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UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON
FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
School of Education
PhD upgrade document
‘Humanist Science Education: Learning from Secondary School Teachers’ Instruction’
by
Alexander Charles David Bowman
Thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
December_2015
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON
ABSTRACT
FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
Discipline (underlined)
Thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
‘HUMANIST SCIENCE EDUCATION: LEARNING FROM SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS’ INSTRUCTION’
Alexander Charles David Bowman
Table of Contents
ABSTRACT. i
Table of Contents. i
List of tables. v
List of figures. vii
List of accompanying materials. ix
DECLARATION OF AUTHORSHIP. xi
Acknowledgements. xiii
Definitions and Abbreviations. xv
Chapter 1: Introduction. 1
1.1 Background to the study. 1
1.2 Research questions. 25
1.3 Rational of the study. 25
Chapter 2: Literature review.. 29
2.1 Introduction. 29
2.2 Why review the literature? 30
2.3 The theory of effective teaching. 34
2.4 Theories of learning. 43
2.4.1 How do theories of learning inform effective teaching: Policies and Empiricist Positivism.. 45
2.4.2 Effective teaching. 47
2.4.3 Effective Science and Maths teaching. 51
2.4.4 Humanistic Teaching and Effective Science Teaching. 54
2.4.5 Specific Teacher Effectiveness Studies. 58
2.4.6 Effective Teacher Identification. 62
2.5 Grouping. 66
2.5.1 Grouping-Advantages and Disadvantages. 69
2.5.2 Constructivist teaching /enhancing thinking agility/case study. 76
2.5.3 Listening and Communication in Effective Teaching and Learning. 87
2.5.4 Effective Teaching and Pupil Background. 88
Chapter 3: Methodology. 101
3.1 Introduction. 101
3.2. Researcher Philosophy Stance. 101
3.2.1 Positivism: ‘the best approach?’ 106
3.2.2 Sampling Design- who my resopondents are. 108
3.3 Data Collection. 109
3.3.1 Survey Questionnaires. 109
3.3.2 Questionnaire Advantages Vs Disadvantages. 110
3.3.3 Student Questionnaire Design. 112
3.4 Classroom Observations. 116
3.4.1 Observation Recording. 117
3.4.2 Observation Advantages Vs Disadvantages. 118
3.4.3 Low and High inference measures in classroom observation. 119
3.4.4 MECOR Observation Instrument 120
3.4.5 Observation Instrument Deployment. 121
3.5 Data analysis: techniques and procedures. 125
3.6 Conclusions and time scales. 130
Chapter 4: 135
4.1 Introduction. 135
Appendices. 137
Appendix A. 139
Appendix B. 141
Glossary 143
List of References. 145
Bibliography. 146
List of tables
No table of figures entries found.
List of figures
Figure 1: Global faiths ratio. Error! Bookmark not defined.
List of accompanying materials
DECLARATION OF AUTHORSHIP
I, ALEXANDER CHARLES DAVID BOWMAN
declare that this thesis and the work presented in it are my own and has been generated by me as the result of my own original research.
‘Humanist Science Education: Learning from Secondary School Teachers’ Instruction’
I confirm that:
1. This work was done wholly or mainly while in candidature for a research degree at this University;
2. Where any part of this thesis has previously been submitted for a degree or any other qualification at this University or any other institution, this has been clearly stated;
3. Where I have consulted the published work of others, this is always clearly attributed;
4. Where I have quoted from the work of others, the source is always given. With the exception of such quotations, this thesis is entirely my own work;
5. I have acknowledged all main sources of help;
6. Where the thesis is based on work done by myself jointly with others, I have made clear exactly what was done by others and what I have contributed myself;
7. [Delete as appropriate] None of this work has been published before submission [or] Parts of this work have been published as: [please list references below]:
Signed:..........................................................................................................
Date:.............................................................................................................
Acknowledgements
Definitions and Abbreviations
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Background to the study
The word education is truly vast. It brings to the mind gigantic domains under a single umbrella. These include teaching, leadership and management which together form but a small part.
When we speak of educating it is often in the context of school and schooling where teaching skills are needed to bring about learning by students. It is in this area that my research focuses. Although aspects like leadership and management are crucial to education institutions they are not part of this research. The research proposes to focus on the links between teacher quality and increased student attainment.
Over twelve years teaching in both secondary and language schools and having spoken with parents and learners it has become evident that children’s education has been seen to be deficient in terms of attainment in sciences and mathematics. This inferential view was further upheld when Maddern (2012) indicated that in her opinion schools hide poor student grade attainment behind the SEN label. OFSTED have made similar claims in the past.
Humanistic has many meanings attached to it depending on factors like academic discipline and context. In this study ‘humanistic’ is implied solely in congruence with education. Humanistic education is a term spanning decades, fledged in works by influential authors the likes of Maslow, Gardner and Rogers in the field of human psychology as reported by Hall et al. (1988). It is a term that may be used as a synonym for a holistic approach.
Humanistic approaches aim to bring about learner independence through involving a multitude of learning concepts. This includes attributes like intellect, experiencing life, social capacities along with artistic and practical skills whose purpose is their progressive individual development. It serves to raise self-perception as well as defining and accomplishing specific targets.
Based on this reasoning links with participatory and emancipatory approaches are evident, through bringing about learner autonomy. On a larger scale one might be able to argue that formal education in all its forms are really interventions in an individual’s life.
Mechanical in this context is used to represent specific gestures or following a one plan for all approach to teaching. An example here might be teachers being aware of learning theorists’ work but not being able to effectively convey or apply it. Another possibility is the lack of capability to describe events supported by the work of theorists. This may transpire because it may not have been a part of their formal teaching training.
Some may even misinterpret the meaning of theories. This is evidenced by the misuse of ‘Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences’ as described by Muijs, (2011) which will be considered next sequentially after Bruner. Freud, Skinner, Piaget and Vygotsky.
This section serves to familiarise readers with some of leading learning theories. Historically, ‘IQ theory’ introduced in the early 1900’s by Thorndyke and was one of the first attempts at quantifying intelligence as similarly noted by Muijs & Reynolds (2011). Since then many theories have been put forward such as those by: Vygotsky, Piaget, Skinner and Brunner to name but a few.
Theories such as these are believed to have influenced and nurtured the advancement of ‘school instruction models’. The more recent models have become labelled as ‘constructivist and child-centred. As the developmental time-line is explored it can be seen that Piaget and Vygotsky presented complimentary developmental theories. The key aspects of these theories are discussed, especially in terms establishing the advantages and disadvantages associated with each. Jessel (1999) who similarly explored the relationship between ‘learning and study’ also draws references to the cognitive theories explored in this section.
Much of the learning theorists work appears to be present and intertwined with effective teaching strategies employed in classrooms on a daily basis. This is interesting on account of influential authors like: Halpin (1999-2001) and Moore et al., (1999-2001) who report along the lines that ‘instructors frequently hold little explicit knowledge of the concepts presented by the teaching and learning theorists.’ The influential author Moore (2000) expresses a sentiment I share concerning the work of learning theorists. He writes in terms of the most suited of the theories being work that is ‘obviously embedded in teachers’ everyday classroom practice and teaching philosophy (even though it may not be identified and articulated by teachers).
Examples of theorist’s work which will be discussed include those by Piaget and Vygotsky. Whilst Piaget is known for his ‘child-centred’ work and Vygotsky for ‘dialogic teacher-student relationships’ more questions than answers are raised. For instance: ‘are instructors able to identify aspects of various models in their own classroom teaching?
As this section also serves to chronologically chart the course of learning theory development, and the milestones in understanding and knowledge we have gained ‘Freud’ will be dealt with first. This will cover the last 100-150 years.
Sigmund Freud: ‘Father of Psychanalysis (1856-1939)’
It is rarely possible to mention ‘psychiatry or psychoanalysis’ without the name ‘Freud being heard.’ Freud (1856- 1939) was born in Frieberg, Moravia which is today known as the Czech Republic. His younger brother ‘Julius’ who was born a year after Freud stirred strong emotions of envy. Reports show that Freud wished for his death, and when that happened, it resulted in feelings of reproach in Freud as explained in (www.microtec.net/desgros/index.html).
These feelings defined Freud especially his intense aspects of friendship. This is important as it spurred him to produce ‘exemplary work which fell in to four main periods, as presented in www.freudfile.org/work.html.’ We are informed of these periods being: The exploration of neurosis, from the inception of practice in (1886) up to (1895) with studies on hysteria. The second era between (1895 -1899) and was dedicated to the study of self-analysis. Id psychology occupied him from (1900-1914). The last time frame from (1914) to (1939) he devoted to ego psychology (see www.freudfile.org/theory.html). Up to Freud no person had examined and documented the workings of the human mind in such detail. It is my belief that in some manner this founding work contributed to the subsequent works by the learning theorists, and as such has been included.
Burrhus Frederic Skinner: ‘Behaviourism and positive reinforcement.’
Skinner believed that ‘behaviour’ was best examined in terms of the ‘causes and consequences’ of learner actions. He coined the phrase ‘operant conditioning’ to explain his approach to managing student behaviour inside and outside the school environment.
Skinner (1953) presented his theory in which the belief that ‘students learn best when rewarded for correct responses or by responses with the potential to lead to correct answers’ was ingrained. ‘Positive reinforcement theory’ built on the work of Thorndyke (1898) who produced work great works to advance learning theory. It led to what we now know as ‘operant conditioning.’ Skinner upheld views proposing ‘states of learning readiness.’
Moore (2000) concerning Skinner relates that his theory ‘emphasises not only the importance of a high level positive reinforcement in the classroom, but also the use of highly structured materials through which students can work step by step towards externally imposed goals.’ Moore (2000) also informs ‘child motivation’ is pivotal to Skinnerian strategy. His views are interpreted in terms of Skinner being against ‘demoralising or demotivating children.’ As such, teachers should ensure that as far as possible resources are without any errors. Skinner believed that mistakes raised the pupils’ affective filter and also demotivated them.
Concerning behaviour an ‘operant response’ is defined as: ‘A response which acts to produce an event which affects the subsequent probability of that response’ by Larousse Dictionary of Science and Technology (1995). Skinner embarked on identifying the processes which made certain operant behaviours more or less likely to occur. Baumann et al., (1997: 49) report that ‘Skinner’s work has undoubtedly left its mark in the areas of working with children who face ‘challenges with learning, and especially those who are predisposed to learning difficulties.’
Challenges associated with Skinnerian concepts
As time moved forward calls became louder for a theory of learning which addressed development in terms of the ‘social and interactive nature of learning. Vygotsky (1962) and Vygotsky (1978) highlight the need for learners to ‘construct’ knowledge through experience rather than merely to ‘receive’ it. Jessel (1999) appears to lend support for this ‘constructivist’ approach to learning and teaching. There are some intrinsic drawbacks with Skinner’s theory in terms of links to ‘academic-cognitive development and behaviour’ as elaborated on by Moore (2000). For instance, recent views shifted more towards advocacy of mistakes made by learners being an essentially fundamental component of learning. In this respect Skinner attempted to curtail risk.
Moore (1995) faulted Skinner’s theory by way neglecting cultural issues linked to child behaviour. It has been argued that fixed punishments or rewards which are consistently applied are not beneficial when applied in the context of multicultural classrooms seen today. Moore (1999) relates how an honest gesture on the student part can be miss- interpreted by the instructor. This conceptual difference is shown by Skinnerian strategy which appears to distil questions of process down to conditioning. More recent approaches intrinsically incorporated views that ‘classroom learning should not be primarily content based’ and they prioritised learning processes.
Skinner’s philosophy aimed to diminish the elements of risk that learners’ were exposed to. However, more novel views like ‘making mistakes and engaging with risks’ were growing in popularity. Another intrinsic challenge was that it ‘underplayed the role of the educators’ own behaviour in the teaching and learning processes as similarly described by Moore (2000). Willis (1977) reports on learners who ‘simply will not engage with behavioural norms’ and who ‘do not care’ about their ‘academic success.’ Skinner’s learning theory does not account for ‘intrinsic’ motivational factors.
Whilst more draw backs exist, the above examples demonstrated the need for a more current theory which would take in to account views which reflected a better understanding of concept development in learners’. Skinner proposed a theory which saw responses labelled as either correct or incorrect. Furthermore, Moore (2000) also noted that Skinner saw ‘knowledge as crystallised and finite’ in learning theory terms. The next significant leap in learning theory was proposed by Jean-Piaget whose theory of staged development refined upon the work discussed above. This will be the focus of the next section.
Jean Piaget (1896-1980): Staged Developmental Learning Theory.
Jean Piaget was especially concerned with learning in the developing child. During his career he worked with great learning theorists such as Alfred Binet. Albert Einstein is reported to have complemented Piaget by saying of his theory that ‘it was so simple only a genius could have thought of it. His work developed on that of Skinner as it proposed observable explanations for pupils’ cognitive development. The core of his learning theory viewed children as learning through schemas. A schema also known as schemata is defined as ‘A mental pattern, or body of knowledge, that provides a framework within which to place newly acquired knowledge’: Larousse Dictionary of Science and Technology (1995).
Piaget viewed cognitive developmental changes in terms of alterations in their own cognitive process and innate ability. Nascent cognitive progression he saw as based on actions which resulted in changes in mental operations. Piaget redefined a schema to include both a category of knowledge and the process of gaining that data. Driscoll (1994) informs us regarding Piaget’s theory saying ‘it was not initially intended for education purposes, but rather many educational programs are built upon the foundation that learners’ should be instructed at the stage for which they are developmentally suited.’ Driscoll (1994) adds that a number of instructional strategies have resulted from Piaget research, examples of which include: ‘supportive learning environments, employing social interactions and peer teaching as well as helping pupils’ see fallacies and inconsistencies in their own thinking.’
Piaget supported discovery in learning, where learning and teaching begin with the existing knowledge and experiences of children. It is sympathetic in instructional terms allowing for classroom interaction. This implies the importance of assessment by effective teachers.
Three central ideas prevail which are: ’Assimilation, accommodation and equilibration.’ Barnes (1976:22) describes ‘‘Assimilation’ as the process by which the learner incorporates, as it were, elements of the physical world into the logic of his or her own developing and existing understandings or ‘interpretative categories.’ Moore (2000) considered ‘Accommodation’ in terms of being a process used by people to adapt their ‘developing understandings and expectations to the realities and boundaries encountered in the social and physical world.’ The literature surveyed suggests that it culminates in learners’ reaching more complete and vivid understanding and reasoning. Piaget (1975:30) defined ‘equilibration’ in terms of effective human learning. He proposed that ‘effective learners achieved a balance between assimilation and accommodation concerning their interactions with the physical and social environment, through a process of ‘equilibration’.
Whilst it is possible to write whole books on Piaget and his two intertwined models of the theory of ‘Staged Development’, I have opted offer a brief insight so as to demonstrate how each subsequent theory advanced on the preceding work done. As the picture develops in this section it shows that learning theories are undergoing a process of evolutionary refinement.
Sensory Motor Stage
The initial stage called the ‘sensorimotor’ period in Piagetian theory explains ‘infant responses elicited by sensory stimulation.’ This stage spans from parturition to about two years of age, as widely reported in both peer reviewed journals and books. Piaget voiced views based on his observations that ‘children were not less intelligent than adults, but simply exhibited different cognitive abilities.’ Piaget & Inhelder (1969) clearly report the generality ‘that all children will be expected to pass through three stages in their learning development, at approximately the same point in their lives.’
Child behavioural responses during the sensorimotor stage develop from limited reflex activities like: ‘Looking, grasping or sucking’ between 0 and 2 months, to evidence of an internal representational system shown through the ‘reflection of problem-solving arrangements before answering’ by 18-24 months.
Piaget (1971) who contributed much to our understanding of learning in children gives slightly different times for the transitions between stages. He suggests that the sensori-motor phase lasts from birth to 18 months, the concrete operational from 18 months to 11 years and that the formal operational period spans on from 11 years of age. Towards the end of the ‘sensory motor phase’ invention of new skills through mental combination using their discrete array of learning skills is considered normal. Between 2-4 months and 12-18 months four different phases of learning behaviour are typically realised.
Chronologically, from 2-4 months behaviour repetition is seen by opening and closing fingers. Between 4 and 8 months they repeatedly alter their actions to reproduce interesting consequences, and by 8-12 months there is improved coordination leading to increasingly complicated sequences. More intention is linked with activity at this stage. The 12-18 month period is characterised by discovering novel ways that result in the same desired goal.
Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)
The ‘preoperational stage’ appears to be constructed of two distinct phases. These are the ‘preoperational between (2-4 years) and the intuitive from (4-7 years).’ The former in humans is represented by more egocentrically based speech. Typically an object can be considered when not present. This is cognitive reasoning ability and is demonstrated through language use. Piaget (1971) writes that ‘the concrete operational period lasts from 18-months to about 11 years.’ In effect the preoperational and concrete stages appear to be more of a developmental spectrum in student learning. This suggests that each phase is highly categorized and be broken down further in to sub-stages. An example of this is provided by Donaldson (1978) who describes Piaget and his theoretical overarching stages of progression in learners in great detail.
Intuitive Phase (4-7 years)
The intuitive period from 4-7 years of age is characterised by more social dialogue. The verbal communications are less egocentric compared to those seen during the preoperational time frame. The learner has an instinctive understanding of logical ideas, however at times they may be prone to dwelling on an insular aspect relating to an artefact at the expense of others.
Concrete Operation Period (7-11 years)
This developmental time is marked by behaviours that show organized logic in thought. Children are able to conduct several classification tasks and understand the principle of conversation. They are able to sequentially order objects and demonstrate less egocentricity. The learners’ are typically able to do simple arithmetic calculations like: (2+3=5 and 5-3=2).This concrete problem solving platform is accompanied with the use of category labels like: ‘number and animal.’
Formal Operation Stage (11-15 years)
As the child’s development progresses ‘thought’ becomes more abstract. Cognition uses the principles of formal logic and appears less bound to concrete reality. They are able to construct abstract propositions and multiple hypotheses with known outcomes. During this period students’ are able to understand and grasp mathematical concepts like: ‘Proportions and algebraic manipulation’. As with all learning theories the critics raised perceived shortcomings. Moore (2000) highlights some challenges associated with Piagetian theory, describing them as:
1) Not accounting for the segments of learning which based on a ‘universal model of child development’ fail to include cultural variation in terms of what might be considered developmental norms.
2) Piaget’s theory was experimentally based on artificial situations. Moore (2000) suggests that he insinuated some ‘data may not align with everyday classroom practices.’
3) The theory did not provide much regarding pedagogy in learners.
Siegel et al., (1978) explored staged development in terms of ‘performance- competence and learning readiness platform’ drawbacks. Essentially the former neglected the aspect that ‘under performance could have been contributed to by inappropriately difficult test papers’ or through poor question construction. The latter; learning readiness states has been attacked on account of the suitability of designating ‘‘levels of learning readiness’ to correspond with curriculum inputs.’
