certain amount of dishonor on my cow, but I needed a word for the opposite of “mercurial” and none of the ones I could think of were right 

(I went with “predictable”)

this is why you probably shouldn’t be a Grammar and Usage Asshole, there will come a day where you, too, need to use thesaurus.com and eat your previous words about how thesauruses are bad.

[englishtogether]

Homework: First Language Acquisition

Some facts about language acquisition are that there is no genetic predisposition for acquiring particular languages, all human languages are equally easy to acquire as first languages, and children can acquire two or more first languages, all essential parts of language, such as grammar, are acquire by age 5-6, formal instruction is generally unnecessary because they figure that out by themselves. Some puzzles about language acquisition are that children tend to say things they have never heard before and actually get most of things right without correction, they master grammar by age 5, but do not master complex mathematics until age 15. Linguistics try to explain these puzzles and more.

"The Critical Period Hypothesis" explains that there is a time window during which language acquisition is easy and automatic, and after that period it becomes very difficult (if not impossible) to acquire language with a native speaker fluency. Two different approaches of the language acquisition are: Usage-based view: Children extract generalizations from the language they hear. Nativist view: Language acquisition is guided by genetically determined innate structures (core elements of linguistic structure) or strategies (language-specific learning mechanisms).

Things that could be innate in language learning may include linguistics structures and categories, specialized learning strategies that apply only to language and are different from those used in learning other cognitive skills, or general socio-cognitive abilities that underlie learning in all cognitive domains. Some theories of language acquisition:

1.         Behaviorism by B.F. Skinner: Psychological theory that had the goal of avoiding explanations that are mentalistic (unobservable). Learning depends on reinforcement and feedback; for example, babbling random syllables similar to real words might be reinforced (positive reinforced), and ungrammatical utterances might be ignored or not complied with (negative reinforced).

2.         Universal Grammar by Chomsky: The main claim of this theory is that the structure of language is independent of use, and it is more abstract. Learning language is genetically encoded.

3.         Socio-cognitivism by J. Piaget: The mechanisms that underlie general cognitive development also underlie language acquisition. Language develops as socio-cognitive abilities develop (socio-cognitive abilities like imitation, intention-reading...).

Stages of language acquisition include the Babbling Stage from around 6 to 8 months, One-word Stage from around 1 year, Two-word Stage from around 18 to 20-24 months, and then the Beyond to two words Stage. Similar stages can be observed between all languages.

For the phonological development, some sounds are acquired earlier than others due to the difficulty level. In the meantime, there is omission and substitution of sounds. For the morphological development, early sounds are learned as chunks without internal morphological structure. Regarding lexicon and semantics, many kids by age 18 months know 50 words, and by age 6 years know 13,000 (it may vary). The most common semantic errors are overgeneralization (calling doggie all animals), and undergeneralization (thinking that taxis are not cars).

[bayesic-bitch]

That's wild! How does it do for longer sentences? Attention mechanisms are Turing complete, which means it's possible that they may be overgeneral for natural grammar constructions, which only require push-down automata (approximately) to recognize. Does it get confused if you ask it to translate a long stream-of-consciousness sentence like this?

Holy shit. Gemini Pro 2.5 can, on the basis of a (very incomplete) grammatical description + dictionary of one of my conlangs:

compose novel, grammatically correct sentences in this conlang

understand sentences I have written in the conlang (even when I make grammatical errors myself!) and reply with its own novel, grammatically correct, and contextually appropriate sentences

write a (mostly) grammatically correct short story in this conlang

This is from a written description of the grammar, together with a dictionary. This conlang is nowhere online, so it's not in the training data. The grammar description itself has relatively few example sentences, it's mostly morphological tables and written descriptions of grammatical features.

Wow! That's really something to me, above and beyond what I already knew LLMs could do.

The language has some quite subtle features involving things like animacy hierarchy based morphosyntactic shifts that involve thinking about the semantics + pragmatic relationships between certain words (in a conlang! not words the Gemini base model already knows!) and selecting different constructions appropriately. I guess that's what all of grammar is, but the animacy hierarchy stuff impressed me especially.

The biggest errors the model made were due to weird text encoding issues in the grammar PDF that confused it, but it usually managed to figure out how to make a correct sentence in the end.

