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In the cultures of the Horn of Africa and adjacent regions of the Middle East, Zār (Arabic: زار, Ge'ez: ዛር) is the term for a demon or spirit assumed to possess individuals, mostly women, and to cause discomfort or illness. The so-called zār ritual or zār cult is the practice of reconciling the possessing spirit and the possessed individual. Zār possession is often considered lifelong and the rituals associated with it are a form of adorcism, though some have falsely attributed it as an exorcism rite because it involves possession. It is similar to the Maghreb's Hamadsha Hausa Animism, and various African Traditional religions, such as Voodou.

Scholarship in the early 20th century attributed Horn of African origin to the custom, although there were also proposals suggesting Persian or other origins. Thus, Frobenius suggested that zār and bori, a comparable cult in Hausa culture, were ultimately derived from a Persian source. Modarressi (1986) suggests a Persian etymology for the term. The first known instance of the word zār used in Ethiopia to refer to a possessing spirit is from a 16th-century Ge'ez manuscript. However, it is unknown if zār rituals were being practiced in 16th century Ethiopia (Abyssinia), and if so, what form they took. The first record of zār ceremonies is from the 1800s in Ethiopia, however by this time the ceremonies were already elaborate and being practiced in a large area, indicating these ceremonies had been practiced for sone time before recording

Some also strongly feel the practice originated in West Africa among native religious curing practices there.

Another theory is that it derives from the name of the supreme deity of the pagan Kushites

Mirzai Asl (2002) suggests that the introduction to Iran likewise took place in the 19th century (Qajar period) by Africans brought to Iran via the Indian ocean slave trade. Natvig (1988) reports that the zār cult "served as a refuge for women and effeminate men" in the Sahel (Sudan) region under Islamic rule. It is thought to have reached Egypt because of the trafficking of Ethiopian slaves in the 19th century, particularly Oromo women. They were taken for the purpose of bearing more children for Egyptian men, and would be set free upon getting pregnant. The children would be considered legitimate inheritors

ere are three varieties of zar in Ethiopia, though this distinction is not necessarily named by Ethiopians themselves, simply viewing the version they know as zār and not necessarily knowing of the others. "Conversion" zār is the most common, involving women and trance. It is termed as such after the "conversion hysterical reaction", not after religious conversion. Ceremonies often occur in conjunction with holidays. Seer zār is less common, and emphasizes fortune telling. Unlike the other two, it is predominantly male. Its events occur regularly throughout the year. Group therapy zār is least common, and has a leader, a zār doctor or bala Zar, helping a group of others who are possessed. It occurs regularly, but may also have special holiday events. Different regions tend to generally favor one variety over another, but in plenty of cases a region's zār will have elements from more than one type.

Somali saar has many sub-varieties, including mingis, boorane, sharax, wadaaddoo, and numbi.

In Sudan, a distinction is made (and emphasized by practitioners) between the zār bori ( or burei, or boré), practiced widely in Northern Sudan by free born women, and the comparatively more obscure zār tumbura, practiced by the descendants of slaves from South and Western Sudan and the Nuba hills, in Khartoum, poor neighborhoods, and shanty towns. Originally, tumbura had a military association. In recent times, some tumbura practitioners from the Nuba hills have selectively borrowed from bori practices, as the social circumstances for tumbura practices have changed. The practices are similar in that they use drums, Islamic praise chants for religious figures such as Muhammad, and the way possession is acted out in trance is similar

In Egypt, there are said to be 66 zār spirits, however, the spirits named vary depending on which ritual leader one speaks to, and none will name all 66. They are loosely grouped into families, and spirits are paired together as husband/wife, brother/sister (in the Cariene Upper Egyptian zār practice, this is how all spirits are paired), or father/daughter. They are also grouped into other overlapping pantheons, such as the kings of the earth, seas, and heavens, the sultans of the red, yellow, and green jinn, and the guards of thresholds. The spirits are in a hierarchy. At the top is Mama (an Ethiopian spirit, whose name does not mean "mother"), and all the songs begin for this spirit. Spirits may be called "wilad Mama"; sons of Mama