Langford (1979) has suggested that an orthodoxy around Piaget has evolved between ‘teachers and planners of the curriculum’ resulting in a limited curriculum being incorrectly taught. Authors like: Moore (2000) and Halpin et al., (1999) have raised similar concerns in the past. Moore informs us regarding Piaget’s theory that it ‘allows for students to be seen as active meaning-makers, although the idea of the ‘teacher as the provider’ infers a non-transferable classroom practice. Moore (2000) words this eloquently as conjuring ‘notions of allowing students to embark by themselves on an idealistic journey of discovery.’
Thus, notions of genetically determined developmental stages coupled with a universal theory that failed to account for elements like: ‘instructional manners or curriculum content’ determined its fate. The mounting stresses regarding prioritising creative independence in child learning outweighed notions of stages which weakened the elements of student freedom. It becomes clear that Piagetian theory neglected to incorporate the necessary socio-cultural elements into learning and teaching. This paved the way for more socially and culturally acceptable theories to emerge, and will be discussed next.
Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934): Social Constructivist Theory
Vygotsky (1962) proposed his social constructivist theory. My understanding is that it became so named on account of the learning theory incorporating social elements in child learning. His work harnessed views that children are born sociable, and that being with their parents and friends, they would go on to gain skills and notions associated with learning progression. Whilst some areas overlap Piaget’s work clear distinctions have been made specifically regarding where learning emphasis is placed.
Both Vygotsky and Piaget theories share the following principles:
1) Child learning is a process of meaning-making and it needs deeper understanding.
2) There is an element of age dependent phases, where certain behavioural modification happens. Moore (2000) terms it as ‘children may learn in different ways from adults.’
3) The requirement for better comprehension and knowledge surrounding routine everyday ideas on account of instructed concepts. Vygotsky (1962) drew clear differences between ‘rote’ or parrot fashioned recital in learning in contrast with what he called ‘real’ learning.
Barnes (1976:80) who writes on ‘Piaget against Vygotsky’ explains that both were focused on the pivotal problem in teaching which is ‘How to present adult knowledge to children so that it is understood.’ The areas where theoretical constructivism by Vygotsky departs and progresses when contrasted against Piaget have been previously noted by Moore (2000). Vygotsky (1978:88) Vygotsky (1962:51) reported two new developments. These are:
1) An assumption is made that peoples learn in a defined social manner and there is a mechanism which pupils engage when developing into the intellectual life of those surrounding them and,
2) Cognition or ‘thought’ development is language dependent. This has been similarly worded to Vygotsky who states that ‘the child’s intellectual growth is contingent on [their developing expertise in] the social means of thought.
Constructivist approaches in teaching and learning are still evident in classrooms today. The literature surveyed suggests well documented concerns regarding the implications raised by Vygotskian theory. The ramifications of this have been captured by Moore (2000) who eloquently explains that constructivist theory is bound to and ‘socially-rooted in instructional character.’ Reading around the subject, the suggestion of a theme exists, where Vygotsky was consequently propelled to add two key aspects to his theory. These were especially tailored at classroom teachers and are: ‘the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) and the theory of Language and Learning across the Curriculum.’
There is much to say on Vygotsky and ‘ZPD’ however, as with Piaget above he will be treated similarly in terms of limiting his accomplishments to a brief synopsis. The aim is to establish a series of systematic theoretical developments in the explored learning theory landscape. As earlier mentioned ‘Children are born sociable’ and are dependent on the roles others around them play. This is interesting as it seems to have induced Vygotsky to reason that subsequently the learner must be able to internalize their learning language which was also visited earlier. The notion is that social communication via verbal utterances initially occurs and as it evolves the child learns it can be self-directed. This resulted in what Vygotsky describes as ‘An Inner Voice.’ He saw this as an explanation for his observations of ‘Children frequently passing through stages where they talk aloud’ to seemingly no particular person.
Donaldson (1978) who examined the ‘Zone of Proximal Development’ by Vygotsky reports that ‘concepts of consciousness and deliberation’ are crucial to his learning theory. Vygotsky (1962) coined the term Zone of Proximal Development’ to describe the relationship between a learners optimally possible learning and their present abilities. He also separated instruction and learning on the basis of one being the nature of instructional technique which is directed typically towards classroom pupils: leading to activation of vast areas of consciousness. The second he described as myopically specialized training such as seen in ‘skills like ‘typing’’ which entails habitual repetition and exercise.
By viewing the student as an ‘apprentice who learns by being: helped, guided and challenged his theory gained in popularity, as it implied that everyone around the child is in effect a teacher. It is evident that Vygotsky work capitalizes on Piagetian theory and progresses by highlighting the social; as opposed to the psychological elements related to both learning and teaching.
Several implications arise as a consequence concerning: assessments, teaching and organization, to name but a few. Regarding each sequentially: Piaget views students as requiring both ‘formative and summative testing against established baselines’, he also advocates whole class instruction and grouping based on ability level. Vygotsky contrasts with each as follows: greater quantities of formative assessments which are individually constructed post teacher-pupil dialogue, he does not omit whole class teaching but prefers advocating individual and small group and, in organisational terms sees no clear reason to group learners based on ability. This section was adapted from a more complete table by Moore (2000:57) titled ‘Possible pedagogic implications of ‘Piagetian’ and ‘Vygotskyan’ perspectives.
The most mentioned flaw in the constructivist theory is the demarcation between ‘scientific’ and ‘everyday’ concepts earlier mentioned. Moore (2000) explains that in the quest for ‘universal patterns of developmental learning’ it neglected to account for more varied aspects of learning and teaching which are culturally bound. Jerome Bruner built on social constructivism and addressed this requirement, and forms the subject of the next discussion. As the theories chronologically evolve there appears to be a drop in the volume of criticism being directed at each. The nature of the criticism appears to be more varied, reflecting the progress made by each theory.
Jerome Bruner (1963-1996): ‘The Cultural Context of Teaching and Learning Theory’
Bruner (1963) advanced on both staged development and cognition learning philosophies. He is known for proposing the concept of ‘spiralling’ as ‘the manner by which the student constantly returns to prior learning and knowledge when confronted with new learning experiences.’ Donaldson (1978: 139) noted the similarity between Spiralling and Piagetian views of ‘reconstructing on a new plane what was achieved at the preceding level.’ Spiralling did away with concepts pertaining to ‘notions of a steady, incremental, step-by-step ‘accumulation’ of knowledge: it allows and encourages the learner to take steps backwards as well as forwards’ as worded by Bruner (1996). Moore (2000: 59) comments on ‘spiralling’ adding that it ‘allows children and adults to revise understandings by revisiting them.’
Bruner (1996) introduced work which superseded those of Piaget and Vygotsky in its own right. The second aspect of Bruner’s work uniquely considers the ‘role of the home and particularly that of the parent/s or guardian’ in a child’s cognitive and linguistic development.’ This theory of ‘cultural context of teaching and learning also departed from earlier work by considering what has been similarly worded in numerous texts as: ‘mismatches and links between what and how a child learns outside and inside the school environment.’ Bruner attempted to educate teachers as to the possible causes for underperformance by learners resulting from factors bound to the social conditions and surrounding the youngsters, as reported by Moore (1999). Bruner was a proponent of consideration of both the different learning styles and mental framework of learners. Moore (1999) informs that the work on learning inside and outside school classrooms led Bruner to further ‘explore issues of culture and learning.’ Moore (2000:60) interestingly points out that this aspect may have resulted in ‘Bruner’s work’ becoming increasingly political’ as time progressed.
The main implication of this theory is that classroom instructors should reflect and evaluate their own behaviour and teaching practice in instances where a learner is faced with difficulties. This as opposed to instructors looking for reasons to blame children in terms of behaviour. Bruner was concerned with learner motivation and saw the instructor as a facilitator in the student’s journey of discovery as described by Bruner (1966:43).
Bruner believed in motivation playing an important role in both pupil learning and behaviour. He refers to learner inspiration due to external rewards. An example of this element been observed in a school in the south of England in 2015. The school introduced VIVO points which students could acquire from their teachers for a range of appropriate behavioural actions. These equated to cash upon exchange in a number of shopping outlets.
As a consequence learning theorists explored the motivational aspects associated with learning. Baumann et al., (1997) identified four motivational categories: ‘Intrinsic, social, achievement and instrumental.’ The authors describe intrinsic motivation as: ‘arising from interest in the activity itself’, social motivation as: ‘task value in terms of pleasing others’, achievement in terms of: wanting to perform well in order to compete with others’ and, instrumentally induced motivation due to rewards and punishments which are external to the task.’ An example is being handed a detention or being praised.
More recently, authors like: Moore (2000) and Britzman (1999) have lent their support to considering learner achievement in terms of ‘the cultural context of where learning happens.’ They report concerning pupil motivational factors suggesting that greater emphasis should be placed on aspects like: ‘child self- image and personal expectations.’ A more comprehensive list and discussion is given by Moore (2000). Bruner suggested that pupil learning would progress more if instructors as facilitators employed scaffolding or writing frames that guided pupil exploration. He believed in setting tasks which were not as he terms it ‘too restrictive or too open ended.’
Naturally, the next milestone in learning theory would be one that took in to account new developments, and which accounted for observed challenges associated with Bruner’s theory. The theory of multiple intelligences proposed by Gardner did that and is explored next.
Howard Gardner (1943-present): ‘The theory of Multiple Intelligences’
Howard Gardner put forward the theory suggesting that seven intelligence types exist. These will be addressed later relative to what makes a good educator. The predominant misunderstanding regarding this theory exists by way of a discrete intelligence being dominant over others. This is not the case as pointed out by Muijs, (2011: 18) who notes that ‘we all possess intelligences to some extent’ and ‘doing something frequently necessitates ‘the use of more than one intelligence.’ (2011) goes on to that evidence for this comes from brain imaging procedures linking intelligences function to discrete brain locations.
Muijs (2011) explains that Gardner’s definition of intelligence conforms to strict criteria rooted in developmental psychology and cultural anthropology. Since it is one of the main learning theories along with IQ and behaviourism one would expect to see examples or aspects of it used during routine teaching. The reason for this is that they would be integral to most teaching qualifications. It was so in my PGCE. This naturally leads to asking if there is a relationship between the ‘number of times’ a teacher employs defined aspects or ‘combinations of intelligence’ and how to be an effective educator in terms of student higher grade attainment.
Gardner (1995: 200) pointed out that his theory was wrongly used in a number of ways. An example is the inference that ‘all subjects or concepts need to be taught using all seven intelligences’.
This raises the notion that effective teachers are both aware of the inherent strengths and weaknesses in the prevailing learning theories, and are also able to apply them practically. Such approaches also gain support when learning theory is considered alongside pedagogy in learners.
The influential psychologist and author Gardner (1983) proposed that
Learners’ see and understand the world in more ways than one. He describes at least seven ways or different intelligences. Each ‘distinct intelligence’ was viewed as being constructed of a repertoire of skills which enabled a person to locate and resolve difficulties they encountered. Only recently have Gardner’s ideas have become more widespread gaining in popularity, even though his work appeared earlier in the 1980’s.
These intelligences which are each unique to each other are: ‘Verbal-linguistic, logical-mathematical, visual-spatial, body-kinesthetic, musical-rhythmic, interpersonal and intrapersonal.’
Gardner (1993) promoted concepts with ‘significant implications for: ‘Teaching, planning and assessment’ drawing on background work in psychology, neurobiology, anthropology and philosophy as mentioned earlier.’ A section describing the impact of his multiple intelligences on learning will shortly follow. He believed in the fundamental principle that ‘our understanding of intelligence had to be defined, evaluated and assessed in different ways to traditional methods like IQ tests.’ Rather than see intelligence as singular in nature, he promoted recognition of plural intelligences.
Gardner (1983) defined ‘intelligence’ as a group of abilities which:
1) In character is autonomous from other human capacities,
2) Possesses a core set of information-processing functions,
3) Has a unique history in the developmental stages that learners pass through and,
4) Has a plausible pedigree in evolutionary history.
Verbal-linguistic intelligence as the name implies; revolves around using words and language. Learners acquire knowledge and understanding using the mediums of listening, writing, reading and discussion. They are proficient at communicating by speech and through writing.
Logical-mathematical intelligence is shown by pupils who become acquainted at an early age with ideas of space, numbers, time and cause and effects. Gardner (1983) and Gardner (1993) describe this as ‘the capacity for inductive and deductive thinking and reasoning. Accounts reveal that numerical dexterity and abstract pattern recognition are abilities that are located in these types of learners.
Visual-spatial intelligence allows for skills to visualize artefacts and dimensions in space. These students are able to construct 3D mental images as well as objects. They are also able to negotiate movement through space well.
Body centred or kinesthetic intelligence is seen in persons that prefer exploring their world through the touch and movement. They have good mastery over their own physical movements. They learn better ‘through a hands on’ approach such as experimentation and enjoy activities like role play.
Musical-rhythmic intelligence provides learners with an ability to identify tone patterns and sounds. These pupils are sensitive to musical moods and find pleasure in experimenting with different beats, sounds and rhythms.
Interpersonal intelligence allows efficient communication between one person and another. As such these pupils are adept at forging relationships. They are skilled at both verbal and non-verbal communication and frequently have a broad spectrum of perspectives which complement well developed listening skills.
Intrapersonal intelligence relates to peoples inner states of being. Feelings and thought along with personal development are important to these students. There is an element of spiritual awareness which appears to drive a search for solutions to wider philosophical matters.
Gardner’s theory has profound impacts on learning and significant implications for classroom instructors. The main influence on learning affects the curriculum, instruction and assessment. Regarding the first Gardner appears to suggest a more balanced curriculum that raised the profile of the arts, communication, physical education and self-awareness. He communicates that teaching techniques and materials employed should appeal to all the intelligences. With respect to assessment he informs of the need for better methodology which caters for different intelligences, and which uses self- assessment instruments that nurture a learners’ ability to understand their own intelligences.
The implications for educators are summarized to include understanding that learners are individuals, and for the need for instructors to teach using different ways as opposed to their own preferred learning intelligence style. This would reduce the risk of neglecting learners with varying intelligence types. Gardner (1983) proposes moving from a rigid curriculum and pedagogy which his theory dismisses due to not including for multiple intelligences. Earlier learning theory appears to rejecting learners on the basis of being unintelligent if they do not conform. As such he presented a viable alternative.
As we survey the learning theory landscape we can see the progress made by each of the theorists discussed above. More recently ‘Accelerated learning theory’ sprung from Gardner’s work on multiple intelligences. This will be briefly visited next.
Accelerated Learning theory
Smith (1996) discusses the concepts of accelerated learning as being an off shoot the theory of multiple intelligences. It appears that this new theory takes aspects from the different learning theories described in this chapter. An example is ‘Vygotskyan tenets of helping learners’ to attain achievement levels which were perceived as beyond their ability, and pupil-centred learning.
Dickinson (1996) and Hughes (1999) also explored this theory and are in agreement that ‘Accelerated Learning’ places emphasis on instructors constructing an appropriate learning climate. It advocates teaching learners how to learn which nurtures independent thinking. Teachers’ are encouraged to plan and deliver lessons using materials which consider the pupils’ preferred styles of learning. Smith (1996) reports that: ‘typical classrooms are made up of 29% visual learners, 34% auditory and 37% kinesthetic.’ He also proposes differences in the influence exerted by the left and right brain hemispheres. As such children may exhibit a preference of which side of the brain is used more.
This theory distinguishes between the left and right sides of the brain. The left lacks imagination, focuses on one thing at a time and files knowledge in to categories. It is organized and employs logical sequences. Accelerated learning views the character of ‘the right brain hemisphere’ in terms of a tendency for considering the whole and seeing things from many angles. This side of the brain uses intuition over systematically puzzling over faced challenges. It is flexible and at times disorganised. Reports suggest discovering patterns appeals to it. It uses them to form connections with previous learning experiences.
Accelerated learning proposes a balance between learning and instruction based on consideration of both brain hemispheres. It suggests using evaluations and reviews to maximise pupil learning progression, and also learning from students how the teacher’s instruction methods impact upon them. A more detailed discussion is provided by Smith (1996). ‘Accelerated Learning’ theory appears to suggest a directional move towards using brain science to more completely understand learning and learning processes. It also paves the way laying foundations for the next section on ‘Brain research and more recently developed views concerning learning theory.’
Brain research and developing learning theory.
Kolb’s learning theory evoked much acclaim. Kolb (1995) placed learners in a circle divided in to quadrats which categorised learners on the basis of their preferred learning.
Kolb viewed the different styles as ‘a cycle that all learners should move through as time progresses’ as similarly worded to Muijs et al., (2011). The various learning styles are depicted as a continuum. These are: 1) concrete experiences resulting from 2) reflective observation, 3) abstract conceptualization and 4) active experimentation as reported by the author.
Litzinger et al., (1993) labelled learning types: ‘accommodators, divergers, convergers and assimilators.’ Whilst a lengthy narrative on this theory is possible, it is mentioned to show how brain learning theory developed on account of the availability of more modern instrumentation like: trans- cranial imaging and magnetic resonance imaging techniques.
Actively engaging learning styles are preferred by accommodators, while assimilators show a preference for accurately constructed and well-presented knowledge. The convergers show a prevalence towards relevant data which grabs their attention. Muijs et al., (2011) suggest divergers are predominantly intrigued by the ‘whys’ in systems.
In the grand scheme of things as far as the previous learning theories are concerned they were unable to include aspects on how the human brain works. Neurosciences and brain research informs us that our brains like generating patterns. Lackney (1999) proposes that ‘results from brain research are linked with coherency and meaning’ and as a consequence learning progresses more effectively when persons are in immersive environments: as described by Muijs et al., (2011).
Whilst neuroscience and brain research is developing by leaps and bounds it will continue to inform us, and we will continue to refine our knowledge especially as new findings emerge. Sousa (1998) and Dall’Alba (2006) are established authors in this field. Their writing inform that brains are susceptible to continuous growth and development throughout lifespans, and is most evident at particular stages in human development. Muijs & Reynolds (2011) talk of ‘a window of opportunity’ which is what Sousa (1998) describes as ‘childhood.’
Whilst brain structure if fairly uniformly structured, brain research has pointed to distinct differences in the manner that different learners’ brains work. Dall’Alba (2006) reports along the lines that: ‘Different learner types employ varying strategies to form connections in the brain.’ These individual differences have been demonstrated using modern brain scans: Muijs & Reynolds (2011) and Rose et al., (2002) concur that the location of activity in the posterior of the brain when a familiar object is typically observed dramatically changes relative to different learners in terms of ‘magnitude, location and distribution.’ A similarity in suggestions is also provided by work on brain plasticity, and that of Bavelier et al. (2012) in the field of medicine which will be discussed presently.
Muijs & Reynolds (2011) explain that an important result from modern brain research on account of novel instrumentation relates to ‘emotions,’ which can both ‘aid and curtail student learning.’ Findings reveal that learning best occurs when a balance is struck between ‘high challenges and low threat.’ Sousa (1998) provides supporting evidence by saying ‘a safe environment is crucially important in minimising high levels of stresses which students may experience in classrooms.
Finally, brain research is progressing quickly in psychology. The implications for learning as a consequence the brain’s pattern making is as Muijs & Reynolds (2011) noted suggests ‘that instructors should provide children with the opportunity to construct patterns in their classrooms.’ The fact has not escaped attention, that ‘while these assertions are based on evidence provided by instrumentation which was not available at the times of: Piaget or Vygotsky’ other factors may also play a role. An example is presented concerning: the genetic predisposition for more structurally developed information super highways in the brain like the medial lemniscus. If greater volumes of discrete parcels of data can be moved quicker and more efficiently to the appropriate brain areas, then it also follows these structures may also play a role in both advancing and limiting learning.