This is pretty impressive to me.

[aihumanizerpro]

How AI Humanizer Pro Helps Researchers Turn AI Drafts into Publication-Ready Papers

Imagine investing years into a groundbreaking study, only to face rejection because your paper lacks a natural tone. Or relying on AI tools to speed up your writing—only for your content to be flagged. A survey involving 908 environmental science researchers revealed that non-native English speakers are 2.5 to 3 times more likely to have papers rejected due to language issues. These problems are usually aggravated by mechanical phrasing by AI tools. This inhibits publication and even discourages great minds from continuing research.

To assist in solving these problems, AI Humanizer Pro provides an enhanced solution to fill the gap between AI-generated content and publication-ready writing.

AI Humanizer: The Assistant That Polishes Your Research Voice

AI Humanizer Pro is an easy-to-use tool designed to transform robotic, AI-written drafts into natural, readable scholarly work. Whether you are writing using ChatGPT, Perplexity, or similar software to write, this tool smoothes your writing without losing the original research intent. It refines tone, enhances structure, and makes writing read as if it were written by a human being.

Perfect for students, scholars, and researchers, it's your best companion to produce authentic and eloquent academic content.

Why AI-Generated Content More Often Than Not Fails in Academia

Though AI platforms make it easy to write, journal editors and research reviewers are now more vigilant than ever. With the prevalence of AI detection software, even well-researched articles can get flagged or rejected if they appear machine-written.

Common problems are repetitive language, ambiguous statements, and weak linkage between ideas. Even with thorough research, your paper may lose reliability and experience delays or rejections for unnatural tone.

Common Problems in AI-Aided Research Writing

Robotic Tone: Robot-like drafts are common when AI generates them, even when grammatically sound.

Overlooked Academic Purpose: AI tends to overgeneralize or misuse technical vocabulary, resulting in muddled or deceptive conclusions.

Detection by AI Checkers: Most journals now employ AI checker software to verify content originality, and machine-generated content tends to get detected.

Non-native Writers and AI: Most researchers employ AI software to polish grammar, but it can still lead to stilted or formulaic writing—particularly in abstracts or literature reviews.

How AI Humanizer Pro Fixes AI-Writing Pitfalls

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[litanylanguagelearning]

The Three Stages Of Language Learning

When you start learning a language for the first time you learn in stages. I think the easiest way to think about this is to think about babies.

I took a linguistics course in University and in it we learned that babies have a weird way of learning languages. They start learning individual words then they start using grammar that is overgeneralized before learning the exact rules.

So by 'overgeneralized' I mean they try to apply general rules to all circumstances. So a baby might ask, "Why are there so many persons here?" when the correct phrase is "Why are there so many people here?". Now I know 'persons' is technically correct in some scenarios but it's not what people normally say.

The technical term for these words that babies say, and I really have to dig up my old notes for this (god, I wish I had followed the way of writing notes I originally thought up of in third year) is 'irregular forms'.

And what's more it says here that babies know how to use irregular forms properly and then overgeneralize before learning how to use them properly again.

Now I don't remember what I was thinking when I wrote these notes but this seems to me that this leads to three stages of language development: copying speech verbatim, knowing rules but not the exceptions, and then learning the exceptions to the rules.

And I think adults go through the exact same stages. Like when I learn a new language the first time I have a tendency to translate word for word.

So for example German right now. 'Where is the train station'. OK, we know 'where' is 'wo' in German. I think 'is' is 'ist'. 'The' I can never remember but I believe it's 'dein' or is that your..? And train station is a crazy word. Like hoberfauf or something.

So let's see how we did: "Wo ist der Bahnholf". It's pretty terrible, admittedly. But it's not completely off. I got Wo and Ist correct. It's der not dein but close enough. And Bahnholf is a crazy word. Not as crazy as hoberfauf but similar enough.

Of course there's also grammar like how a lot of languages like to put the noun before the adjective like in German and Spanish but that's just a technicality, let's ignore that.

So that's phase 1: Translating word for word. And this is why in my language learning app it was so important that you could actually see the translations of each word.

Now let's look at phase 2: overgeneralizing. This means applying general rules to phrases. I'm in this stage with Spanish. This means you generally know the pattern to follow for phrases, but it is very difficult because synonyms.