Mamah, Related to Wilad Mama, an Ethiopian spirit and sometimes the ruler of all zār spirits. "Mama" here does not refer to the idea of motherhood

In Ethiopia, zār is sometimes used as a term for malevolent spirits or demons. Many Ethiopians also believe in benevolent, protective spirits, or adbar. Some believe all zār spirits are evil. Others, in distinguishing zār from the Buda and Ganyen spirits, will say the zār are not evil, but usually not good, with only a few being good and protective. Exorcism is not necessary for the zār, as it is with the other two, as one can come to an agreement with them. In any case, possession is permanent- it is not seen as possible to get the zār spirit "off (the patient's) back" once it is on. A person may also be possessed by both a zār and a Buda simultaneously. In rare cases where exorcism occurs among the "group therapy" form of zār, another spirit known to the local zār group that has no "horse" is transferred to the patient afterward. Zār spirits are thought to potentially cause psychological incapacitation. Ethiopian Jews believe that male zār cause miscarriages by having sex with married women, growing jealous of the husband, and kidnapping the fetus.

The spirit and human worlds are parallel, so many spirits are of the same religion, ethnicity, class, and locality as other humans. They are organized into similar classes to Ethiopia, with kings, chiefs, chamberlains, and servants. They fight among themselves and the stronger, smarter zār defeat the others. The zār are curious about humans of different religions, and as such it is not uncommon for a Christian spirit to possess a Jew and make them behave like a Christian. Both doctors and patients, due to being possessed, may behave abnormally and impolitely, but are treated with tolerance, even if they cause harm

According to legend, there are eighty-eight "Sároch", invisible spirits that serve as emissaries of evil all under the service of a spirit named "Wárobal Máma", king of the spirits, who dwells in Lake Alobar in the Menz region. His drum is heard over the water as an omen whenever war, famine, or pestilence approach. However, some Ethiopians believe the zār originally come from the area around Lake Ashenge and its eastern lowlands

The zār spirits are thought to grant power to adherents; the power to heal, but also courage, divination, diplomacy, and the power to destroy the disrespectful.

Zār beliefs are common today even among Ethiopian immigrants to North America, Europe, or Israel. For example, Beta Israel are often raised with both Jewish and Zār beliefs, and individuals who believe they house a spirit are bound to attend to it despite other demands. However, ceremonies can be performed by shamans to persuade a spirit to leave, thus releasing the person from their duties to that spirit

In Somalia, the spirits are called saar, or sometimes mingis. Different spirits have different practices (such as different types of incense, dance, music, and animal sacrifices), associated with them in rituals, which vary between different groups. People of all classes participate in saar, though adherents say different spirits tend to attack the poor and rich, and Somali men feel the practice is more common among wealthy women.

Saar spirits may be inherited. They may also take advantage of a person experiencing a strong emotion (such as anger) to enter them. Belongings of a possessed person may also transmit the spirit to others. Women, and less commonly men, sometimes go into trance at weddings during dances, and saar songs may be performed to figure out which spirit caused it and to treat the possessed.

Symptoms of possession include fear, anxiety, general malaise, unhappiness, sleeplessness, tiredness, feebleness, lassitude, mental confusion, nausea, fainting, persistent headache, unwillingness to eat or speak, loss of weight, vomiting, ‘madness’, feeling pressure in the chest, unspecified aches in muscles and bones, fertility problems, violent bodily agitation, blindness or paralysis without apparent organic cause and epilepsy.

When the possessed does not attend to their saar spirit, such as by burning incense, the spirit is angered

Ethiopia

Zār doctors are sometimes women (while a career as another form of traditional healer may be restricted to only men), and patients are typically women in "conversion" zār and group therapy zār. The doctors may use their personal Zār, if it is a stronger spirit, to overpower the zār of a patient. Traditional Ethiopian medicines function complementarily to each other, so zār is not precisely a last resort, but it is often viewed as such. Certain ailments are seen as entirely unrelated to zar, and basically incurable, such as people suffering from what Western medicine recognizes as schizophrenia.