Generally speaking a ‘teacher’ should be capable of recognising a student’s deficiency and addressing it effectively regardless of which learning theory is preferred by the instructor. A concept noted by Leach et al., (1999: 6) who worded it as ‘we only teach something to others if we recognize they don’t know it, or what they know is wrong.’ This is essential to learning because children continuously discover and invent while learning. An example is a child playing with a doll or a spaceman.
Children also do discover concepts like ‘exponents or power’ in mathematics or algorithms in thought processes. This is supported by Leach et al., (1999) who explain it as a spectrum. If a student advanced in class after they had learnt to multiply and were equipped with enough knowledge these students could begin to make sense of something called logarithms. Logarithms are discrete numbers that are ascribed as 1, 2, 3, (n+1). From that some student minds would inquire and be able to derive logarithmic series such as the following:
1st series 2, 4, 8, 16, 32;
2nd series 3, 9, 27, 81,234;
3rd series 1,10,100,1,000,10,000,100,000.
The numbers in each series correspond to the logarithms names 1, 2, 3, 4…and so too 27 and 1000. This understanding of pedagogy and learning does not appear to be exclusively limited to mathematics, because science employs similar skills of deduction.
Leach and Moon (1996) ask: What is knowledge? What is its source? And how do we come by it? They formulate an answer along the lines of ‘knowing something concretely and in particular knowing it as an example of a general rule’, for example: arithmatic addition or multiplication’, Leach and Moon, (1996: 8).
Because effective teaching requires understanding how students learn, it helps if teachers apply models of the mind and pedagogy to their classroom. This notion may well entail ‘rethinking educational psychology which demands that teachers investigate discrete facets of human development and also to re-evaluate their implications for learning and teaching’ Leach and Moon, (1996: 10). The authors summarize the recent three models of mind and pedagogy as each propagating different educational goals. Furthermore, they represent mind concepts to identify the manner in which we instruct, including variable relationships concerning both mind and cultures.
The first model requires regarding students as imitative learners. Here they acquire ‘know-how’. The second necessitates viewing them as learning from didactic exposure: ‘the acquisition of propositional knowledge’, while the third requires them seen as thinkers; suggesting progression of interaction between different subjects.
This reasoning points me to the classroom, where behind a secretive society veil our children’s futures are shaped. The concern being that we are not fully aware of what influences a teacher in how a lesson is prepared. What we do see and hear is the persistent plight of the student and parent wanting better attainment grades and ultimately more future opportunity.
To date we do not have an applied science of teaching (Reynolds, 2010:85) which is, ‘as the influential author observantly remarked’ really amazing when one considers the sheer amount of research that has been conducted on education across the globe. We do not have full awareness of and control over teacher effectiveness although we accept that ‘teaching is the core technology of what teachers do’ (2010:85). In England this issue becomes even more relevant when considered in the light of international research output. Reynolds points out that more studies have been conducted on the discrete instances of classroom ‘wait time’ in the United States than on the entire field of ‘what makes a good teacher’ in the UK. A logical inference regarding the consistent failure of educational reforms in Britain seems to be on account of lack of strategically directed research. This has been eloquently worded by Reynolds, (2010:85) as ‘by pulling the ‘lever’ of the school we have missed pulling the ‘lever’ of the teacher’. My research aims to make an original contribution to this important aspect of education.
1.2 Research questions
The two main questions for which answers are sought are:
i. To what extent do the two schools differ with regards to effectiveness of teachers in the sciences?
ii. What the differences in effectiveness between teachers of science whether within or from different educational institutions?
1.3 Rational of the study
This research has been designed and implemented with the aim of understanding what factors if any are demonstrated by effective teachers in the sciences.
As such it is necessary to employ a fully characterised and well documented research implement for the observation of teachers within the science domain. This tool does have to meet stringent criteria. This is shown by documents that have been published by institutions such as: LEA’s (Local Education Authorities), Ofsted, DfE (Department for Education), and various exam boards to name but a few. The consensus is that they generally appear to correlate in terms of promoting effective teaching and learning practice.
An instrument with clearly defined indicators located within distinct categories would allow for more pertinent and accurate data collection. Apart from providing a standardised scale and baseline from which meaningful data comparisons can be made: the instrument would also have to be ‘an empirically trialled and tested tool with demonstrated results brought about through its robust pedigree. The MECORS2 ‘Mathematics Enhancement Classroom Observation System’ was found to best suit purpose. This is subsequently elucidated upon.
Regarding the MECORS2 the following applies:
1. MECORS2 is held under copyright. The original developers and authors are Schaffer,E., Muijs, D., Kitson,C.,Reynolds,D.
2. Permission has been sought from and granted by the original authors to employ an adapted version of the Mathematics Enhancement Classroom Observation Record for the purposed of this PhD study.
3. This selected tool presents some significant advantages over others such as: harnessing 57 distinct indicators which are designed to fall in to 8 discrete areas. This makes for a highly reproducible and accurate way for the acquisition of defined teacher effectiveness traits, as well as later statistical analysis.
4. Its use allows for both quantitative and qualitative data collection. Furthermore, this implement possesses a clear 6 point scale for each indicator making it relatively easy for the observer to record information quickly and accurately while maintaining focus on domains like classroom management. The MECORS2 provides a smart design which brings together the ability to record instances of factors like time ‘on or off’ task and waiting or ‘in or out of class’.
5. A copy of the original format and adapted form are included in the appendix. A comparison of both will show that the following changes have been implemented. The list of resources which specifically related to mathematics has been changed to reflect activities and resources found in standard secondary school KS3/4 science classrooms. One example of this is the deletion of ‘Cuisenaire rods’ found mainly in specialist mathematics classrooms and the addition of ‘round bottomed flasks’ such as those commonly located in mainstream UK chemistry classrooms.
Application of MECORS2
MECORS2 training allows for better standardisation of data collection. With Gatsby and Lord Sainsbury funding it the instrument design allows for pertinent evaluation in the sciences and mathematics. It was conceived to affect pedagogy.
When employed in classrooms the observer records ‘context’ on page 1. Every 5 minutes the researcher is required to look around the class and record who appear to be on or off task. Training increases observer alertness to factors like the distinction between instances where ‘students are either on or off task’ as opposed; to simply appearing as being idle due to waiting for teachers’. The activity codes describe discrete functions and, as each new activity is started it should be noted down.
Employing different research instruments increases the likelihood of gathering greater volumes and more accurate data. Such an approach enables a better reflection of the phenomena being observed. By adapting the ‘MECORS’ observation instrument for use in science observation, and by combining interviews and survey questionnaires a pertinent range of data will be collected. The interviews will iron out blind spots which are not covered by the other tools: like whether the observed teacher is full-time, part-time or supply as recorded by the MECORS 2 instrument.
The adapted observation instrument will generate data by collecting information on areas specific to science instruction, for example scientific enquiry. Each such domain has a series of questions that act as mini self- triangulation mechanisms by supplying more data to support or dispel interpretation of phenomena.
The survey questionnaire will determine or provide insight in to how selected students see their experience in science classrooms. Quantitative and qualitative analysis of harvested data will allow for meaningful interpretation of results.
The practical implications of such research include: value added aspects and novel research in PhD. The former relies on using a well- known and empirically tried and tested research observation instrument in the novel field of science instruction. As such, by refining such an instrument for scientific application, it can be seen that useful data can be obtained using a reliable and valid tool that would help to also improve science instruction by practitioners.
The latter is explored from the angle of types of research such as applied or pure. In many aspects this is pure research but also integrates elements of applied research. The ‘pure research’ is meant in the sense that it is the unadulterated love and passion for the disciplines of science and their effective instruction and learning by students that serve as inspiration for my study. As there are no stakeholders external to Southampton University; and as such the research strives to offer as real as possible a true representation of the state of affairs encountered.
The applied aspect emerges through using instruments that are at the technological horizon of measuring important observed criteria in teaching and learning. As such it can be seen as applying innovative technology to an important area of social science research.
In terms of theoretical implications, the study will improve on the theory already held regarding tried and tested instrumentation. The MECORS2 has a long pedigree and it is time for it to be applied to improving science instruction as it has been shown to do in mathematics and linguistics.
The reasoning is that science and mathematics are hard to separate in terms of learning and instruction. They also rely on students being able to read and interpret what set questions are actually asking from candidates. The literature review shows some of the research undertaken and gaps in knowledge which have impacted elements of the study at hand.
Chapter 2: Literature review
2.1 Introduction
This chapter seeks to lay the foundations upon which my case rests for an enhanced understanding of effective teaching in science KS3-5. This is necessary as ‘children are the powerhouse of the nation’ Lumby (2011). Over the past few decades a number of ‘large scale assessments’ in educational research have taken place. Some examples of these include: PISA the ‘Programme for International Student Assessment’, TIMSS ‘Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study’, the ‘IQB-National Assessment Study’ and IGLU ‘ Internationale Grundschul-Lese-Untersuchung’ to name but a few.
The recent PISA ‘Programme for International Student Assessment’ (2013) results point to a trend where the United Kingdom seems struggling to move from an unflattering mediocre position at number 26 in the international league tables compared to China that is ranked at 1. This should already be ringing bells, since these findings which are released every 3 years show that we have as yet not effectively addressed this shortcoming.
Data from the 5th PISA survey which focusses on primarily on mathematical sciences, science and language provides a robust source of educational knowledge. Some 510,000 students between the ages of ‘15 years and 3’ months and ‘16 years and 2’ months participated in this study. The above stated number of participants roughly equates to about 28 million global ‘15 year olds’. It is worth noting that much has been documented regarding the roots of western learning theory. Conversely, there is little evidence which can be found to support any distinct and discrete Chinese learning and philosophy. Observation shows Asian nations appearing to consistently top PISA tables: Shanghai 1, Singapore 2 and Hong Kong 3.
In order to set on this quest, gathering of evidence becomes essential. This is necessary to better understand aspects relating to the search and acquisition of answers. Science in my view raises more questions than it answers, in this case these relate to what are considered ‘effective teaching practices’. These are instruction methods which progress towards maximising student learning whilst helping them realise their own potential. The logic behind this construct is to increase student opportunity through higher attainment grades.
2.2 Why review the literature?
Reviewing literature concerning effective educating in science allows for the understanding of commonly accepted definitions for mechanical and humanistic teaching. This I will do by looking at, and drawing on data from a wide variety of sources regarding current studies that have been reported in: peer reviewed journals, books and publications.
Humanism is defined as: ‘a belief or outlook emphasizing common human needs and seeking solely rational ways of solving human problems, and concerned with humankind as responsible progressive intellectual beings’ (Oxford Dictionary). Mechanical in this study is employed to mean and convey the concept of an Empiricist Positivistic Philosophy which drives policy. In other words, it is the rigid matrix in which each and every practitioner must operate. Some examples of these include: the national curriculum, exam board requirements along with discrete school schemes of work and individual teacher lesson plans.
This is necessary to understand how I will formulate my research to meet the stringent demands concerning validity from which meaningful results may be drawn and their appropriate application realised.
The argument being presented is for the necessary and pertinent consideration of effective teaching and learning in classrooms today. In my understanding, this is valid because we are living in an ever more culturally diverse world, in which each culture is evolving its own learning systems. Combinations of these various systems also exist. Mosston (1986) commented on this referring to it as ‘the analytical spectrum of teaching styles’.
Mosston (1986) conveys the concept that the key to teaching effectiveness and for desired results to be achieved is through adapting the nature and type of contact between teacher and pupil. This is on account of fostering a view that effective teaching is seen as a continuous series of relationships between the learner and teacher. This is a rational suggestion as it allows for both teacher and pupil to reflect and critique. Teaching may thus be seen as a decision-making process which involves both pupils and teachers along with conscious learning and use of methods that facilitate greater decision-making. This translates as independence which is closely aligned and intricately linked with knowledge. In fact, it might be argued that knowledge is a fundamental pre-requisite for independence. This I believe is a humanistic trait as it allows for concepts like random theory and IQ theory. This school of thought holds that brains take random pieces of data and make sense of it ending in logical coherent and cohesive thought Muijs & Reynolds (2012). Literature surveyed supports such an argument and little exists to oppose it.
From a medical (neuroscience) perspective recent work by Bavelier et al. (2012) has shown the brain to have a remarkable ability to learn. These authors examined how the brain learns to learn, a concept they termed ‘Enhanced learning capacity.’ This ability of the human brain to learn to learn was considered in terms of its computational requirements and putative neural mechanisms.
Two important points emerge from the work above. Firstly, Bavelier et al., (2012) present findings which are closely aligned with those of Muijs & Reynolds (2012) regarding the roles of the sensory perception in the short term, working memory and long term memory. Although worded differently, both write along the lines that ‘learning is naturally highly specific to the precise task being undertaken during any training activity. Bavelier et al., (2012) were concerned with this aspect of learning being as they saw it as a ‘limiting factor’ in terms of practical application in: ‘rehabilitation, work force training and education.’
The second important point pertains to ‘effective learning.’ Many authors such as those mentioned above discuss the use of different tasks and activities as beneficial teaching tools. Mosston (1986) who discusses ‘the analytical spectrum’ regarding learning in classrooms also appears to support Bavelier et al., (2012) view that ‘if training regimens were identified, and if they had a broad enough impact to transfer to a variety of tasks’ then they would be seen as having greater appeal to learners. This view of ‘brain plasticity’ has been reflected widely in the literature searched.
In educational circles Curry’s onion model for learning is well known. A recent study by Eagleton et al., (2011) reported the development of a ‘whole brain learning model’ based on Curry’s onion. Curry (1983) described the ‘onion model’ as having three layers which separated ‘instructional format preference, learning style and cognitive variables. Other authors hold similar views regarding the three onion levels being representative of automatic or sub-conscious behaviours. Conducting a literature review is necessary to demonstrate and understand how other academics working in related fields see and present data on common topics. This will become apparent presently.
Curry (2000) reviewed and critiqued published studies in cognitive style, learning style and instructional preference. The consensus holds with the authors that all three onion layers are ‘stable enough to be predictors for individual learner behaviour.’ The influential author presents the effect of individual personality traits as the inner layer of learning, information processing styles as the middle layer of learning, and environmental and instructional preferences as the outer learning layer.
Eagleton et al., (2011) report that the model they developed revealed more information on these discrete layers by ‘relating the personality traits central to learning, to the different quadrants of brain preference.’ This was done relative to Neethling’s brain profile description, as being the inner layer of the onion.
Eagleton et al.,(2011) state that the inner layer is encircled ‘by the learning styles that describe different information processing preferences for each brain quadrant.’ The authors report that for the middle layer, the ‘different stages of Kolb’s learning cycle’ are classified into the ‘four brain quadrants which are linked to the different brain processing strategies within the information processing circle.’ The researchers explain further that ‘each stage of Kolb’s learning cycle is also associated with the different brain processing strategies within the information processing circle.’ Support for this view is provided by Muijs & Reynolds (2011).
Eagleton et al.,(2011) describe how ‘each distinct stage of Kolb’s learning cycle is associated with a unique cognitive learning strategy.’ Their work offers a new dimension by ‘enclosing the two inner circles’ with one serving as a perimeter to represent the ‘whole environment and instruction on learning.’ This approach links ‘environmental factors that affect learning’ whilst distinguishing between ‘face to face and technology assisted learning.’ The realisation of this model appears to be due to the need to further inform on the design and instructional interventions for physiology to encourage whole brain learning, as similarly worded by the authors.
From the above discussion it can be seen that the literature review serves not only to provide an accurate academic grounding for research , but also to relate and demonstrate the importance of understanding how different pieces information can be looked at from different angles which together result in a more definitive picture emerging. One example of this principle resulting in application is provided by Abraham et al., (2006).
Abraham et al., (2006) looked at learning approaches to physiology in undergraduate medical school. The authors explain that ‘teaching interventions adopted in medical schools aim to develop a deep approach to learning.’ It is my belief that this concept of ‘a deep learning’ is not uniquely limited to medical students but to all science students at all stages of learning and development. The study considered behaviour changes in approaches to learning before and after incorporation of (COPT) ‘Clinically Oriented Physiology Teaching.’ It employed the (SIAL) ‘Short Inventory of Approaches to Learning’ and (n=223).During a nine week of learning COPT was incorporated with regular didactic lectures. Their intention was to ‘enhance the use of the deep approach and to decrease the use of surface and strategic learning approaches’ undertaken by learners. The SIAL was distributed prior and subsequent to COPT. The authors report that’ COPT implementation appeared to affect the learning approaches of the students as measured by SIAL. Findings by Abraham et al., (2006) showed a significant increase in the use of the deep learning approaches, and the majority of sub scales for the surface approach to learning decreased. Strategic approaches were found to have risen after COPT. By understanding how learners prefer to learn, and by effectively teaching new material in a manner which suits students’ learning styles, it is possible to move towards becoming an effective teacher.
The well-known philosopher ‘Bertrand Russell’ (1950) considered the intricacies involved with defining knowledge. Knowledge cannot fully be considered without including belief or belief systems realising that belief systems can be flawed. Education is in my view a function of knowledge and vice-versa, because education is based on knowledge but knowledge comes from education. Knowledge is the basis of liberty and progress.
Bertrand Russell (1950: 26) writes that ‘liberalism’ which I believe is a fundamental part of humanism was championed by Holland and England. Historically this is because the Spaniards failed to reconquer Holland or to subdue England making them the champions of freedom or liberty in the 17th Century. Russell (1950: 27) explains that ‘even democracy when it becomes fanatical, as it did during Rousseau’s disciples in the French Revolution, ceases to be liberal’. The differences between humanistic and mechanical doctrine is evident. This same fanatical belief in democracy which is mechanical, ridged and extremist in view and which ‘makes democratic institutions impossible’ as appeared in England under Cromwell and in France under Robespierre, would not be conducive to my concept of effective education today.
What Bertrand Russell does relevantly note is ‘the Liberal outlook lies not in what opinions are held, but in how they are held’ (1950:27). This in my understanding is humanistic and thus the same principles would permeate my definition of a humanistic teaching philosophy.
The above discussion serves to clearly locate what secondary teachers of science might be required have as part of their skill repertoire ‘if to be deemed effective’ as per commonly employed criteria in this manuscript. It thus now becomes possible to set a context for my PhD research and its two primary questions.
2.3 The theory of effective teaching
There have been many successes and failures in trying to establish what an effective teacher might be based on how they teach science in the UK. Specific examples and discussions will follow. These are all aimed at bringing to light traditionally employed methodology and to inform regarding their unique challenges and merits. This is so that research instruments can later be constructed or adapted for purpose before piloting. An approach such as this is necessary to answer the posed research questions:
i. To what extent do the two schools of thought (Humanist and Mechanical) differ with regards to effectiveness of teachers in the sciences?
ii. What are the differences in effectiveness between teachers of science whether within or from different educational institutions?