There are so many synonyms like buscar and encountrar. I mean they're not technically synonyms. Buscar is find and encountrar is encounter. You wouldn't say "I'm going to encounter my friends". No, it's "I'm going to find my friends." But they are close enough to be confusing.

So in stage 1 you sort of just memorized each phrase word for word stage 2 is about the actual meaning of the words which means synonyms can really start to trip you up. I mean, they could trip you up in stage 1 but they're even worse in stage 2.

I'm considering adding a feature in my app to combat this exact problem.

And then the final phase is you know all the rules again. And that concludes the three stages: copying speech verbatim, knowing rules but not the exceptions, and then learning the exceptions to the rules.

For the past year I've been trying to learn a language using Anki. And although it's a very nice tool it always felt like it was missing something.

So I made my own app and it fixes all the problems I've had with Anki and then some. I am incredibly happy with how it turned out and you can try it out for free here. There is a subscription, but that's only to unlock additional features.

[essaysetupstructureromeoand946]

professional writing service

About me

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[realtalk-princeton]

@Faun maybe the question wasn't submitted? just wanted to know more about life in Japan, especially culture (food, people) and language barrier

@faunJapan hey Faun, could you describe your experience in Japan? especially about the culture and people (and maybe safety)? thanks in advance :-)

Response from Faun:

Hey, sorry I’ve been away for a bit! Thanks for your question; I’ll do my best to answer it however I can. Just want to say in advance, all of this is based on my personal experience, so it could definitely vary for other people who have lived in/traveled to Japan. I am by no means an expert on Japanese culture, which in and of itself is hardly monolithic, so I’ll strive to avoid making uninformed, overgeneralized assertions about anything from my (outsider) perspective.

That being said, I think one general broad perception many people will have of Japan(ese culture) upon first arriving is the high emphasis on civility and order. Compared to countries such as the United States, Japan has a lot more organization and structure in nearly every facet of everyday life: buses always arrive on time, commuters queue up in perfect lines for the train, city streets are kept spotless and litter-free, etc. Furthermore, most people whom you meet (especially those who work in hospitality) will be extremely polite, from taxi drivers to restaurant servers to department store clerks—it’s very rare that you would encounter someone in Japan who is outwardly discourteous to you. A lot of this is derived from a sense of collectivism, which promotes group harmony and the good of the community above that of any one single person, that distinguishes Japan (as well as many other Asian countries) from some of the individualist cultures of the West. Nevertheless, I don’t think you can make any sweeping assumptions about how your interpersonal interactions with people in Japan will turn out before you actually get there.

For example, the first time I went to Japan, I lived in a fairly rural farming city in Fukuoka, which is located on the southernmost island of Kyushu, with an older couple without any children. They lived a pretty “traditional” Japanese lifestyle: their house had tatami mat flooring and sliding doors, they both took a bath after dinner every day, and we slept in futons on the ground in lieu of beds. I was only fifteen at the time, so being still a child I wasn’t really allowed to venture out too much on my own, but I remember enjoying the slow pace of summer life and the beautiful scenery of the Japanese countryside. I spent a lot of time with my host family and grew quite close to them, especially my host mother; we would pick vegetables from the garden and cook meals together, go on evening walks around the neighborhood after dinner, and sit in front of the television watching afternoon programs, me doing my homework while she folded the laundry. My host parents introduced me to a lot of local culture, bringing me to visit their family’s tea fields and taking me to various historical landmarks in the region. They weren’t super talkative, but in a way that was a plus, since it allowed me to slowly develop my comfort with the basics of the language as I lived with them. Overall, they demonstrated a lot of care for me, and I cherished them as if they were my own relatives.