The zar doctor is called a "bala Zar" (master of zar), or zar bala,and diagnoses if a patient is suffering from zar, the evil eye, or incurable illness. Zar doctors use trance and group therapy, performing the functions of diagnosis, treatment, prognosis, and prevention. Healers in Ethiopia fall into different types, but most cultivate some knowledge of multiple forms of healing, though they will be addressed according to their primary specialty. Zar doctors compete with each other at an annual zar convention, presenting their style, technique, and innovations before the public for the purpose of both spreading knowledge and growing their own reputation with the public. Failures in treatment are tolerated, with the understanding that humans are weaker than the spirits, or that not being cured is the will of God. Complications are similarly understood as a spirit being particularly difficult. In group therapy zar, zar doctors are themselves former patients, who have learned how to control their spirits, and how to voluntarily enter and exit trance. This is done as an apprenticeship to another zār doctor, and during this they also learn which spirits cause which behaviors. Zār doctors are considered especially powerful if they inherit their ability through their mother, and this is more common for female doctors. Male doctors usually say they simply had an apprenticeship, or that they were kidnapped by the spirits as children and taught how to communicate with them. They must behave and dress extravagantly, with a degree of arrogance.[18] Female zār bala are less arrogant, and are sometimes considered superior to male zār bala. The zār doctors of group therapy zar have not only mastered their spirit, but all zār spirits, and are commonly possessed by many spirits.

The situation and class of the patient is taken into account when making a diagnosis. A poor patient is possessed by lower-ranked spirits of the servant class. Zār spirits may cause clumsiness, fertility issues, stupor, apathy, catatonia, hysteria (caused by "silly and irresponsible" female spirits), fits of self-violence (other forms of violence, such as violence directed against others, are attributed to other spirits), epileptic episodes, and occasionally physical ailments like rheumatism (caused by a "lazy" zār that makes their horse stay in place). Instances of hysteria will be marked by baby talk, demanding gifts, teasing, being silly, and general infantile and feminine behavior. It is believed that a female spirit who possesses a man will destroy his masculinity if the spirit isn't brought under the control of a zār doctor. Apathy and stupor may be exhibited as a woman sitting huddled in a corner, refusing to eat, and not responding to prolonged drumming. These symptoms need to be treated early, as otherwise they are thought to progress to total catatonia and eventually death.

The act of possession employs a riding metaphor, and the spirits may call those they possess "farasey" (my horse). When a zār of one sex possesses someone of the opposite sex, this has an erotic connotation and is viewed as a form of coitus.

While waiting for the zār doctor to arrive, a catatonic patient is not left alone. Her neighbors sing, dance, play the drums, and talk to her, all in an attempt to get her to respond. The patient may also be brought to the doctor's house, where things will be set up for the proceedings and the zār devotees gathered. Their family will give a bit of "incense money" to gain entry. The patient is ignored by the doctor until they are in trance.

To diagnose the patient, the zar doctor first matches the afflicted behavior to a spirit. Then, the doctor compels the spirit to give its name, confirming the diagnosis and taking away the spirit's power. Without this, a zār can "ride the patient to death". This process may involve goading the spirit, tricking it into harming itself (by picking up a hot coal), beating the patient (these are not as common for zar as they are with other spirits), covering the patient with a shama (a white veil), and playing music to convince it to dance, making coffee and burning incense. The dancing is called gurri, the victory dance of the zār. The movements betray the identity of the spirit. During the dance, the patient enters trance and the doctor questions it, asking what it likes and doesn't like, if it does this or that, if it is familiar with this region, shortcomings the patient has including those that may have offended the zār, and so on. The doctor may enter trance themselves during the proceedings to utilize the power of their spirit. Music in the form of hymns and handclapping takes place, in part to keep up the energy of the proceedings. The diagnostic portion of this form bears an overall resemblance to a court trial.