The debate concerning instruction methods has not abated over the last half century. Hirst (1975) writes that effective teaching is a polymorphous concept. As such he believed it was many different activities that came together to bring about learning in students. Some examples might include: experimental demonstrations, narrating a story, writing on a whiteboard and discussing an article. Mortimore (1999) suggested that the aim of effective teaching ‘was to bring about learning on the part of the pupil’. In the same year, Maden & Ruddock (1999) revealed that ‘more than 75% of the participants in their survey identified poor instruction as their greatest stumbling block to learning’.
Muijs & Reynolds (2011) who add to the discussion describe ‘direct instruction’ as ‘one of the most widely used and most effective teaching methods’. ‘Direct instruction’ or ‘didactic instruction’ originates from the Greek verb ‘to instruct’ as explained by Geen (2001). It is a teaching strategy which relies on ‘directly presenting knowledge to students, and where the ‘teacher does not draw ideas from the learners’ as per Geen (2001). Muijs and Reynolds (2011) who inform that direct instruction is the same as ‘active teaching or whole-class teaching’ write that it is a style ‘in which the teacher is actively engaged in bringing the content of the lesson to pupils by teaching the whole class directly.
Direct instruction has been a recognised element of effective teaching for the last half century at least. Influential authors like Muijs & Reynolds (2011:36) relate that ‘scientific study concerning the ‘effectiveness of instructors’’ which is a recent development from the 1960’s was born out of the ‘teacher effectiveness’ school of research. The authors cite ‘failure of attempts to explain differences in teacher performance on account of their personality traits’. As such research moved forward to focus on instructors behaviours which in turn could explain the observed discrepancies.
Whole-class instruction is a strategy which allows the teacher to make learning objectives clear to students, and this in turn allows the students to have an accurate understanding of what is expected of them in achievement terms. Geen (2001) adds to the debate by commenting that ‘it is economic with time’ and that ‘when employed in the form of demonstration it is ‘especially suited for teaching skills where teacher imitation is required’. An example is: following instructions to use a piece of scientific equipment in the correct sequential manner.
This ‘active teaching’ does have an advantage associated with it; like ability for the instructor to adapt their instruction to ‘suit the students’ cognition ability through the tailoring of materials. Arguments against include instruction alone becoming tedious to students and teacher, as well as the fact that ‘instruction itself serves no guarantee for understanding’ as similarly worded by the above author. The term ‘understanding’ is defined by Geen (2001: 14) along the lines of having two qualities:
1) Acquiring new ideas and putting them in some logical order within a framework of knowledge, and then
2) Observing how to apply them in novel contexts.
Significant amounts of research on ‘direct instructional methodology’ has been conducted by authors like: Rosenshine (1979), Good & Burrows( 1979) Nye et al.,(2004) and Stringfield et al., (1997) in the USA. They appear to concur regarding the benefits of direct instruction. Furthermore, studies in the UK such as the ‘Oracle project’ by Galton & Croll (1980), and studies by Mortimore et al.,( 1988), Creemers (1994), Croll (1996), and Muijs & Reynolds (1999, 2001, 2002) found that interactive direct instruction presented benefits to children.
It is no surprise that today ‘School Effectiveness and Improvement’ studies have taken on much responsibility. This is due to the level of importance being directed at effectively educating children. Pertinent examples are ‘EARLI (European Association for Research on Learning and Instruction) and ICSEI (International Congress for School Effectiveness and Improvement).’ Influential authors like: Stringfield (2014), Muijs (2014) Reynolds (2014) and Harris (2014) have all presented evidence to support the above assertion. The central theme is to ‘Think Globally, Act Locally, and Educate All Children to Their Full Potential’ ICSEI (2015).
The question ‘what are the significant components of effective whole-class teaching?’ arises and will be dealt with next.
2.3.1 Significant components of effective direct teaching.
ⅰ/ Interactive questioning techniques.
When discussing ‘effective direct teaching’ interactive questioning assumes a significant role. Examination of this role is required as demonstrated by the example drawn from Petty (1995: 155) in science ‘where the aim of the instructor’ is to ‘have the class understand why hot air rises’. If we consider the nature of whole-class teaching, it can result in student boredom due to children being passive. Geen (2001:14) explains that ‘oral questioning may be a way of overcoming this problem’. He believes that interactive questioning would ‘guide children towards understanding the point the instructor is attempting to establish’.
Muijs & Reynolds (2011) write along the lines that ‘direct instruction’, although an effective strategy would be undermined if ‘practice’ were not included. They reason along the lines that ‘practicing what they have learnt’ is crucial to students’ as it enables them to better retain knowledge. The authors add that ‘seatwork’ or ‘individual practice’ has a more popular alternative in the form of ‘group work’.
Questioning when employed correctly by the instructor can be a valuable tool in direct instruction strategies. It can be used in many ways and to different ends. Firstly, it is essential that instructors vary both their ‘question formulation and their class distribution of questions’ as authored by many academics. Geen (2001) comments by saying that ‘good questioning skills add to the bland character of direct teaching’ and that it results in children ‘being encouraged to be active in lessons’. It follows that in instances where ‘correct responses are confirmed’ pupil motivation may well increase, as similarly noted by the author.
It is widely believed that pertinent ‘questioning skills’ can promote greater understanding of knowledge. Some frequently encountered reasons in the surveyed literature include: lessons progressing at the children’s pace, the presence of opportunity to discover and correct mistakes in students’ cognition, as well as the chance for presenting feedback at all stages of the instruction process. The last point enables the instructor to evaluate the extent of learning happening.
The diversity of the ‘questioning tool’ means that it can be employed in instances where ‘any topic under investigation’ makes use of learning skills like reasoning and factual recall. Geen (2001) warns that instructors need to be alert to limitations associated with questioning, such as when ‘factual new subject material’ is being presented. Naturally, at times questioning can be seen as a time consuming activity. Instructors should also be mindful that questions posed are evenly distributed around the class, so that equal numbers of males and females as well as a wide cross-section of learners have the opportunity to engage with the material. This also reduces the perception of bias.
ii/ Seatwork and Supervised Practical work.
Seatwork is an element of both effective teaching and effective learning. Effective teachers spend time preparing suitable material for each class lesson taught. By ‘suitable’ it is meant that the ‘correct level and quantity’ of material is available for all individual students or groups of students. Professors Muijs and Reynolds (2011:42) report that ‘pupils need to engage in individual practice. Arends (1998) reports ‘the purpose of seatwork and its goals’ should be made clear to learners. The cognitive reasoning for particular seatwork tasks are of importance to learners. Arends (1998) further explains that ‘seatwork should not be seen by students as merely necessitating them to provide correct answers to given questions.’
Effective teachers are also efficient at encouraging learners through nurturing both trust and belief in their own ability. These teachers will constantly monitor and observe the students, and will stop to make an aspect clear if and when they see learners off task or when they have difficulties. It is also common to find seating plans used by effective teachers. These may be based on different factors like ‘boy/girl’ or ‘academic ability level’, and at times weaker pupils sat next to more able learners results in better learning outcomes.
As this thesis is concerned with effective teaching in the sciences, it follows that practical work deserves a mention. Whilst Johnson & Johnson (1994) write about the virtues of seating formats that allow the effective educator to manage verbal communication, Emmer (1997) writes about the virtues of ensuring equal time allocation with individuals. Muijs & Reynolds (2011) on this matter write along the lines that ‘teachers need to be approachable, and pupils must feel that they can ask the teacher for help.’ Geen (2001) simplifies the complexities associated with ‘direct instructional strategies’ and especially relative to ‘effective science instruction.’ His views strongly reflect those held by the authors mentioned in this discussion. The message is that ‘it is important for pupils to practise skills which may be taught by instruction or other methods, e.g. completing exercises from a worksheet or textbook, conducting an experiment and practising skills in design and technology.
Clear verbal communication is essential for all involved. Petty (1995:136) explains that effective educators in science are required to regularly check the progress of the class by moving around it. As they do so they ‘examine pupils’ work and answer questions’ which results in having the means and ‘opportunity to address and correct serious errors.’ Effective teachers will provide feedback to students’ allowing them a means to gauge their own progress and identify what they need to focus on next to further improve. As well as regularly assessing the learners’ work they need to be competent at employing different assessment strategies. Assessment for learning and assessment of learning are different.
Commentary
Effective teaching is a highly skilled profession that requires an array of different skills, and which as time progresses morphs into the teacher personality. The literature surveyed indirectly implies that all effective teachers are good managers. Although general this statement seems to hold true as educators will need to manage themselves, time, other people, knowledge and resources and teaching and learning.
The level of organisation and planning shown by effective teachers is hard to disguise. An awareness of factors like: the ‘academic year and the school calendar’, administration (e.g. registers, lists, recording marks and exam entries) and teaching (e.g. resources, lesson plans, marking, and discreet subject needs) are three areas that come to mind.
If we consider the area of subject teaching, ‘An effective educator in science must know what the learners’ must cover in the academic year’. The syllabus and SoW (Scheme of work) provide guidance. They would also need to be aware of individual planning and be competently skilled in lesson planning. This is since they will need to know what students’ had already covered and to what depth as well as knowing what unique requirements, work pace and abilities they possess. Coherent and cohesive lesson plans might not be possible if teachers’ are not aware of achievement requirements over the long term. Along with these aspects the teacher is also required to make an informed decision regarding individual lesson aims and objectives. They hold high expectations of student learning as well as being firm and flexible regarding adapting the lesson format or reacting to different class dynamics. What is clear is that meticulous planning is an effective teacher trait in science.
Whilst seatwork has been singled out for discussion, it is but a single component of direct instruction strategies. Good et al., (1983) report on the Active Teaching Model, which was a progenitor model generated for the Missouri Mathematics Effectiveness Project. It shows that seatwork is one of a group of activities that appear intrinsic to the very nature of Direct Instruction and the principles of effective teaching. The group comprises of: ‘Daily Reviews, Development, Seatwork, Homework Assignments and Special Reviews both on a weekly and monthly basis.’ In the UK, the DfEE (1999) (Department for Education and Employment) did consider the merits of direct instruction as shown on their website which actively advised educators to ‘spend as much time as possible in direct teaching and questioning of classes.’
Muijs & Reynolds (2011) have also reported this fact where they include a comprehensive but not exhaustive list of activities that maximise the benefits of teacher to pupil contact. Some of these are: ‘Directing, instructing, demonstrating, Explaining and illustrating, questioning and discussing, consolidating, evaluating learners’ responses and summarizing. Although positive in many respects, there are some drawbacks associated with direct instruction which will be considered next.
Drawbacks linked to Direct Instructional methodology.
Direct instruction has many virtues; however it may not be the most suited method for all contextual circumstances. Good & Brophy (1986) explain that this strategy is useful for teaching: rules, regulations, procedures and basic skills to young learners. They further inform that when ‘‘a lesson aim is more ‘open ended or complex’ which requires learners’ to make use and develop their cognitive reasoning skills, then a ‘open-ended model is better suited that teacher led- direct instruction. Joyce & Weil (1996) support this view.
Muijs & Reynolds (2000) have shown that ‘direct instruction effectiveness is dependent on the characteristics of the students being taught. They explain that approaches with a high degree or ordering are more suited to learners’ from disadvantaged backgrounds. Drawing on a recent Anglo-Welsh study they inform us that disadvantaged pupils’ may benefit more from ‘explicit teaching.’ Campbell et al., (2004) provide evidence from published studies to suggest ‘direct instruction’ is more suited to younger learners’ ‘particularly in the field of mathematics and English.’ They suggest more research for prudence sake is needed in other subjects before a definitive opinion is reached. This air of caution is also raised by Gipps & McGilchrist (1999) who write that ‘student passiveness in lessons due to direct instruction’ may result in ‘learners’ becoming over dependent on their teachers as well as neglecting sufficient development of their independent learning skills.’ The learned consensus appears to be that apart from the limitations noted above, ‘direct instruction seems to be better suited to teaching of basic skills than teaching of higher order cognitive skills’ as similarly worded by Muijs & Reynolds (2011: 51).
Although ‘direct instruction’ was singled out as a positive strategy and discussed, it is also necessary to mention that others such as Heurism also exist. A brief section on this is included to serve as contrast for the above.
Iii/ Heuristic Learning Strategies.
The Greek verb ‘to find out’ is the root of the word ‘heuristic.’ This learning strategy is frequently known as ‘discovery learning or problem-solving methods’ as explained by Geen (2001:16). The author eloquently draws our attention to the fact that philosophers like: ‘Socrates (469- 399 BC), Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) ‘discussed earlier relative to Bertrand Russell’s views on how an opinion is held’ and John Dewey (1938) all support ‘heurism’ as a strategy.’ This strategy was central to studies involved in the ‘Nuffield Projects developed in the early 1960’s.’The ‘Nuffield Projects’ under the umbrella of organisations like the ‘Schools Council (1964-1984)’ started in ‘the sciences’ before extending to wider disciplines like Language. As such it has also been selected for mention.
Dewey (1938) believed in an ‘education system which allowed for ‘the use of pupils’ own interests to generate motivation.’ Geen (1989) describes some pros and cons associated with it. Reported advantages include: ‘learners having better memory recall for what they self-discover, generating motivation in students’; both (intrinsic and extrinsic), and in stark contrast to direct instruction methodology which is predominantly a passive endeavour by learners’ standards; heuristic approaches require ‘higher levels of intelligent thought’ by the pupils, which also nurtures their curiosity and originality.’’ Two reported disadvantages are: ‘it is more time consuming than direct instruction and, at times the learning objectives may not be immediately clear to learners.’ This point was similarly noted by Sparks (1994) who was concerned with ‘science’ and writes along the lines that ‘key scientific concepts sometimes conflict with common sense.’ Hofkins (1994) draws attention to the ‘excessive employment of discovery methods’ in mathematics teaching. Learning tables and factorising are argued as being better served by direct instruction strategies.
When considering the use of effective teaching strategies, regardless of the ‘most appropriate choice’ made by an effective teacher, there is a requirement under ‘section 351 of the Education Act (1996)’ to ensure the use of strategies which promote: ‘spiritual, moral, cultural, mental and physical development of pupils at the school and of society, and which prepares them by maximising their opportunities, responsibilities and experiences of adult life.’
Episteme is knowledge/ science. Epistemology is the philosophical branch associated with the nature and scope (limitations) of knowledge. Ontology is the philosophical inquiry in to the nature of being itself which is a branch of metaphysics (Lecture notes, Southampton University, UK). However, ‘philosophy’ is important because it allows explanation of the nature of the knowledge. By this it is meant that source of origin, type, method of acquisition and whether it is culturally or specifically bound are considered. This adds to validity and rigour aspects that are naturally part of education studies.
The concepts above are all related to visualizing teaching with a view to improving teaching effectiveness in our culturally diverse classrooms. The point being made is that the main different educational frameworks like ‘Positivism, Hermeneutic science and Critical Theory’ also need to be considered alongside specific teaching and learning methods and learner types. Furthermore, this is required to be closely aligned with currently employed/accepted definitions of ‘effective teaching’ if we are realistically aiming to characterize what constitutes effective teaching. This is argued with examples that support teaching climate in society evolving in a manner appearing to require instructors to work within empiricist positivist frameworks which dictate policy. Evidence suggests that humanistic teaching approaches would have to co-exist in such a mechanical system. By adopting this approach I hope to establish context.
Models like that of Kurt Levin in constructivist teaching and Dubbin’s model of learner states or McKenny’s (2012) classification of research types all include mechanical frameworks. This guides their applicability and reliability; and yet they all rely on that sweet note of freedom or liberty, which is a cardinal theme in any definition of humanism that would realistically draw my attention.
The above models draw substantially on our own understanding of learning theory, and how it might in turn be applied within the context of a positivist/empiricist framework that guides policy. This type of research would thus need to examine the theories of learning in order to establish the nature of the relationship with effective teaching ideals. 14000
2.4 Theories of learning
The preceding section bridges across because it may be argued that ambiguity exists regarding whether they are seen as learning theories or epistemological perspectives of knowledge. To all intents and purposes, I would request that they simply be regarded as informing on what a ‘modern trained PGCE’ or other Teaching qualification would have made reference to. This I believe would have sown the seeds that allow the effective teacher to able to relate to learning styles and teaching skills.
Kuhn (1970) describes the three branches of philosophy as, ‘positivist/empiricist, hermeneutic/interpretive and critical’ together in a wonderful critique. Empirical analytical science is concerned with prediction and control. Critical theory revolves around ‘detecting and unmasking beliefs and practices’ that curb ‘human freedom’ while, ‘hermeneutic science or knowledge’ proceeds to interpretive research and enlightenment, understanding and communication’ Kuhn (1970: 22).
This is important for two main reasons. Firstly, I believe that policy is essentially positivist in nature and secondly, specific evidence can be brought to bear to frame it as a real example.
The ideas of rigour and validity are never far from mind. Shaker et al. (2007) demonstrate how policy makers use terminology which is ambiguous and often without basis. Currently, the US Government is trying to word a definition for ‘scientifically–based’ educational research which is also common to this study. The difficulty is that ‘US policy has evolved from contemporary neoliberal and technocratic perspectives’ Shaker et al. (2007: 208) resulting in policy dictating teaching based on flawed descriptions of research. Research is a part of scientific inquiry and preference exists for quantitative, experimental research which is modelled on methodology from the natural sciences including medicine. ‘This facilitates applicability and ‘transferability of findings to be directly linked to a predominance of economic principles and discourse.’ This is an explicit example that supports my belief in policy being inherently and predominantly, if not completely positivist. It serves as a good example of the influence on policy by Empiricist/positivist frameworks.
Knowledge claim validity comes across as being dependent on whether claims are founded on the use of senses or by observation enhanced by measurement. If different observers are exposed to the same knowledge (the underlying assumption being that the ‘data’ are always the same) they should be able to arrive at the same conclusions. This concept is often referred to as ‘‘inter-subjective validation’, and means that full agreement is always in ‘principle’ possible and that it is this test of inter-subjective replicability which is the most significant indicator of procedural objectivity’’ as similarly worded to Usher et al. (1996:1-16).
An assumption of positivist/ empiricist epistemology culminates in a research approach which emphasises determinacy. This means that a certain truth that can be known rationally and to which there are no contradictory explanations must converge on a single explanation. Thus, the ‘more objective’ and the ‘less subjective’ the better the quality of research, which in turn makes prediction more accurate.
My PhD research attempts to instigate consideration in the form of progressing towards making ‘knowledge claims’ in the form of generalisations from which predictors can be made and events and phenomena controlled. This philosophy allows me to steer away and avoid questions of reflexivity by simply following the methodological approaches in the correct sequence. More detailed insights in to the three philosophies and their implications are presented by both Usher et al., (1996) and Kuhn (1970).
The account presented here serves to locate this research relative to adopted methodology. It is included to serve as an overview by which readers can relate to instrument choice and the reasoning behind particular selections made. The social world is much akin to the natural world in the sense that social life is patterned with cause /effect forms. In nature phenomena do not just occur randomly and in an arbitrary fashion. This means that the goal of research is common with both natural and social sciences. All sciences are based on the identical methodology of finding out about the world in which we live.