In contrast, I had a somewhat harder time with my host family last year, when I participated in PII. I lived in the suburbs of Kanazawa, which is a moderately large coastal city, with a family of two parents and their two children, around my age. They had a much more “modern” lifestyle: their house was Western in style, located in a fairly new housing complex, both the father and the mother worked, and the family would take meals separately, depending on when they each came home from school or work. However, I had a more difficult time connecting with the individual members of the household; the children were usually out and about doing their own thing, and the father often came home rather late from work. I spent the most time with my host mother, but at first I had trouble adjusting to some of her stringent expectations of me—she would instruct me to put up my hair if I had it down, for example, or tell me to sit up straighter at the dinner table, and I wasn’t comfortable with such a familiar level of “parenting” in my relationship with a host family. Additionally, I struggled more with the language barrier this time around, even though I was much more advanced in Japanese at this point, likely because my host family thought I would be able to handle more complex grammar structures or vocabulary than I actually could given my current level. It wasn’t as if the family was rude or cold or anything like that; they were always kind and courteous to me, and we would also sometimes go on outings to restaurants or local cultural sites, which were pretty fun. Altogether, I just didn’t click as well with them as I did with my other host family (though in their defense, I was also severely depressed last summer so that probably played a part lol).

With regard to food, I feel like it varies so much depending on where you are, but there are a few staples that you can expect to find anywhere. In Kanazawa last year, my friends and I often ate soba, ramen, curry, etc. as well as boxed lunches (e.g. with rice, pork cutlet, etc.) that you can pick up from any convenience store. At home with my host family, my host mother would alternate between traditional Japanese breakfasts (with rice, miso soup, and some other side dishes) and more Western breakfasts (usually toast with jam and a cup of yogurt), and for dinner she’d either make something simple (like steamed fish or vegetables) or order some takeout. A lot of the foods you’d “typically” associate with Japan, like sushi or sukiyaki, are not commonly eaten on an everyday basis, and they might be different from what you’ve had outside of the country (Japanese sushi is a lot smaller and less convoluted than American sushi, for example!). Similarly, some Western chains in Japan will have different localized menus than what you might be used to, such as teriyaki burgers at McDonald’s or cherry blossom lattes at Starbucks. ALSO, the snacks and bottled beverages in Japan slap so hard—my favorites are definitely honey butter chips, kinoko no yama (lil choco mushrooms), oi ocha green tea, and c.c. lemon soft drink. All in all, some of my recommendations for food experiences in Japan include getting soba at a noodle stand (where you eat standing up), getting yakitori (chicken skewers) at an izakaya (a barlike setting where you can get late night snacks and drinks), and getting okonomiyaki (super delicious savory pancake, often cooked on a steel hotplate right in front of you) anywhere in Osaka (where it originated!).

In terms of safety, I’d say it also depends on where you go, but generally I found Japan to be a lot safer than the average city in the United States. When I was in Ishikawa last year, I would often go out on my own or with a group of friends, and very rarely did I feel any sense of unease while roaming the city of Kanazawa. I absolutely loved the freedom of wandering the streets late at night, something I never really got to experience growing up in the United States. One factor that helped was the accessibility of the public transportation in the area: there were tons of buses and trains whose maps and schedules were not difficult to follow, and in the worst case scenario I could always hail a taxi to reroute me to my destination. The language barrier wasn’t necessarily a hindrance at this stage of my time in Japan, but I would say that it’d probably be a lot harder to do some of the things I had to do, like reload a bus pass or buy bullet train tickets, if you didn’t understand/speak some degree of survival Japanese. However, I do want to acknowledge some of the privilege I have as an individual of East Asian descent traveling around Japan; because I often “passed” for a Japanese native (as long as I kept my mouth shut lmao), I rarely got any looks or stood out when I was making my way through my daily routine. I will say though, there was one time that I genuinely did feel unsafe in Japan, which took place not in Kanazawa but in Osaka, a much larger city that I had visited for vacation with a group of friends: I had gone out late on my own (while wearing a nice dress), and an older man had come up to me and tried to follow me back to where I was staying, but I eventually lost him by ducking into a restaurant bathroom. So in general, I don’t consider Japan to be dangerous for the most part, though again it never hurts to be vigilant, especially in a big city.

Wow that was a lot—I hope that was able to address at least some of the things you were asking about! I want to stress once again that my thoughts are by no means the final say on all things Japanese, and also emphasize that Japan and its culture cannot be simply boiled down into one homogenous description. Please feel free to reach out if there’s anything else more specific you would like to hear about (especially with such a broad topic as culture, there’s so much more to talk about, e.g. activities, etiquette, traditions, holidays, etc.)—I’d be happy to answer whatever I can given my own body of knowledge. Ultimately, I’m hoping that this helped to provide you with an initial sketch of Japan, and that you’ll be able to fill in the picture with your own travels there someday! :)

[englishtogether]

Reflection paper: Language Acquisition

In all species the brain is the most amazing organ due to its abilities to gain and store knowledge for later use. It could be said that this is a little easier to notice with the human brain; one example for this is how language is acquired. Even though the development of basic skills such as speaking may differ from person to person, usually children tend to know most of the grammar of their native language before turning 5 years old. That is a great sign of how complex the brain is and how it processes elements from the environment to make it its own.