Treatment involves negotiating with the spirit and is considered successful if the patient feels relief after trance. Once the name is revealed, the doctor asks what would please the spirit, and it will name some items and an animal. These will be procured (they are called the love gift to the zar, maqwadasha) and the animal is sacrificed. The patient eats some of the meat. The doctor may also give the patient an herbal charm or amulet to wear around their neck if they are familiar with those forms of medicine, and zār doctors also make preventative charms. Paul Kahle claims the sacrifice animal is usually a chicken, and that it is swung around the head of the possessed person, and thrown to the floor. If it does not die soon, he says, the sacrifice is considered to have been in vain.

Zār rituals for group therapy zar are periodic, and must be so to keep the possession under control. Much of the time, they use the imagery of a wedding. In a ritual described as a "marriage communion", the possessed is called "musharra" (newly wed), and is accompanied by two "mize". The mize attend to the possessed and ensure they don't injure themselves while dancing, and provide support to other members of the group. They themselves are adherents of zār. Zār groups provide a space where unacceptable behaviors aren't criticized and are empathized with. This is particularly important and attractive to women in patrilocal living situations, religious minorities, and former slaves. The group and the zar doctor act as support for patients. Zār meetings and ceremonies usually take place at night, as the spirits themselves are nocturnal. There is a special language used by zār adherents, a form of cant argot. Group therapy zār is most similar to zār found outside Ethiopia.

To please the zār spirits and prevent possession, many people wear charms, burn incense at the entrance of the house, and drink black coffee.

In the name of the most powerful zār spirit possessing them, the zār bala may set up an altar to them in their home in the form of a coffee tray (ganda)

In "conversion zār", a woman prepares to be possessed on a holiday (though she may not be certain of which it will be) by wearing special clothes reserved for zār (often men's clothes), zār beads, perfume, and other ornaments. She may carry a whip, steel bar, or empty gun. A spread of food and drinks will be made and set out, and no one should eat from it before the zār spirit. This spread includes the special sacrifice animal selected in accordance to the particular spirit. If the zār does not come at all, she and her neighbors will enjoy the feast. Normally, however, the zār will come, and will act through her body; exhibiting the usual signs of zār possession, dancing, eating embers, behaving self-violently and erratically, or singing the spirit's song. The possession may last hours or days. Through it, the neighbors (male and female) gather and sing and dance to please the zār, so it does not harm his "horse". They also promise gifts of beads, jewelry, clothes, and sacrifices on behalf of the horse. They themselves are not usually possessed: the important bond is that of neighborhood, not possession. At the end, the spirit may bless them or warn their horse to be good before leaving. Once gone, the possessed sleeps for several hours and wakes with no memory of what occurred.

In seer zār, people come on Friday nights to the house of a zār doctor (usually a man who learned from his father). He has mastered only his own spirit, and uses it for divination. They are served coffee as the doctor sits behind a curtain, dressed in special clothes and jewelry, and often holding a steel bar or whip. At the right time, the doctor comes out and calls forth his spirit. People may sing and clap as he dances and does things like eating hot coals. People describe their problems, and the spirit gives them solutions. Each person pays a small amount at the end.

All forms of Ethiopian zār have common elements of special clothes, perfume, serving coffee, animal sacrifice, drumming, dance, and so on

In Iran, zār leaders are called Bābā zār or Māmā zār (or just Bābā (male) or Māmā (female), instead of Sheikh or Sheikha, and zār leaders are African. They often inherit their position from their parents, and they either appoint a successor, or the local community elects a new leader after their death. They have their own stands, with drums, other instruments, and clay pots for incense. Before seeking their help, a possessed person may have sought the help of a sheikh or mulla. Unlike in Egypt, they may not necessarily be possessed themselves, though this is the case for many.

Many zar doctors have been respected for their abilities. However, like in other countries, when a husband has to give permission for his wife to do certain things or he has to buy items on account of the zār spirits, he proclaims disbelief. Zar meetings have also sometimes been suspected as meeting sites for orgies. Between the 1930s and 1950s, zar shifted from a more prestigious status to a lower class one, and Ethiopians became more conscious of trying to obfuscate it from outsiders.

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