This means that both natural and social sciences share similar logic and methodology pertaining to inquiry. The inference made is that as long as the correct methodological procedures have been properly applied, questions of reflexivity need not be considered. The section above is considered in the light of empowerment and offering opportunity for others to do the same when possible. It should be noted that this argument only holds true within a positivist framework. It is thus clear that a critical perspective needs to be adopted regarding whether they are learning theories or epistemological perspectives to knowledge.
2.4.1 How do theories of learning inform effective teaching: Policies and Empiricist Positivism
The impact that positivism has on government policy is undeniable. In the USA and UK this has clearly been evidenced in the educational research domain. For example, it is commonly accepted that scientifically based research needs to include the use of systematic empirical methodology emanating from observation or experimentation.
It must also include rigorous data validity to test stated hypotheses thereby allowing general conclusions to be made. Its character is based on ‘measurement or observational methods yielding valid data to evaluators and observers, across numerous studies by the same or different investigators’ according to; Shaker et al., (2007: 207).
This is reworded from the ‘No Child Left Behind Act of 2001’: US government. The influence of positivism on policy is clear to see and is not unique. It also occurs at many levels within countries who are proponents of the framework. In the UK, 1997 saw New Labour win the general election and by 2010 they had stated a desire to promote evidence-based policy. The current coalition government appears less committed to it.
The key policy drivers regarding social exclusion issues saw the materialisation of:
* The Social Exclusion Unit 1997- 2006
* Social Exclusion Task Force 2006- 2010
* The Office of Civil Society- ‘the big society’
In May 2010 the coalition government published the ‘state of the nation report’. Poverty, worklessness and welfare dependency in the UK formed part of the report. In the same year 5.3 million people were suffering from poverty and 3.7 persistently in the UK. These examples are at national level and so comparable to that of our American cousins. Finally, for an example at regional level ‘The Bristol Social Exclusion Matrix (B-SEM)’ has 10 dimensions or domains of potential importance to social inclusion. These are:
Since effective teachers are also concerned with developing and expanding learners’ knowledge banks whilst providing motivational inspiration they also need to possess an idea of what effective teaching practices they adopt for use relative to a or some established effective teaching model. It is thus shown that mechanical systems do operate and govern what teaching can and does take place across classrooms.
2.4.2 Effective teaching
The concept of effective teaching has been around for some time. In a survey sampling 4000 pupils aged 11-16 regarding their schooling, Maden & Ruddock (1999) found that over 75% of respondents identified poor teaching as their main stumbling block to learning.
It is because of such research that we may be confident in allocating the time to try and establish the nature and fundamentals of what good teaching practice is. There are probably proponents and opponents of every conceivable instruction method devised. An example might be the didactic approach from the Greek verb ‘to instruct’. Such a method sees the teacher role as directly conveying knowledge. It appears to be a strategy where information is placed in students and one where ideas are not extracted from learners by their teachers.
Didactic approaches require teachers to use an authority-based manner that may appear both arrogant and directive as argued by Geen (2001). Examples quoted include explaining principles to the class, lecturing, demonstrating a skill like experimentation, giving instructions along with dictating notes, story-telling and making pupils copy from a board or follow instructions. Since this method is based on the teacher being seen as the expert and the student as the receptacle of knowledge, then a limitation arises because of the way that different pupils actually learn, store and recall information. A humanistic element is thus needed to bridge potential gaps.
Authors like Paul Hirst (1975) portray teaching as a polymorphous concept. He suggests teaching is not a single activity but rather a pursuit that includes many different activities. Peter Mortimore (1999) went on to explain that ‘the aim of teaching is to result in learning by the student. This concept is one that I subscribe to because it infers that there is no discrete right method of teaching. In fact, Muijs & Reynolds (2011:3) credit Mortimore and colleagues by quoting their findings ‘teachers who spent significant time working with individual pupils were using the time in routine (non-work) matters, in their book. They express views that ‘less higher-order questioning was employed compared to ‘teachers who used discussions in class as part of their strategy which culminated in generating more higher-order communication.
The consensus was that many factors contribute to effective student outcomes. These include intellectually challenging teaching, a work-orientated environment, structured lessons, good communication between teacher and student along with limited focus in sessions Muijs & Reynolds (2011:3).
A general literature review shows ‘teaching styles’ are important to the principle of effective teaching. Didactic approaches seem to emphasize the mastery of material. Facilitative teaching styles in contrast place emphasis on pupil participation. The teacher acts as a guide functioning to help pupils acquire knowledge and skill. This is achieved by aiming to get learners to understand, test and apply their knowledge. In Dialogical methodology power relationships are better addressed. This is because the teacher is viewed as an equal and student interactions employ a pedagogy approach. It is a method often characterised by everyone, including the teacher taking part and questioning while information is being relayed and while communal knowledge generation is transpiring.
Relative to the earlier point made about ‘spectrums of teaching styles’ emphasis is placed on allowing time for both teacher and pupils to reflect. It can be seen as a process of decision-making where both parties take part. As such the teacher and pupil are also conscious of learning and the use of methods that facilitate greater decision-making. It could be argued that it nurtures co-operation and teamwork skills in scientists from a young age.
The briefly discussed teaching styles serve to inform on styles that can be drawn upon at appropriate times by effective teachers of science at KS3/4/5 and even beyond. Reciprocal learning is another established method. This approach is a united communal approach to learning. Pupils are encouraged to rely on each other, ensuring co-operation, teamwork, help and communication. Congruency with the national curriculum is a key feature here, as is congruence with my earlier framed example of positivist impact and policy. Discovery learning is another valuable instruction method which is commonly sub-divided in to three categories. These are guided discovery, problem solving and individual learner-designed program.
I recall some science lessons where a teacher asked the class a series of questions about biology. What is interesting is that the teacher had and was leading the class towards a pre-determined goal. My class mates had to follow a process or story line and answers were not given. Fast forward the clock, it is now apparent that guided discovery was being used. This is because the goal was to sidestep any metaphorical pits. It is a case of teacher providing the stimulus resulting in the learners becoming actively engaged in enquiry.
OFSTED have been looking at effective teaching for some time now. In their publication ‘primary matters’ (1995) they mention that factors showing associations with positive learning outcomes included: good subject knowledge, good questioning skills, effective use of other adults in class, good classroom organizational skills, balance of grouping strategies, emphasis on instruction, effective planning, clear objectives and good time management.
This seems to be echoed frequently by different authors in different forms. These thoughts support the need to look at what humanistic and mechanical approaches are adopted in classrooms. The recent PISA (Dec 2013) results show the UK trailing behind in a list topped by Shanghai China, yet again. The point is made that we have as yet not significantly improved.
When one considers that a nation’s wellbeing is determined by its education and investment in its future by effectively teaching children, it becomes necessary to understand just exactly what and how teaching is being done. This point did not escape Professor J. Lumby (2011) who eloquently said ‘children are the nations powerhouse’ when driving home arguments for the need for educational reform.
These types of referenced debates are needed to place teaching of science in the UK in context of mechanical and humanistic boundaries because a key virtue of an effective teacher is planning. The DfES KS3national strategy (2003: 23) focuses the subject by giving examples of good starter and main activities. Starters include: - Give me 5 things important about school or game based activities like:
· noughts and crosses
· loop games like round the room questions
· data investigations of graphs looking for patterns
· show me cards on portable mini whiteboards
· word webs, sequencing tasks like instructions for an activity, and traffic lights along with concise captivating demonstrations and video clips followed by questions all feature, and emphasize the mechanical nature of the activity while propelling the humanistic approaches needed to result in concepts of effective teaching. It is worth noting that main activities have their own criteria as do plenaries.
Conversely, it is worth noting that an effective teacher is required to use assessment for learning as opposed to assessment in learning only. The inference being that ‘it would reinforce learning that embraces reflection and target setting DfES KS3 national strategy (2003: 23). This is similar and in line with reports by Muijs & Reynolds (2011) where creating a settled and purposeful atmosphere is discussed. At this rate our superhero would need some astonishing powers.
The DfES KS3 national strategy (2003: 16) touches on features of ‘main’ activities in science lesson delivered by effective teachers. Here, once more an excellent example of humanistic and mechanical teaching presents itself.
The mechanical aspect is denoted by the clear criteria and steps which are described below. Similar wording has been employed the DfES (2003) to describe these sought skills, which are:
- Realistically high expectations and explicit outcomes
- Clear student communication to impart what is required to be learnt
- Challenging activities that involve group work
- Teaching strategies that maximise student learning time
- Interactive and dynamic questioning with in-built opportunities for students and engagement to act on hunches
- Giving prompt feedback and support for learners at challenging points
- Last but not least, prompts and strategies to nurture independence.
The extent to which humanistic and mechanical methods are intertwined is obvious. It is clear that each aspect relies on much humanistic freedom in terms of making judgements.
2.4.3 Effective Science and Maths teaching
It is clear thus far that effective teaching has been looked at by professionals. The exhaustive lists presented by different bodies testify to the importance attached with this domain of research. This is because schooling of children is essential if we are to advance as a society.
There are numerous discrete aspects that are able to traverse freely between ‘humanistic and mechanical’ doctrines. Two examples are: pedagogy and practice which both reinforce concept of rigid structures within structures, being highly organised yet including humanistic approaches. An effective science teacher is thus one who includes: ‘lesson objectives, climate for learning, pedagogic approaches, teaching and learning strategies and classroom organisation’ based on DfES KS3 national strategy (2003: 6). This is not an exhaustive list but it serves to spot light very clear definitions and governing criteria for each aspect, and in the context of effective teaching it is both mechanistic and humanistic as can be readily reasoned. This helps when considering other definitions of effective teaching pertaining to secondary science instruction.
In contrast, ineffective teachers are exemplified as those who allow pupils to idly chat away during planned activities DfES KS3 (2003:6). The authors report the real issue arising is ‘one where pupils feel they can just get results from their classmates.’ It is also possible that the disruptive pupils might view incorrectly and out of context their data harvesters as ‘class nerds.’ The same report also details ‘not relating concepts’ as a sign of an ineffective teacher. Simply put continuity and coherence need to be maintained, so ‘looking at combustion of elements and compounds should not be followed with a detailed sketch of a combustion engine and its labelling on the board’ as explained by (2003:6). Other published literature offers different perspectives on the whole notion of what an effective teacher is. Some are more diverse and some less definitive, but never the less mechanical and humanistic themes exist. Different aspects are considered next.
Based on the literature surveyed it becomes evident that effective teaching needs to be a highly organized set of affairs with clear structure and methodology. In my opinion lesson structure is essential. This is because pupils need a clear structure to their lessons so that they can understand the direction that their learning is progressing in. It is desirable to have flexibility to allow reflection and taking stock of the different varieties of planned scientific activity.
Starter activities appear to be valuable because they engage pupils’ interest in the lessons. It transpires that the main lesson activity is enhanced if presented by a concise introduction that includes what they are going to do, as well as the whys of their doing the activity. Effective plenaries spotlight what students have learnt and also how they learnt it. Eight years on OFSTED (2003) identifies plenaries as being the weakest part of lessons. The fact that arguments exist for 3 part differentiated lessons means that mechanical constructs are still there and prevalent and as such humanistic traits which also exist must super impose and intertwine. The questions remain as to whether they do and to what extent? This will be answered once classroom evidence is obtained.
Published research also bolsters the view that pupils need to grasp the purpose for scientific writing. It would go against common sense if effective teaching in science did not address the development of writing skill ranges and genres appropriate to identified purposes in order to meet lesson objectives. How else would I understand and interpret a piece of writing describing a phenomenon as the pupil wished it to be understood. This is supported by Griffiths (2003) who writes to the effect that ‘concepts like self-expression by teachers or students’ and ‘their knowing what they have to say’ possesses value and are important. It allows for stakeholders to have presence in other words ‘have a voice’ as explained by Griffiths (2003). As an external doctoral examiner she examined necessity in an effectively functioning classroom. The terms ‘functioning power relationships and the voicing of feeling which can be interpreted as a classroom’ are coined as meaning ‘inclusion of both elements of ‘effective learning and teaching.’’
The old adage that practice makes perfect is eloquently true in this instance, because it stands to reason that opportunities for learners to creatively write may result in greater numbers using their own words and individual writing constructs to describe and explain what they sense. This is a key message in reports prepared by the likes of the Mosser Group regarding literacy and numeracy, especially in science.
The element of practical work also helps define effective science teaching. The Key Stage 3 National Strategy document (2003) breaks this in to four categories, which will be shown to mirror the currently accepted views through educational research. This is summarised as: skill development, observation, illustrative work and investigative work KS3 National strategy (2003: 1).
Regarding the concept of teaching Dr. Rhodes Boyson MP, writes in The Crisis in Education (1975) ‘that traditional methodology is a quicker method of teaching the law of gravity than taking coach loads of children to Kent in time for the apple harvest and hoping an apple will fall on the head of each pupil’ , no statistical pun intended. This sentiment has been reflected in many peer reviewed journals. This infers teacher and pupil discretion about effective personal teaching and learning. This in turn implies teachers being free to choose when and how to effectively instruct their wards which are humanistic traits.
In terms of practical work a single lesson may involve a few learning episodes. The KS3 National Strategy (2003:1) suggests that ‘some episodes may contain different practical activities taken from more than one of the above mentioned categories’. The authors go on to effectively say that ‘the effect of illustrative and investigative components of practical work’ should not be seen as alternatives’. This clearly infers the research findings support the view that each is a distinct entity. Both serve important purposes and may provide specific needs for each other at varying times. It should also be noted that instances exist where scientific enquiry need not involve a practical element. A well regarded view holds that discrete practical activities should be studies and the best sort of activity chosen to result in provision of desired learning outcome with particular student groups.
The last area that defines effective science teaching practice in my view is group work. Humans are social beings with intricately complex rules by which they abide. The classroom is seen in my PhD as a social arena comprised of captive audiences. Thus discussion would be considered fundamental to activities where students engage in collaborative group work.
The KS 3 National Strategy (2003: 2) states that ‘discussion helps pupils to develop their understanding of the concept, principle or idea being considered’. This seems to summarise much of the examined material in other papers. This is that ‘to be an effective teacher all types of group work should be well planned and managed’ (2003: 2). The task must be clearly transmitted to and understood by the pupils. Teachers as previously mentioned need to be flexible and when required intervene. They need to keep groups on task, promote further development, review progress being made and ensure all pupils are engaged in the task (2003: 2). This again calls for humanistic qualities within mechanical frameworks.
2.4.4 Humanistic Teaching and Effective Science Teaching
So, what constitutes an ‘effective teacher’?
A study commissioned by the Teacher Training Agency (TTA) and conducted by King’s College London in 1997 considered this crucial issue. Professors David Reynolds and Daniel Muijs have also been examining this topic over the past years; their many highly informative books are testament enough.
Since concrete evidence to support discrete behaviours that enhance learning is absent, then inferences drawn regarding teachers’ behaviours are likely to represent unsubstantiated predetermined views that rest on the observers beliefs.
These in turn would hinge only on their interpretation of ‘good’ practice. These arguments aid in my preparation for fieldwork scheduled for September/October 2014. Awareness of the issue allows me to avoid pitfalls when employing specially adapted data collection instruments.
This is considered from the stance of avoiding researcher bias and ideas by way of understanding that they do exist and do affect data validity if kept unchecked. Drawing from construct and model definitions of effective teachers, effective teaching and effective learning there is a theme that runs commonly in all. This theme is that of enthusiasm, interaction and atmosphere although it is frequently worded to different effect.
Such humanism is best represented through use of qualitative data to enhance, suggest, explain/ model and through which ‘children’s cultural capital’ can be used in effective teaching. Harris et al. (2012: 373) consider ‘effective questioning use’, which logically forms a constituent of effective teaching as an ‘indicator of quality of teacher’. In this context ‘quality’ is synonymous with teaching effectiveness. Quantitative analysis serves to manufacture objectivity, thereby further addressing data validity and rigour aspects which support a mixed method approach to primary question investigation.
A nice construct which draws on evidence from the National Strategies Framework for secondary science is presented by Brenda Keogh et al. (2011). They write in ‘The Association for Science Education (ASE)’ that creativity is integral for effective science teaching. This concept has been translated as a function of passion and enthusiasm. The reason being that one can only continue being creative if they hold intrinsic or extrinsic motivation. This implies to some extent the effective teacher should have a desire for being light-hearted with respect to both ontology and epistemology. This in turn suggests an optimistic personality.
This type of teaching includes ‘risk taking as outcomes’ are not known in advance, Brenda Keogh et al. (2011: 109). Creativity in the context of effective teaching and learning involves ‘invention, experimentation, taking risks, breaking rules, making mistakes and enjoying one’s self (2011: 109). There are similar definitions for research, however the main point is that as learning is not solely an academic cognitive function and feelings matter too, as similarly pointed out by Hodson (1998). Based on their definitions it is clear that a humanistic approach becomes a necessity for effective science teaching. Feelings imply humanistic elements.
The positives of such models mean individuals become better teachers, as creative teaching includes lessons that are more interesting and where more pupils are engaged Hodson (1998). This induces learners to reason, argue and engage in mental creativity. In other words such a teacher creates opportunities for learning to maximise students’ potential outcomes.
Brenda Keogh et al. (2011) who are proponents of such methodology argue that creative teaching is part and parcel of science education. This is because creativity is integral with science as it concerned with notions of ‘why things are the way they are?’ or ‘why things happen?’ and ‘whether they transpire?’ This starts the scientific process, and is summarised below (2011: 111).
This model requires effective science teacher to:
· Delay judgement regarding learners’ ideas because it will induce them to refrain from thinking. According to other wording this is known as disengagement.
· Employ a dialogical approach to teaching in order to nurture discussion.
· Anticipate mistakes and lack of certainty because it takes a lot for learners to overcome these barriers in their own learning. It needs personalities that consider mistakes to be a crucial facet of learning rather than a drawback. It employs using mistakes to learn and progress.
· To hold a fascination of the world in which live. To want to know how it works and imparts that sense onto students.
· To contextualise teaching and materials.
· To use a creative approach at the start and at the end of lessons.
Consideration of the above discussions has resulted in two pellucid arguments. In terms of linking humanistic and mechanistic doctrines in effective teaching the practitioner would draw on strategies like teaching in the manner of an orchestral composition. Next, because ‘quality criteria for input/ outcome measures, process measures and statistical analysis’ Muijs (2006: 53-74) are important as they pertain to data validity and rigor, it means outcome measures must be reliable and valid, regardless of the studied outcome. This approach offers an internal balance mechanism because construct validity, humanistic approaches and mechanistic aspects are addressed in tandem.
‘Orchestral composition teaching’ Keogh et al. (2011: 122) constructs lessons on the basis of three movements. The first is ‘preparation’ which is followed by ‘sense-making’ and finally, ‘Knowledge transfer.’ Within the frame are six discrete effective teaching strategies which serve to engage, elicit, explore, explain, elaborate and extend learning by pupils.
All are verbs that infer a dynamic nature to lessons. This is a precise example of humanistic doctrines being employed to effectively teach learners. There may even be a parallel with earlier reported 3 stage lessons composed of a starter, main section and plenary as considered effective by Ofsted.
The link between dynamic lessons and effective learning has been reported by others. Teaching effectively using an orchestral composition plan includes ‘goals’ for each strategy as well as narratives, inquiry, knowhow and adjustment. The ‘adjustment’ variable includes scope for the views which have already been expressed regarding making ‘minor behavioural modifications’ in both effective teaching and learning strategies.