It is important to always keep in mind that children will not speak flawlessly because they tend to use a version of the language that conforms to the set of grammatical rules they have develop on their own at every specific state of language acquisition (Szczegielniak, n.d.). Also, experts think that infants are born with the ability to detect and focus on sounds that are important for any language, but by the age of 6 months old they begin to lose that ability and only focus on the sounds that are important for the specific language they are acquiring in that moment. This could be a sign of how the brain recognizes what is important for this person's environment to learn because is the most used around them. After one year they start connecting specific words to meanings, for example, "Up!" is used to indicate they want the specific person they are talking to, to pick them up.

For the phonology part is very interesting that as the best practice demands, children acquire the most common sounds first, and then the less common of their own language. This does not mean they do not perceive those sounds, only that they do not use it to communicate due to the difficulty level. When they start to try using it, they will substitute the hardest pronunciations for easier ones. Regarding meaning, they will first overextend a word's meaning (every animal is a dog, for example) or on the contrary, they will underextend it (only the family pet is a dog). For morphology, they tend to overgeneralize (use bringed, instead of brought). When it comes to syntax, children tend to omit function morphemes, however, sentences still have a hierarchical structure that helps the listener understand what is being expressed. Finally, regarding pragmatics, they may have problems with pronouns (use of 'you' to refer to 'I') and context at first, but with time, they become better at this.

It is well known that there are different ways to communicate that humans have been developing in order to give more access to the world to people who have some kind of disability; one of those ways is sign language. Contrary to what most people think, babies that are born deaf actually can acquire sign language the same way spoken language is normally acquired. Also, if they are not exposed to sign language, they will create their own signs with systematic rules, demonstrating that communication is innate for human beings, no matter the conditions they are born with. Now, what practices are used to acquire a language? Theories suggest that children can learn a language thanks to different practices such as imitating what they hear and see, receiving negative and positive reinforcement to correct for example, the generalization of the past tense always ending with -ed, and with analogies.

There are several theories when it comes to bilingualism in children, two of them are the Unitary System hypothesis which explains that children at first construct only one lexicon and one grammar, and the Separate Systems hypothesis which is the idea that children build a distinct lexicon and grammar for every language they learn. There are some experts that think learning a second language is a totally different process than learning a first language. One point of this theory is that because learners already know a language, they tend to transfer that knowledge on to the second unconsciously causing them to make several errors. Regarding the sensitive periods to learn a language, phonology is known as the smallest since it is easier to have an accent after childhood years.

In conclusion, humans have shown that acquiring a first language and communicating is innate for them and has several details that connect in order to create a perfect sense of language expression; it is not a simple process that is completed overnight. Bilingualism and multilingualism show that even if brains have a limit, it is not that easy to reach. Thanks to theorists and experts, the world knows a lot about this precious skill that humans possess, but it is safe to say that there is still a long way to go.

 Bibliography

Hickey, R. (n.d.). First and second language acquisition: A brief comparison. [PDF]. https://www.uni-due.de/ELE/FLA_SLA_brief_comparison.pdf

Hilpert, M. (2014, January 13). First language acquisition. [Video file]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=up0yVJWf9zQ

Szczegielniak, A. (n.d.). Introduction to Linguistic Theory. [PDF]. https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/adam/files/language_acquisition.ppt.pdf  

[deathlydelight]

Hey @forthepalette ! It’s been quite a while. I purposely tried to avoid reading your posts just to avoid any more conflict with you, but to no avail, I still see some of your posts because you still kept using the Sprousehart tag and you seem to continually spur some anger from various Sprousehart accounts. Despite that, I still tried to look past whatever you post since I personally see no point in confronting you. You have your mind pretty much set on things. Whatever I say won’t go through you so I thought, what’s the point? 