Such formulations of lesson plans encompass the humanistic element by developing a story in stages and reaching a climax whist navigating engagement, elicitation and exploration ground. This suggests use of emotional content which is a ‘distinctly human trait’ to further student learning. It is also highly mechanical in character because each prescribed activity falls within strict sections and entails defined parameters.
Its merit is presented on account of internal balance however a drawback may be ‘lack of teacher exposure or CPD.’ This I believe is compounded by the mechanical nature of effective teaching constructs.
It stands to reason that a robust theoretical background in current effective teaching practice which furnishes teachers with the metacognitive machinery with which to understand, refine, adjust and employ different approaches to enhance their effective teaching practice is necessary. This is simply acknowledging human beings instinctive humanistic traits.
How a person thinks about their own learning ‘metacognition’ is an aspect that should be encouraged in students for many reasons. One can rationally argue it allows opportunity for learner self-empowerment. This means their own learning to embrace responsibility for own learning. This would serve students well irrespective of chosen future profession.
2.4.5 Specific Teacher Effectiveness Studies
A literature survey around the PhD focus of teacher effectiveness shows a general consensus by influential authors like: Creemers, Reynolds, Muijs, Teddlie, Reezigt, Nesselrodt, Stringfield and Schaffer that effective teaching includes many aspects.
These include lesson structuring mentioned above and clarity as well as effective time management and use of varieties of teaching technique. Other factors mentioned include appropriate use of different question types, positive outlooks and engagement of and with pupil ideas in class lessons.
What emerges it the notion that ‘effective teaching’ apart from being specific to context requires practitioners to be aware of parameters like lesson activities and subject material and the level at which instruction is imparted. All of which impacts ‘effective teaching.’ Naturally, student profiles like gender, age, socio-economic background, ethnicity and ability also impact effective teaching as do individual learner traits like preferred learning style, type of motivation and confidence. Similar areas like socio-economic effects on effective teaching were also looked at by Harris et al. (2012: 373) who using regression analysis showed that ‘classrooms in socio-economically disadvantaged areas offer distinctive patterns of interaction’. In effect ‘two years younger than in affluent schools by comparison’.
Although the above study was conducted on primary school children it is still relevant to the debate. Harris et al. (2012: 373) considering effective teaching using three measures. These are proportion of open questions asked by the teacher, rate of successful responses and wait-times. The first and final measures have been similarly chosen for this study. However, successful responses could be interpreted as falling into more than one quality as can be evidenced by observation instrument and TES sheets (see appendix 1and 2).
Examples include the number and types of questions posed which could fall in to categories of qualities labelled expertise or intelligence among others. These quality descriptions appear to overlap and the wording insinuates areas which are clearly bounded. As can be evidenced this is not the case, and therefore such protocols themselves are open to individual interpretation. It is thus a necessary requirement for future research to formulate a general theory for effective teaching and learning that includes concepts as part of a continual spectrum and not as clear distinctions.
Studies like these emphasise researcher interpretation, because the use words like ‘explore variation in teacher-learner interactions in classrooms’ Harris et al. (2012: 373) which I interpret as effective teaching research. Lastly, they examine discipline areas that converge with my study namely ‘science’, and ‘mathematics’ and they employ a proxy measure such as mentioned by Harris et al. (2012) “eligibility for school free meals”. This will be explained later but it is worth noting that mathematics is considered by many both a science and an art. My philosophical interpretation is that it is more of a science than an art because it relies on its artists to bring it to life.
Institutional organisation of schools and education authorities also influence teacher effectiveness. The understanding is that philosophical views would influence perception of stake-holders regarding effective teaching doctrines. In ‘Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature’ the learned philosopher Rorty (1979: 121) explains that arguments based on dualism are intrinsically hierarchal because we have to judge criteria relative to each other. It is eloquently worded below.
Some statements of the form “I just had a sensation of pain” are true
Sensations of pain are incorrigibly reportable
Neural events are not incorrigibly reportable
Nothing can be both corrigibly and incorrigibly reportable
No sensation of pain is a neural event.
The author explains the puzzle as having to rationalise importance of logical statements. However, dialogues between ‘moralist judges and psychiatrists culminating in production of a case history that demonstrates ‘criminal’ being inappositely applied to the accused’s behaviour’, Rorty (1979: 121).
The significance he explains is that only a blinkered person would believe that the nature of ‘crime’ can be categorised by looking at something like an accused’s language. The philosophy here is that those having a grasp of psychology understand that something ‘can be treated rather than punished, whilst those who don’t hold the view that it is better punished than treated ’Rorty (1979: 122). This is important because as this work shows how different attitudes are possible it is also similar with ideas of humanistic approaches to effective teaching. The teacher would have the metaphorical outlook of curing rather than punishing.
The whole notion appears to be based on assumed understandings that are flawed as shown above. Sensations are physical nerve responses and like the author, would culminate in concluding that there are no mental events because they are really physical phenomena. The conflict arises because ‘mental and physical’ are not compatible, as neither is ‘standing still’ or ‘rising above the horizon’ Rorty (1979: 122). If we consider the wording of criteria determining the character of effective teacher traits we can see that along with overlaps and different terminology, much is left to individual interpretation.
More recently, Deloitte (2013: 5) was commissioned by the Department for Education (DfE) to undertake work to inquire as to what could be learnt from the National Pupil Data Base. Within the report reference is made several times to ‘school quality’ and ‘teacher quality.’ These terms are interpreted as ‘quality’ being a suitable synonym for ‘effectiveness’ after consideration of the different contexts and constructs involved relative to their usage compared to Ofsted ‘quality’ criteria. Deloitte (2013: 5) have also employed Ofsted definitions of quality, based on ‘‘educational quality’ received by pupils being strongly correlated with better pupil performance. This is evidence based on controlling for socio-economic factors like free school dinners. It can thus be seen that work begun long ago on effective teaching and learning themes is still progressing in real time. This reinforces the urgent need and search for a unified theory of education that includes effective teaching as a domain.
Since we naturally learn ‘albeit’ at different rates and through different processes, we therefore must routinely make minor behavioural modifications on a daily basis from which we can judge our progress in learning.
For example, consider my own learning curve since arriving at Southampton University Education School. The comments on every assignment submitted were considered in detail. Each comment was designed to help me improve to become better and build on what I already know. Evaluation of my own learning whilst trying to meet assessment targets induced me to routinely make many minor alterations. I was and am still modifying my behaviour.
The argument now shifts to the concept of effective teaching and effective learning. There are many models used in effective teaching. In the course of my life and relative to my learning as a whole it stands to reason that what I know at this point in time is probably the result of each and every exposure experienced. In other words a tapestry of all theories and models interpreted by each individual and applied in their unique manner. Having a listener or rather a good listener helps me the researcher or ‘story teller’ to find the words to convey (communicate and disseminate) my findings.
The levels and types of communication are continually being refined with regards to target audience and stakeholders in different types of communication and context. Surely effective teachers would naturally encourage such an ethos in their classroom. This interpretation is shown by lesson differentiation as usually documented in the teacher lesson plan. Thus, in classrooms students are exposed to exchange of information at different levels to suit different participants during their formal education. This can also be interpreted as contemplating different learning strategies to suit the different preferred learning styles.
As a qualified secondary science teacher who is conducting research it appears that my predicament has already been examined and can identify with the western notion of a ‘teacher researcher’ in the context of Confucian doctrine, as similarly reported by Stenhouse (1968). The Confucian view of ‘education and learning’ is very similar to the concept of ‘teacher as researcher.’ Although this work does not directly draw on action research as a tool, it does have some common links. This is because one might ask if any type of action research exists that is not participatory or emancipatory in nature. What is pertinent is the Confucian originating belief of ‘teacher as a learner’ which partly accounts for my philosophical view.
In a paper such as this ‘it is difficult to not overemphasise’ the importance of literature reviews surrounding the research subject. It is envisioned that by looking at the entire scope of my research and considering the literature around: effective teaching, effective learning, theories, methods and activities, that I would be able to look for gaps about what has been tested and not and where similarities lie.This in theory should result in a more complete understanding of factors impacting my research such as how best to characterize an effective science teacher at KS345.
2.4.6 Effective Teacher Identification.
As the variety of qualitative methods has expanded and been refined: paradigms, theoretical perspectives, and epistemological stance have been expanded (e.g. feminist theory, race/ethnic studies theories, subaltern and postcolonial epistemologies, queer theory), and interpretive lenses have been developed (postmodernism, poststructuralism) (Lincoln, 2005:165)
The identification of effective teachers can be based on the expectations of pupil behaviour. Askew et al. (1997) explain that in this context ‘what the teacher does and how learners respond within the lesson constraints becomes crucial. This is in congruence with task engagement and evidence of more understanding occurring in the lesson framework.
Relevance to my research is by conceptualising how the variables perceived by my instruments and my interpretation of the data might stand to rigour, validity and credibility criteria. As previously recorded the observation tool is designed to determine effective teaching through specific variables. The challenge with this domain is that it is first necessary to characterise effective teaching when it transpires. Here within lies the argument that effective teaching as a set of variables cannot be directly observed. Consequently, it becomes prerequisite to observe an indicator of the activity like ‘time spent on task.’ It is worth noting that Boaler (1996) presented more recent research that suggested ‘time on task’ was a weak indicator for measuring learning. He held that there was a necessity for evidence of sorts of behaviour. Thus, learners’ behaviour is now transformed in to an indicator of sustained learning.
The eminent philosopher John Dewey drew inspiration from Francis Parker’s views when considering ‘effective learning environment’ design. The design of classrooms and schools to promote effective learning and effective teaching is likely to fall in to the domain of cognitive science. Cognitive scientists have been relying on many sources of experiential knowledge along with the combined works of 19th and early 20th century educators to advance current contemporary effective teaching and effective learning in educational institutions. Pea (1989) examined the concepts pertaining to spectacular learning by children in the context of designing effective learning environments.
John Dewey had similar ideas and constructed curricula that developed from practical experiences such as “planting a garden” to formal disciplines like “botany” and then on to integrated studies like “location of botany in natural sciences.” This is another humanistic approach.
When the term ‘spectacular’ linked to learning is examined it can be seen to be very easily interchangeable with the term ‘effective’ without loss of meaning. Thus an effective learning environment would satisfy conditions like learning being contextual. It should thus be linked to meaningful, on-going and progressive activities with prompt feedback being provided on the success of their actions as reported by Pea (1989). The description above has had ‘progressive’ added to it because I felt that ‘on-going or continuous’ captured the notion of moving forward but not the quality which would be relative to prior learning concerning the task. That has been interpreted as building on previous knowledge and similar to scaffold in education terms.
Such constructs for effective learning environments which naturally include the dimension of atmosphere would view parents, siblings and friends as models upon which imitative learning would be based. Their role models function by providing integrity to and links between memories of experiences. This type of learning is functional, making use of ideas and implements to construct machinery to resolve problems. Again thematic similarity of aspects between different models and theories in effective learning emerges. In this case lesson aims and outcomes being made clear to learners. This may also be seen as lesson planning and include starter activities and end in a plenary that summarises the lesson and outcomes learnt and provides scope for future development. This fits with longitudinal lesson design.
It is also possible for lesson necessity and purpose of the content to be construed as class management by teachers as explained by Pea (1989). These sorts of arguments imply that effective teaching might be seen as ‘different in nature’ by different practitioners, especially if they hold clear a philosophical basis for humanistic or mechanical approaches.
The DfES KS3 national strategy (2003:16) try to resolve this issue by providing clear examples with examples to remove ambiguity about what an ineffective teacher is, stating ‘ he/she is one which adopts ‘defensive teaching strategies.’ This is defined in terms of stagnating on introductions and activities and interpreted by me to mean the commonly used phrase ‘not making maximal use of time.’
The authors explain they are more concerned with fostering good relationships over achievement (2003:16). In this instance humanistic traits are brought in to question stressing that they have both opponents and proponents. A bias seems to exist towards a mechanical/ constructivist approach where the clear driving criteria are documented. They also state that ineffective teachers turn a blind eye to student disengagement as a price for quiet (strong humanistic attributes being drawn upon). Furthermore, such teachers deliver lessons punctuated by long episodes devoid of teacher input. They also curtail the breadth and scope of teaching due to worry over unruly pupils. The final label signalling an ineffective teacher results from their ‘superficially treating challenging topics’ DfES KS3 (2003: 16), which in my view might result from a weak mastery of owns own discipline or subject matter. This could be accounted for as strategies to compensate for their own insecurity.
This section would not ring complete if plenaries were not mentioned. This is because much literature exists to support 3 tier lesson structures. Their purpose is that of a diagnostic tool. The DfES (2003: 17) reports that it reveals progress, suggests novel ideas and allows an effective teacher to forward plan needed next steps. The relevance of DfES data is twofold, firstly it is based on piloted and tested tools, supported by many published journal articles and secondly, it is representative of empiricist positivist philosophy driving policy in action. As such it inherently includes reliable data.
The attractiveness of this strategy scheme is the fact that it provides realistic suggestions to complement my own experienced ones. For example, regarding how be avoid being an ineffective teacher on account of being defensive is ideal because it provides clearly defined criteria with examples to underpin its principles. It also better summarises attempts at capturing mechanical and humanistic teaching co-jointly working to define what an effective teacher is by the process of elimination.
DfES KS3 national strategy (2003: 29) report along the lines that ‘a teacher should not, whilst working on data search activities allow students to dictate the pace’. Similar instances to these have been observed while working as a teacher in several schools. An example is ‘learners engaged in constructing a health poster’ but ‘the teacher does not interact enough’ (2003: 29).
Other definitive examples include:
- Teachers not spoon feeding answers so as to allow pupils opportunity to practically engage with solving the problem at hand. This is to allow freedom to try solving the challenge.
- He/she have a low work turn rate or output along with not tackling harder concepts. An example for the latter might be ‘you did well for testing for starch, we’ll look at the protein test another day (2003:29)
The above example can be imagined in context of a lesson ending 5 minutes early and students packing early as a treat. This could mean opportunity for a pre-planned filler activity that rewards students-‘as seen from a humanistic window.’
If a teacher is teaching balanced forces and they do not expand scope of material to cover objects that are moving while still exhibiting balanced forces, they would be seen as ineffective which may ‘as mentioned elsewhere’ be due to lack of teacher confidence. This is quoted as being the ‘predominant reason along with inability to control students by the DfES KS3 national strategy (2003: 29).’ My own similar example pertains to teaching GCSE chemistry neutralisation reactions. The basis for this is the equation ‘acid + base↔ salt+ water.’
My observation was that the students had mainly been text book taught and so the challenge became introducing them to the practical element whilst building up their confidence. This was achieved by looking at models of what had happened in the neutralisation reaction. Such models I found were enhanced when coupled with the use of data loggers. This was because it enabled application of theory and testing of understanding’ assessment for learning’ and also developed teamwork skills through group work activity
2.5 Grouping
Based on the above it only makes sense that grouping should have a mention. The government commissioned research report DCSF- RR011 for the ‘Department for Children, School and Family’ correctly devote sections to this parameter. Entitled ‘Effective Teaching and Learning for Pupils in Low Attaining Groups’ it was conducted by the universities of Sussex and Manchester. The lead researchers were: Máiréad Dunne, Sara Humphreys and Judy Sebba at the former whilst the latter comprised of Alan Dyson, Frances Gallannaugh and, last but by no means least Daniel Muijs.
Released in 2005, DCSF-RR011 touches on the impacts associated with organisation factors like setting and grouping explaining that in reality, attainment grouping offers both advantages and disadvantages to different learners (2005: 8).
Work by Hamer et al. (2001) and Hallam et al. (2007) report that students showed a greater tendency to favour previously experienced setting schemes. They also explain that those allocated to higher sets showed a preference for setting, contrasting with lower set groups who favoured mixed attainment groups.
Hallam et al. (1996) found that teachers also favoured setting arrangements. The authors felt that it may be because of facilitation of pupil learning at optimal level and pace as a body. In the above report Muijs et al. (2005) noted that this assumed that teachers accept a set as being constructed of learners at a similar level. This was based on findings by Boaler et al. (2000).
Setting has both proponents and opponents. On a humanistic note, Slavin (1990) held that ‘attainment grouping’ enhanced learners of lower ability because it excluded adversary and competition along with issues of embarrassment and intimidation by colleagues.
In stark contrast Boaler et al. (2000) perpetually reported findings opposed to Slavin’s. Attainment grouping does pose some challenges in terms of effective teaching and also impact my research as it offers an insight in how my chosen samples ‘KS3/4’ would be grouped by their institution at both school and at class level. It is presumed that data from the school would establish this as categorical. This in turn presents issues as the above report authors point out, saying that a drawback with attainment grouping is one of class profile homogeneity as well as group dynamics. The idea of mechanical teaching seems to be endorsed by grouping strategies while Slavin (1990) suggests humanistic approaches on account of enhancing lower ability learning.
Relying on data from Boaler (1997) and Boaler et al.(2000) along with Kutnick et al.(2006) and William and Bartholomew (2004) the report’s authors explain the integral effects of setting on KS3 results. It finds that pupils with like attainment profiles achieve higher test results when in a higher set Ireson et al. (2002). This is believed to favour the higher end of the set scale learners whilst handicapping those in lower sets. Consequently setting itself is an issue because students with similar attainment grades are not placed in similar sets along with the drawback of being schooled in lower sets. The authors highlight that because of rare allocation reviews, as well as little intra group movement tending to exist.
It is interesting that Ofsted (2001) note that an effective teacher of secondary science is one that ‘maintains both learner interest and motivation’. This as such establishes the mechanistic framework. Ofsted argue that it is to bring about a classroom atmosphere of ‘order’. This is mechanical however, if we consider its suggestion in context of an effective teacher, then the ‘order’ part of mechanical teaching is to nurture learners interest, motivation and sense of purpose as reported by both Reynolds & Cuttana (1992) and Creemers (1994) as well as others which is highly humanistic in my conceptualisation. This is because these traits embody ‘liberty’ and the essences of humanism. (1992) and (1994) both similarly report along the lines that ‘boredom’ is a key factor contributing to undesirable behaviour.
This perspective raises debate because there are also mechanistic actions required by the effective teacher. He/she must plan lessons where both level and content are comprehensible to the learners, and they would also need to employ engaging resources as similarly reported by Geen (2001:84).Now, within this design the teacher would need to include relating aspects of lessons to their ‘students’ needs and interests:’ ‘humanistic’ yet already predefined in construct which is ’mechanical’! Consequently teachers would have to maintain pace, ensure clarity in vocal communication of lesson objectives and aims along with maintaining punctuality as (2001:84) express. In my view an effective teacher might be fittingly called a superhero.
Furthermore, humanistic approaches rely on teachers making judgement calls. This can be seen by their choosing what resources would best assist their cause based on knowing their students. They would exercise choice regarding keeping instructions short and simple as well as when to expand. This in my opinion directly relies on class interpretation which is a function of listening skills. An example might be what, how, when and where to listen for relevant information. Geen (2001: 84) suggests the effective teacher will use a ‘range of activities and never talk at the class for more than 15 minutes’. This in my understanding is instructional in nature and thus also ‘mechanical’ but is reported by the authors to lead to better results.
The above examples have been selected because they clearly demonstrate both mechanical and humanistic teaching methods co-existing. Two further questions are raised’ how are they actually expressed in classrooms? And, what exact proportions and factors constitute an effective teacher of science?’
If we are to only rely on pre-ordained mechanical boundaries which are set, then not enough would be being done to move the UK up the PISA rankings. This research hopes to fill some of this void in effective teacher research in science and to offer answers to give better insight in to effective teaching practice. It also serves to determine from literature what is commonly included in effective teacher definitions in science as well as its humanistic approaches.
Grouping is discussed by Geen (2001:85) relative to being an effective secondary science teacher. I would like to cite ‘grouping’ as an interesting example of the marriage of mechanical and humanistic approaches. This is to reinforce the idea that they co-exist and rely on each other for the purpose being effective at teaching. Grouping implies part of classroom management which is a well organised state of affairs. But, how to group? Some categories might be: sex, friendship groups, academic level or even be based on Kolb’s learner types. This list mentions but a few, but for the intents of this work it will be taken as ‘being best dictated by the activity at hand and to include separation of troublesome pupils’ which is considered by (2001: 85) likely to culminate in greater success as an effective teacher.
2.5.1 Grouping-Advantages and Disadvantages.
The first advantage associated with value-added constructs is the direct examination of teacher contribution to learning. It is considered to be more objective because it excludes assessors making subjective judgements Hershberg et al. (2004). Such models are also cost effective and non- intrusive, translating practically as not needing to visit classrooms because the test score data is already harvested for other departments and institutions. These influential authors also explain that value-added models allow unique insights in to teacher- teacher variations in terms of individual contributions to overall pupil learning.
Because of this, it allows location of teachers in to top or bottom of samples. Such methods as these which I have experienced also provide a reasonable basis for teacher CPD, because as further explained, it allows NQT’s to observe and learn from teachers that are deemed to be effective. This is an invaluable aid to novice teachers as well as enabling LEA’s to instil remedial sessions, help and support for teachers who regularly receive poor teaching effectivity reviews.
The major drawback with attainment grouping is one of group composition and dynamics. This issue has been examined by Boaler (1997) and Boaler et al.(2000) as well as Kutnick et al.(2006) and Wiliam and Bartholomew (2004). The authors agree that set placements can have a critical impact on KS3 attainment.
Ireson et al. (2002) found that pupils with similar prior attainment grades achieved higher test scores if placed in higher sets. Such measures tend to favour higher setted pupils whilst handicapping those in lower groupings, and as such may serve to increase the attainment gap between learners. It is thus possible to argue that setting is flawed because students with similar attainment profiles are not grouped in similar sets. This is compounded when one considers the disadvantages with being schooled in a lower set according to Goe et al. (2008: 8).
Furthermore, little movement transpires between sets because set allocation is only occasionally reviewed. Awareness of arguments such as these surrounding my research samples allow better comprehension of the challenges that might be experienced by both teachers and students alike.
Such insights in to aspects of measurement also are also relative because of concepts like academic self-concept and academic achievement. Valentine et al. (2004) presented finding regarding moderating influences pertaining to self-belief. Self-belief is referred to by Creemers, Muijs Reynolds and the TES through the use of synonymous wording in all models of effective teaching. It is reassuring that there is no evidence for the moderating effect of the type of achievement measure (school grades vs. standardised test scores). This concerns arguments presented in setting/ grouping and validity/ rigour.
Assessment of academic achievement is tackled in three ways: by using ‘school grades, standardised test scores/ tests and teacher ratings’, (2004: 691) as can be ascertained through school records. Thus, what the teacher does and how he/she does and vice-versa with the learners’ might be termed the classroom. However, the role of the teacher in reality extends further than the classroom and the nature of their impact would still be dependent on their own interpretations of what is required of an effective teacher. This suggests more research being needed, because in the UK we are still in the infancy of educational research compared to the USA based on accounts by Reynolds (2010).
Pinxten et al. (2010: 691) explain that in academic achievement grades are ‘assigned by teacher and that teacher ratings are commonly acquired by requesting teachers to rate individual students on a 5-6 point Likert scale’. The survey questionnaire that will be used also employs similar scales because of better representation of views to posed questions.
A criticism levied by Pinxten et al. (2010: 693) against teacher ratings is that ‘they represent more than a mere reflection of students’ actual achievement’. They correctly expand on this idea by explaining that the motivational attributes of both teachers and students are crucial in teachers’ making judgements on achievement of their pupils (2010). It also stands to reason that future potential achievement judgements might be flawed. In Likert types scales it might thus be challenging to place responses in the correct boundaries like between slightly under mean or far under the mean.
Teacher biases also play a role and along with subjectivism in teacher evaluations may result in impact. This compounded with their individual philosophical views which might somewhat skew data representation, a factor which is considered in both the survey questionnaire and semi-structured interview design. Use of teacher ratings can be justified for two reasons. Ranking learners’ within the classroom includes social comparison processes and prior conducted research lends empirical support for construct validity of judgementsmade by teachers on academic achievement, Feinberg et al. (2003).
Understanding the pupil organisation within the context of their classroom learning is important. The observation instruments have been adapted to take in to account such factors. These are reflected in the qualitative notes part of the instrument. It also gives an insight in to the background of my samples relative to the challenges that both, pupils and teachers have to face, when aspiring to the effective teaching and learning ideal.
Only by considering the main different philosophies would it be possible to make sense of research such as this. This is because it offers an insight in to philosophical perspectives held by teachers which might be present in todays’ classrooms.
Carroll (1963) believed that ‘educational organization should be based on a theory which can explain school learning of students, and which is sufficiently supported.’ Thus, a new learning theory was constructed that incorporated looking at student learning as the pivotal aspect from which advancement in understanding could progress (1963).
This was reasoned on validity arguments. To ascertain if ‘practitioner employed classroom activities were effective’ it became a necessary prerequisite to observe school learning at the classroom level Carroll (1963), because it logically presented a more detailed picture of education. These views offer some resemblance to my own thoughts regarding the reasoning behind classroom observations to answer my PhD primary questions.
The two main questions for which answers are sought are:
i. Are there differences between schools with regards to effective teaching in schools?
ii. What are the differences in teacher effectiveness between different teachers?
It is anticipated that answers to them would sufficiently answer the thesis titular question “are methods of instruction given by secondary science teachers humanistic or mechanical?” These questions are carefully worded because schools are perceived as very different in terms of effectiveness.
In relevance to the above ‘some resemblance’ means that over the ensuing three decades new important models were proposed which I am privy to knowing about, but ‘which I am sure would not have been the case for Carroll.’ Previous literature presented in my proposal has also mentioned established learning theories. These include: ‘Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences, Skinnerian Behaviourism, IQ and Random Theory’ all which were expounded upon. Therefore, it is necessary at this juncture to describe the other relevant theories that ensued Carroll’s before making the case for research instrument design choice and modification.
Creemers (1999) eloquently informs us that Bruner (1966), along with Bloom, Harnischfeger & Wiley and Glaser in 1976 presented learning theory models. He also explains that Bennett proposed his theory in 1978 and that the common theme in all these learning models is that they encompass ‘students’ aptitude, motivational background along with facets of instruction deployed by the institution as crucial parameters impacting school learning.’ Similarities to other reports on what effective teaching practice exist, but so do differences. One such difference is the new dimensions that new ideas bring to the original concept. This appears to recur as a theme between individual papers and authors as does the humanistic and mechanical methodology.
Furthermore, since empirical findings over the last decade support some of the school learning models, Creemers (1994) also asserts that it is justifiably the start point for investigation of phenomena and variables that nurture learning. As a proponent of this view, it serves by providing credibility to the reasoning behind chosen data collection instruments that will be employed within the classroom setting.
Influential writers like Haertel et al. (1983) have previously commented on these arguments. Creemers (1999) explains that it is possible to extrapolate these models to educational theories thereby contributing to effective education by adding discrete units at classroom or school levels. As such the chosen methodology becomes grounded in the commonly accepted paradigm of educational research. A review of educational research studies by Mortimer et al. (1988) and Creemers (1994) known as the Anglo-Saxon and Dutch studies respectively was conducted by Brandsma (1993). (1993) points to school and classroom level factors being possibly responsible for 9-27% of attainment and 20% of all variance in achievement. It is also worth noting that Walberg’s (1986) reviews of educational learning theories correctly suggested their theories were not adequately endorsed through enough empirical research or practice.
Reynolds (2010: 85) explains that ‘teaching is at the core of what teachers do’ and that ‘our ignorance in the area of teacher effectiveness is virtually total’. These are eloquent measured thoughts describing truth. In relation to the study at hand and supported by Harris et al. (2012) who addressed this issue and selected wait time as a measure, it becomes apparent that these qualities are becoming more and more researched in the field of educational research. (2010: 85) highlights that ‘more studies can be found on the minute phenomenon of ‘wait time’ from the United States’ than on the entire issue of ‘what makes a good teacher.’ This is ample further justification for this research.
In relation to the primary and secondary PhD questions I have identified that my effective teaching research is impacted by numerous diverse factors. The typical current secondary school student profile should present samples representing different social classes and ethnic backgrounds. The authors of research report DCSF-RR011 (2007: 4) state that extensive literature on social class definition exists. This is important to my study when considering class learner profiles because the same stated arguments would still exist in everyday practice in the schools that I intend to acquire data from.
As I am looking for schools that represent the modern and ever changing face of ethnic diversity as well as effective teaching and learning in such institutions, there is greater essential reliance on published, peer reviewed literature form which a structurally sound preliminary working basis can be formed. Although at first glance some aspects like social class appear discrete, they end up having bearing on my work because it is concerned with effective teaching and learning.
Sloterdijk (2005: 112) argues that overpowering, overbearing and domineering teacher images serve to demotivate students and consequently suggests de-professionalising school. They also explain that the learning process requires introduction of new ‘interesting people, and interesting activities.’ These very same qualities have been referred to in mentioned models as the synonyms charismatic and varied tasks. Sloterdijk’s pedagogical model of effective teaching is based on viewing learning processes as ‘always autodidactic in origin’.
As such, the teacher need only interrupt if necessary, thus being likened to a ‘host’ or ‘seducer.’ The pedagogical basis for this view is that ‘the learning process itself should be enjoyable’, as supported by humanistic and constructivist thinking strategies, Sloterdijk (2005: 113). The search for a unified theory of effective teaching is perpetually transpiring. It is encouraging to think that not so long ago effective teaching research was all but non- existent and today it is flourishing more and more. The gathered literature informs,nurtures and provides accounts of findings and experiences, and yet as elsewhere mentioned ‘is still in its infancy stages in the UK.’
In East Asian classrooms there is a prevalence of ‘rote learning’ involving memorization of textual data which in the West is linked to Confucian learning doctrines. This has been reported by Elliot et al. (2008: 570) who cite it as ‘a distortion of the doctrine’ based on findings Hall et al. (1987: 63-64). This is based on their reasoning of Confucius rote memorizing playing a part in adapting meanings within the cultural and learning matrices. All these principles appear to advocate the creative methods of adapting, evaluating and diversifying meanings to make sense of encountered phenomena which are transmitted to learners.
Thus, effective teaching and effective learning entail a dynamic quality which may be seen as driven by intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors that pertain to participating individuals at that moment in time. This multi-sensory idea of learning allows for self-evaluation and reflection at one’s own pace. Both are essential ingredients for engagement.
Such arguments are self- perpetuating because they entail parameters bounded by social justice and inclusion functioning in unison with concepts of empowerment. I feel that these ideas are what have become embraced and amalgamated in to corporate cultures like those of the Joseph Rowntree Foundation.
Research accounts commonly talk about knowledge banks being doubled about every ten years because of the internet revolutionising communication and information sharing. The learning concepts and effective teaching strategies have to keep adapting to maintain pace with it. From a Confucian stand point to make a person’s subject the object for questioning and debate does not contradict the notion of ‘truth’, it can be a necessary pre-requisite for achieving ‘truth’ by way of student personal development as pointed out by Elliott et al. (2008: 572) who also explain that historically this infers that Confucian doctrines of learning managed to overcome the distinction between theory and practice. This is different to other philosophies.
This may be seen as a progression in theoretical understanding because Aristotle was not able to marry the ‘development of rational minds’ with preparation for citizenship. Learning also entails the idea of enhancing society capital knowledge though the contributions of individuals. What is particularly revealing is how studies have interpreted ‘learning’ as ‘person making’ Hall et al.(1987: 123) whose work conjures up ideas of a humanistic philosophy that governs how learning is approached ‘a close relationship between the advancement of the interests of others and the cultivation of oneself’.
As the thesis title ‘Humanistic Science Teaching: Learning from Secondary Teachers Instructions’ suggests there is an interest in understanding the relationship between humanism and constructivism as contrasted with pragmatism. The philosophical basis seems to be transformation of any education system to include greater teacher effectiveness and greater students’ effective learning.
2.5.2 Constructivist teaching /enhancing thinking agility/case study
English (1993) writes along the lines that analogy use could be a method for improving teaching of thinking skills in constructivist lessons. Such reasoning is based on these classrooms employing active learning to engage and challenge pupils. It entails learners searching further afield for knowledge in learning environments, Muijs (2011). These parameters suggest a problem-based approach to effective teaching that serves to develop metacognition. The merits of such views regarding perception of learning environments is that one can get a picture of the preferred teaching styles of teachers.
There a four approaches to effective teaching whose aim is to address problem solving and higher order thinking skills. Excluding semantic type arguments they are: heuristic, metacognitive, constructivist or formal thinking. Much has already been said about constructivist approaches however an effective teacher may also excel through formal thinking methodology. Muijs (2011: 151) explains that it ‘aims to help pupils make the transition between the various stages they are supposed to pass through.’ This is founded on Piagetian philosophy. Heuristic is described by the author as teaching learners multiple problem resolving skills and metacognitive approaches depend on the understanding that performance can be enhanced by greater ‘understanding and awareness of one’s own thought processes’ Muijs (2011: 151).
Implementation of any method would still need to include understanding and empathising with learners. This aspect could be likened to the positive psychology demonstrated by an effective teacher or their enthusiasm/ motivation. The reason is that students learn by making mistakes and if an ethos exists where students feel good in the class then they would not shy from contributing to the lesson on account of presenting factually wrong information. Self-esteem or pride in pupils is crucial. ‘Self- concept is hierarchically linked with global self-esteem’ as put forward by Muijs (2011; 185). While high self-esteem can enhance school achievement, low self-esteem can foster depression.
This implies that an effective teaching approach would entail both humanistic and mechanical elements which have been discussed in different contexts pertaining to the primary research questions. When pros and cons are weighed it can be argued that both teaching approaches work together complementing each other rather that suggesting one is better than the other. The notion of formal teacher qualifications appear because questions arise about breadth and depth of learning theory that a teacher has been exposed to in formal contexts. This would allow them to better characterise behavioural approached when employed or demonstrated by learners.
This manuscript has attempted to cover a wide literature base to provide a concrete basis for practice when conducting field research. It will now describe the factors associated with using the first two weeks of school placements to establish a baseline by becoming part of the school community. This part will be included as a mini case study within the final thesis and will provide qualitative insight to support quantitative data inferences. Possible reasons for phenomena occurrences might be deduced.
This very aspect was considered in an article submitted to Southampton University Education School in May 2012. In it I was required to consider the following: “Does the quality of teacher training in terms of practitioners having a cognitive learning theory background impact on the improvement of student attainment grades?” It required research in to case study methodology, much of which is still pertinently relevant now because the methodology allows for triangulation to validate findings.
An nice explanation in my view is ‘case study characterised in terms of investigating an observed detail relative to time and context parameters, with the aim of acquiring a sound understanding of the complexity of the single instant and its role; whilst serving to convey general truths about the human aspects involved in the inquiry as presented by McDonald and Stake (1995) and cited by Nind (2012).
Vignettes use has been shown to allow the researcher to add dimension to their writing as well as facilitating the reader experience of seeing both emotional and academic perspectives Nind (2012). There are different varieties of case study like theory seeking. This is linked to searching for a unified general theory for effective teaching. Proponents and opponents exist for each relative to bias and context. Another reason for considering the use of case study in seeking answers to:
a) What extent do the two schools differ with regards to effectiveness of teachers?
b) ‘what the differences in teacher effectiveness between teachers and to what extent is there or are there variances?’ rests on flexibility and application of exploratory types of study because of potential predicaments where little theoretical insight is understood about a phenomenon as pointed out by Girden, (2001). He also noted that case laxity attached to ‘non systemic introduction of material’ meant that only tentative cause-effect inferences were possible.
Yin explains case study as founded on the principle ‘the researcher having previously modelled and built a design based on critical observation or acquired or published research requiring examination by gathering and analysing of field data’ as similarly worded to Yin (1998). Holistic methodology complements the posed research questions. Through use of vignettes and present simple tense a sensation regarding an event and all its intricate complexities materialises. This would satisfy readers by evoking impact through encouraging them to experience (extra sensory and intra sensory) emotions and also feel aspects talked about in the work.
Case methodology is an accepted research tool and the descriptive element suits the nature of information I seek to present. The advantage presents by way of allowing for use of standard scores in statistical analysis to report results. Consequently, if chosen then ‘mean + standard deviation can be the same for all tests’ Stake (1995) which further facilitates data handling. This adds rigor and addresses data validity criteria relative to my study on account of detailed and thorough descriptions of chosen persons such as pupils, locations or institutions.
It embraces the view of creating an ‘evidence founded illustration’ or description of the prevailing current cultural context that impacts education. It also describes relationships between pupils and other significant persons and parties, and it depends on using quantitative approaches to zero probability samples resulting in data that is not intended to be generalizable to wider audiences. The case study allows easier acquisition of different types of information.
Communication is an essential ingredient of any educational research project and observation although considered earlier from a quantitative perspective also includes qualitative aspects that turn threads in to fabric. Nind (2003: 351) considers observation as a series of ‘child-child and child- adult communication’ gathering information on aspects like open or closed questions employed as well as responses and directives. As this is part of communication the listening element still holds true. It is essential to curb the loss of non-verbal elements in these exchanges which cannot be transcribed from the dialogue as this approach to classroom observation relies on a ‘non-technical process’ as reported by (2003: 351).
A meticulously constructed model that facilitates blending of personal knowledge with institutional capital knowledge allows formulation of a picture of what the research aims to achieve upon culmination. This idea can plausibly be applied to secondary school research as well as primary school because it is learning that is investigated and that does not terminate at the end of a lesson. If it did it would represent a strange occurrence similar to a light switch being flicked on and off. This cannot be applied to learners because they are not machines or mechanical entities. This is another example that shows how humanistic and mechanical teaching traits have had to amalgamate.
• Children play which is a ‘child centred’ phenomenon, initiated and sustained by them. It possesses pleasure and has method in the form of routines. The idea of routine is mechanical, but personal perceptions of play are intrinsically humanistic in nature. This is similar to patterning in the brain contextual to the teaching and learning. This draws together context, knowledge, language, instruction, learner development and political and ethical constraints.