Unfortunately, I stumbled upon some of your posts again this morning and I couldn’t find it in my own morals to just let it slide. 

I saw people calling you out and letting you know how offended they are by your statement but you tried to escape their judgment by claiming that it was done out of innocence not of spite. I’m sorry but I really don’t buy this.

When people replied with much anger (which is understandable- I’ll get to this later), your initial defense was that you were merely just asking a question and that you genuinely didn’t know.

Now, here are my comments regarding the whole thing. 

First, the statement you made was not a question at all. It was an imperative or permissive sentence demanding us to prove what you think of us wrong. The mere fact that it has a question mark in the end doesn’t make it a question. I’m very particular with syntax and grammar. I was sort of a nerd for diagraming sentences back in High School so I can say with full conviction that what you said wasn’t a question.

Second, the post itself bore an accusation or an assumption that Sprouseharts are homophobic and racist. You can argue with me on this and claim that is not true but technically, that’s how you formulated your post. You made a claim that we, Sprouseharts, are homophobic and racist. Then you made a further assumption that it’s the reason why we ship Sprousehart. To be clear here’s the premise you made:

1. SPROUSEHARTS ARE HOMOPHOBIC AND RACIST

2. BECAUSE WE’RE HOMOPHOBIC AND RACIST, WE SHIP SPROUSEHART

You can argue again that it’s not what you meant, but I’m just merely rewriting your statement in bulleted form. I just removed that “please tell me you aren’t” part because that’s the part asking for a counter argument. Again, the premise is those two points written above, then you asked us to counter those two points. I’m sure any person with some proficiency in the English language would agree with how I deconstructed your sentence. If you claim that it is not what you meant, I suggest that you brush up with your writing skills and be very careful with what you post because you aren't getting your message across properly.

Lastly, I got the impression based on your replies that either you’re feigning innocence or you really have no idea as to why this post has spurred some anger from various Sprousehart fans. I’m, personally, leaning towards the former but I’ll give you the benefit of the doubt by explaining to you why your post gained some anger. 

Sexuality and race have been volatile topics for quite some time now. Volatile in the sense that a lot of debates and judgments have been exchanged as to various stands and views on certain issues involving the said topics. The current trend (trend as in the line of thought) we’re on now is more inclusive in the sense that we recognize the issues and push for more acceptance of all types of sexual orientation and race. This is reflective on political landmark events such as the USA having the first black president and your Supreme Court deciding the Obergefell v. Hodges favoring same-sex marriage. I personally love this shift in the ideals of the people and hope that this continues, but alongside this trend of thinking, another train of thought which I perceive as equally damaging as the evils we hope to curtail is emerging. This is the hyper-judgement or categorizing of other people.

Because of the sudden shift in ideals, which can be rather overbearing, some people tried to oversimplify the issues by creating a false dichotomy. This, essentially, tramples upon the goal of having an inclusive society. This line of thought categorizes people into something bad just because they don’t agree with everything.That’s what I’m getting from your argument.

You’ve made this false dichotomy that because we Sprouseharts don’t ship a homosexual ship, we are therefore against all homosexuals, which is terribly wrong to assume.

The argument is overgeneralizing and a slippery slope. It is also very hateful.

You’ve automatically excluded us from being part of a community that supports LGBTQ rights and anti-racism just because we love a straight white couple. You’re making it seem that loving a straight white couple is tantamount to going against the ideals of supporting LGBTQ rights and anti-racism. As far as I know, fighting for LGBTQ rights and anti-racism is fighting for equality and against discrimination. It’s recognizing that all races and all sexual orientations are equal and should be respected. It doesn’t mean that straight white couples cannot co-exist with LGBTQ couples with different races.

Now, your statement basically asks us to disprove your unfair assumption of us by declaring that we aren’t homophobes and racist. To be frank, who are you to ask that of us?

I’m actually troubled whether I should give you the benefit of giving you my answer but just to settle your “confused” mind, I am a firm supporter of LGBTQ rights and I hope for a world where race will no longer be an issue. I’m a person who particularly dislikes labels. I believe you are not defined by a single act or a single decision, but your collective actions and decisions throughout your life, so for me no one can judge you, label you, or characterize you as something until you are dead.