• Context based aspects are required to encourage critical dissemination and communication which relies on theorization of context, experiential learning theory and motivational theory.
• Principled plans using question generation, information linking from varied sources and evaluative transformation.
Such frameworks are robust because of flexibility regarding principles which can be tweaked for local teaching and learning situations. The overlapping research boundaries transcend concepts in educational research. Elements of action research include instrumental and principled research. The latter consists of practical, emancipatory and transformatory ideology. The former considers this sort of research as emancipatory because its ideas are fixed emphatic concepts based on ‘empowerment of the individual’ as stated by Somekh (1995).
It is argued that ‘the exercise of critical analysis and rational debate can free the individual from some of the constraints of institutional power structures’ Somekh (1995: 348-349). Although there is logical and sound basis of truth, it is also the case that emancipation can only originate from within a person. This is because by definition it is not possible to emancipate others, but it is possible to create environments which are conducive to self- emancipatory processes. What is common is the notion of interactive classes and student engagement which could help the desired outcome of effective learning.
Reading around action research to gain an understanding of the different aspects of research protocols required included comparison of similarities and differences of types of individual approach. For example instrumental action research is similar in essence to ‘reflection and evaluation’ whilst principled action research considers the past relative to the present. This implies an inherent limitation by way of being unidirectional. Thus, it can be viewed as us doing research as a consequence of doing research: where we change, reflect, grow and develop. It tends to focus on those involved in the study. The advantages include not being socially presented and the reflection allows for perceptions being more practical in nature and thus more valid. Reflection, evaluation and participation are all composites in other models of educational research but in this sort of study it lessens the danger of radical change.
This is valuable because stakeholders would not be as keen on research which is seen as wanting to overthrow a system or institution compared to enhancing it. Once again the common thread of interpretivism arises whereby the different aspects mentioned in methodologies are not defined by all people in the same way which consequently gives rise to different research foci.
The debates above have drawn my attention to a series of lectures I had attended at Southampton University courtesy of Helen deWend Fenton (2012). Recalling the material because of its natural links returned me to an earlier model I had experimented with at the onset of my PhD journey in 2012. The model included is that of Kurt Lewin because it offers a plan that addressed research methodology based on the nature of the questions posed while including philosophy driven criteria. An adapted version is shown on page 65.
With all models it is also worth bearing in mind that the students approach to learning must be factored in. On a similar theme mentioned towards the end of the document by the Institute of Education (IoE) in conjunction with (NSIN) National School Improvement Network, (2002) advocate learners as having approaches to learning that fall into two main patterns (2002: 2).These positive and negative patterns are worth recording as connections can be drawn with several aspects of effective teaching practice and the pedagogy of effective learning.
Positive learning patterns are synonymous with a ‘learning orientation’ outlook as suggested by the IoE (2002: 2). They are formed with certain principles in mind like: ‘belief that effort is rewarded by success’ and the belief that ‘individuals have the ability to learn and improve.’ It entails bias favouring tasks that present challenges for students as well for understanding the gratification that results from succeeding at challenges. It harnesses problem-solving and self-instruction ability when engaged in set tasks. My personal opinion is that students need to taste success and savour its sweetness in order to enthuse and motivate them to want to succeed more.
A negative learning pattern is associated with ‘performance orientation.’ This contrasts starkly with the former as the primary belief is that ability leads to success. There is worry of judgement regarding’ fitness to perform’ and pleasure is derived from outperforming others. It embraces helplessness in terms of self-evaluating negatively when tasks are too demanding and highlights competition/ public evaluation. Naturally it can be deduced that performance emphasis is correlated with negative impact on student learning. The positive pattern accommodates improvement of personal competence while the latter focuses on proving one’s competence as reported by the authors IoE (2002: 2-3).
It is worth considering these differences in light of the distinct philosophies in educational research and different educational models presented elsewhere. This is to make sense of knowledge which includes using resources to help understanding. Adults serve as guides, interrogators and to refresh memories. Students’ rely on opportunities for discussion being presented which also needs teachers that listen to their charges. It is a two way process of information exchange and evaluation.
Adult speech compared to learners’ comprises of conversation eliciting styles as explained by Ogilvy et al.(1992). Children employ slower speech than grown-ups which is constructed of simple sentences and vocabulary. As we learn more and acquire more relevant terminology our communication should become easier. Finally, interactive child orientated styles help learning by being responsive or humanistic rather than directive or mechanical. This model approach is sensitive to participant initiation and intention including flexibility contextual to learners’ developmental levels, learning styles and interests (1992).
Pedagogic research enhances learning because it integrates the notion of forming links between teaching challenges, the research process and theory arrived at on account of methodology used as described by Johnston (2003). Influential authors like Glaser and Strauss (1967) correctly note that wide ranging experiences nurture researcher ability through exposure to negative cases which strengthen proposed theories by developing on existing encountered similarities and differences.
Such methods described below have three steps, adapted from Johnston (2003: 383).
The Kurt Levin Model.
The cyclical clockwise process has had an extra loopback stage added in order to allow for minor behavioural modifications which had previously been mentioned in earlier discussions. This in turn acts like a reference point for self-evaluation, as well as forming a matrix similar to points on a graph. The line joins two points to form learning patterns in minds and enhance learning. This also means different points of learning can be joined in the order preferred by the individual concerned.
Such interpretive approaches are in reality grounded in my own expertise. This is itself a highly subjective and interpretivistic statement which could be argued by different people in different ways depending on context and time. It could for example be ‘from when we start to think’, or from ‘when we were conceived’ or even at ‘gamete’ level because they are the result of the refinement of an individual gene pools over millennia. As such it could be argued that it is a living organism that learnt over millions of years to overcome adversity and still be a required functioning life- form in its self.
Thus interpretations and observations would be discussed instead of ‘agreed’ by stakeholders with ‘agreement’ being sought for triangulation purposes throughout the research as required. This change allows flexibility to be integrated especially when watching pupils and teachers going about their daily routines.
Triangulation between pupils, teachers and participants will help the communal learning journey and enhance work by inviting different opinions and ideas. This also addresses data validity by authenticating reported accounts as being what the person meant and not own interpretation of what they meant to say. The primary study questions favour approaches that include latitude regarding all the discussed points.
E. Eisner (1993: 53) voices some of the philosophical questions that plague researchers, and which have also occupied my private thoughts. He questions the notion ‘should the ideal of ontological objectivity be rejected, and must we therefore be thrust in to solipsistic subjectivism?’ The eminent author’s reply clearly indicates his rejection of the concept that ‘once we abandon our hope for knowing the world as it really is (seen as a type of pristine perception), we become plunged into a personal abyss from which there is no escape and no possibility of communication with others. ‘Eisner (1993:53) suggests that ‘we need not welcome a solipsistic subjectivism by recognizing that ontological objectivity is impossible.’ He cites Dewey, Goodman, Piaget as better representing views because ‘whatever it is we think we know is a function of a transaction between the qualities of the world we cannot know in their pure non-mediated form.
Thus, philosophy leaves everything in exactly the same manner as it exists and it does not examine concepts or utility in argument and explanation. It is really me writing my world and writing myself into the world.
Such ideas are challenging because they assume acceptance that any idea or notion or utterance that I may logically arrive at has been experienced by someone else during some point of human evolution. The scriptures we rely on only refer to what is available and thus only give a narrow representation of cognitive theory and learning structures which have somehow been archived and can be found. It does not for example consider the wealth of ideas or thoughts which although existed were not recorded for various reasons, like maybe during life under the inquisition or even during the holocaust. Furthermore, equalities and justice ideas are relatively new and have never been constant in history.
History is recorded by the victors and sometimes true credit is misplaced. A recent example is ‘Watson and Crick’ being awarded the Nobel Prize for resolving the structure of DNA. Rosalind Franklin was central to DNA elucidation using X-ray crystallography at King’s College, University of London. Social justice and equality is important to human beings and the society which they comprise. They become the fabric of institutions and give a reason for wanting to educate others. Only through education will practices which inflict pain and hardship on others be dispelled to pave the way for a brighter more equal and tolerant society.
By considering aspects like practicalities, sites, facilities, ethics, purposes, audiences, stakeholders and subject matter: I am able to place myself in the research arena. This arena encircles the identity of the researcher which embraces individual skills, experience, personality and values. The description of the ‘self in the research arena’ is a well- known model which I interpret as allowing for description of areas like ‘subjects’ to include working with people, such as having to construct relationships and auspices/ stakeholders determining ‘what we do or not do’. It also allows consideration of inconvenience “truths” and allows focus on the research question at hand (Southampton University 7 March 2012).
Learner characteristics are a recurrent theme in this paper because of links with effective teaching and learning. Robert Dubin is credited with presenting the four states in learners. This offers a new view to conceptualising students as their nature is not set in stone. It is logically prudent to consider ‘current learner state along with their previous competence, beliefs and previous experiences’ which impact upon their learning as NSIN (2002) have done. This is humanistic philosophy.
According to Dubbin in NSIN (2002) an element of effective teaching consists of knowing the student’s state when navigating towards any new knowledge. As the author explains ‘it is justified because this might mirror the learner’s present self- perceptions of competence and the need to learn. This allows contextualisation as noted in other described models because the state of ‘‘conscious incompetence’ may be valuable at the onset of the learning experience’ as pointed out by (2002). See below:
The Dubbin model: Four possible states of the learner. (2002)
In the current world circumstances the UK finds itself more intricately linked with Europe than before. These links traverse many borders like economics, justice and education. Therefore, an awareness of effective teaching approaches to improve education in central and continental Europe is also of value, since comparisons with the USA are frequently made.
Kascak et al. (2011) have examined this subject area and describe different approaches to teacher training that are philosophically driven in both Europes. They describe the approaches as a prism model with humanism and constructivism on one side and pragmatism on the other. Pragmatism is explained synonymously with ‘economizing pressure of neoliberal educational policy’ (2011: 71).
Kascak et al. (2011: 71) explain that in continental Europe ‘neoliberalism is seen as an entailing accountability regarding utilitarianistic approaches to learning’. In contrast, central Europe neglects to consider principles of accountability and utilitarianism. This is because they had adopted Humboldtian traditions. There exists vast demarcation between neoliberal economics and education in continental Europe. In contrast, countries like Slovakia, Czech Republic, Hungary and Poland consider neoliberalism in education to be the polar opposite to humanistic pedagogy, (2011: 11).
This statement is both valid and invalid on two accounts. Firstly, its validity emerges when considering multi –ethnic classrooms in the UK today. This is because migration in Europe has created a situation where different philosophical backgrounds have met in a melting pot. This means that some learners may be accustomed to different teaching styles. Having said that positivism drives policy in the UK and as such adaption might be seen as a solution. Conversely, its invalidity is due to some schools of thought holding that essentially there is no difference between continental and central Europe, as both are today seen as the continental Europe entity.
This debate is considered to be on account of post communism. The evolution of post-communist countries educational perspective is based on stringent adherence to psychologically rooted humanism linked to historical experiences as described by Foucault (2002: 114). The relevance is that I am trying to understand our own education and what an effective teacher and learner are as well as measure such interactions. Naturally we have our own education policies, but today we are evermore a part of the whole Europe and also the global village.
Central European educational philosophy has been briefly discussed to raise awareness of how different philosophies may manifest in classrooms. It is also because as part of Europe it is wise to understand the different perspectives on effective teaching and learning so that we may learn and better prepare our children for the future. In schools today it is more likely than not to find pupils from different ethnic countries and also teachers from different origins, many of them from parts of Europe. It is thus possible that new principles might be learnt, adopted and refined from our European cousins which would further strengthen effective teaching in the UK.
2.5.3 Listening and Communication in Effective Teaching and Learning.
While examining published research it stood out that listening skills were essential if effectiveness in teachers was to be furthered. It is because of the versatility and prerequisite for clear communication that a small entry has been included. I see listening as an integral part of effective teaching.
Listening is to a researcher what an arrow is to a bow. During psychotherapy training a skill emphasized upon was listening, and now during my doctoral studies I find that notion still holding true. Some models and philosophies discussed above clearly rely on listening.
According to Griffiths (2003: 86) Milton is quoted as saying, ‘telling a story requires the teller to ‘fit audience find, though few.’’ The link with listening is again implicitly implied because the listener has something to learn from the exchange and it benefits the speaker. In all it is part of communication and dissemination. Linking with effective teaching practice, it becomes obvious that the quality of teacher-/student relationship is crucial as it fosters effective learning and effective pedagogy.
At this juncture, and juxta-positioned to raised debates I would like to recall an eloquent lecture at Southampton University convened by ‘Dr Ghazala Bhatti’ covering empowerment issues. It became clear then as is now that dialogue is an art in itself because it requires listening to many voices. Dr G. Bhatti replied to Griffiths (2003) explaining that objectives in education include empowerment of participants/readers. Much the same as this study hopes to do. If that developed potential of empowerment is in any way reduced, then real power stays located in the first author’s voice alone. Ghazala Bhatti (2012) personal communication explained that a danger area might be that ‘empowerment’ may readily be transformed in to a rhetorical implement, in other words ‘playing with terms’ which might be construed to mean effective communication in action.
Observing and recording data related to teacher effectiveness is itself dependent truthful mirroring of phenomena and accounts. It is here where the dilemma lies as during interviews the dialogue may be impacted upon by the researcher in a number of ways. Furthermore, during teacher observations it is also possible for co-participants to utter words which may be interpreted differently by discrete individuals. It thus appears that the area of communication to which earlier reference was made becomes ‘listening’.
2.5.4 Effective Teaching and Pupil Background.
It is acknowledged that social and economic standing is an important indicator for pupil outcomes. ‘‘Low backgrounds’ are linked to ‘poor outcomes’ in education’ as pointed out by Deloitte (2013). Effective teaching in my view needs to also include teachers understanding and empathizing with such issues and positively steering pupils though feelings associated with perceived school rank in community. This would raise pupil self- esteem and perhaps induce greater pride in personal educational outcomes.
The report published by Deloitte (2013) informing the DfE of findings suggested future research could be based around inquiry in to projects like ‘Teach First’ that highlight teacher quality. If the term ‘quality’ is substituted for ‘effectiveness’ then this is interpreted as an effective teacher culminates in improving results/ outcomes for learners.
This suggests ‘social justice and inclusion’ issues which Dr Kalwant Bhopal had previously alluded to in lectures in 2012. Such adopted approaches imply equality being addressed like ‘different ethnicities being supported in classrooms’ Deloitte (2013: 6).This is necessary in my view relative to the ‘effective teacher’ debate contained in this manuscript and would permit by giving grounds the consideration of reasons for any observed variances in intra-school educational outcomes if they exist. This is pertinent to this research because it supports one of my two primary research questions.
The main finding by Deloitte (2013: 8) is links between ‘better pupil outcomes and school and subject quality’ are greater than links between ‘worse pupil outcomes and socio-economic disadvantage.’ England is experiencing an exciting and turbulent time relative to educational research. Policies are introduced that cause fierce debate in education circles like the ‘May 2012 head teacher’ meeting with Mr Gove the current secretary of state for education.
This is good because it raises issues that need to be addressed regardless of which side of the fence one is on. Currently the DfE and Ofsted are both working closely together to improve student outcomes and to advance educational research in England. They are also aware that there is a strong link between improved student outcome and educational quality. These are direct functions of effective teaching constructs in my opinion and are measurable at school level on the Ofsted effectiveness ratings scale. The scale considers the number of GCSE’s Vs. GCSE equivalents taken by students as qualifications, or the distinct disciplines that they sat in exams Deloitte (2013).
Educational research examining factors like ‘the influence of teachers’ classroom behaviour on academic performance or classroom behaviour’ have been taking place in Africa as well. This is encouraging because it forms a picture of a global revolution in our rates of understanding new knowledge being generated to inform education. In Delta State, Nigeria Akiri etal. (2009) conducted research in a similar field to mine. Some interesting observations have been made. For example, the authors refer to cited research evidence and claim that ‘effective teachers produced better performing students’ (2009: 1). It is not clearly defined because effective teachers and teaching are shown in this manuscript as still needing clearer constructional definition. Infact, it is an important part of the literature review that I formulate a concept of what an effective teacher is based on commonly reported traits.
There is no measure by which the reader can rate teacher effectiveness. Secondly, performing is a fairly non- descript word in this context. A monkey can perform agility tricks, in education a clearer parameter definition would allow context to be made. If interpreted it might mean performance academically, outcome performance, enthusiasm or engagement in class by pupils to name but a few. Akiri etal.(2009:107) proposed and tested hypotheses, one of which for example included ‘no significant relationship between highly graded teachers effectiveness and students’ academic performance.’ The issue here is that effective teachers’ have not been defined and to add to that ‘highly’ as a scale measure is introduced. The arguments presented include opposition to employing student achievement scores as indicators for competence of teacher. Competence can be construed to mean quality or effectiveness and other predictors can be used to investigate teacher effectiveness. The lack of clarity stands in sharp contrast to reports by Deloitte (2013).
Akiri (2009: 109) concluded that ‘teacher’s classroom effectiveness weakly impacts upon academic performance’ which opposes much other literature accounts and my common sense. It appears more rational and logical that an effective teacher would more likely result in more effective learning as explained in this document.
In England we are lucky to have an extensive NPD. It holds a large number of variables on pupils but as Deloitte (2013: 15) point out it ‘does not capture factors that can influence pupil outcomes like ‘individual teacher quality, pupils’ innate ability or home life.’ The DfE currently has an on-going ‘Open data timetable’ running from April 2012 to March 2014 which is eagerly anticipated as it will further inform this study. It is shown below and it allows location of my work with other pertinent studies and thus brings to light similarities and differences. The outcome result is to provide grounds for formulation of a better, clearer and more accurate picture founded on evidence as opposed to conjecture.
Figure 1. DfE Open data set timetable, April 2012-March 2014 www.data.gov.uk.
Taken from Deloitte (2013: 18)
It is also encouraging to note that the authors of the above cited report feel that it is possible to have a ‘good or outstanding school in locations with high deprivation levels (2013: 11).
This sheds a light of optimism when considering the selection of target schools for my study because it supports and justifies selections that will be made relative to other constraints like practicality. As the authors explain, the NPD allows exploration of ‘quality data’ by interested parties (2013:19) and this gives a better overview of relevant factors when embarking on educational research.
It was necessary to compare and contrast the primary qualities sought in effective teachers as described by NASUWT, TES and Redbridge Council: London with current commonly identified qualities as published in peer reviewed papers. This showed that some qualities were existent in both under different formats or headings. For example, expertise is labelled by the former as knowing and understanding the professional requirements and the process of how children learn whilst much literature refers to synonyms like effective teaching pedagogy or good subject knowledge. It thus became necessary to refine and distil the information for this piece of research to allow adequate investigation of identified variables which could be then used as indicators for effective learning.
This is considered relative to the current educational research ‘top ten variables with strongest associations both positive/negative on pupil performance’ as presented by Deloitte (2013: 10). See overleaf.
Source: Deloitte (2013: 10) analysis of NPD and other data sets. Red is indicative of negative association, green positive association with pupil performance at KS4.
The above variable table excludes ethnicity dummies and the SEN status is at KS4 as opposed to KS2, but is relevant as the PhD looks at KS3/4 Science.
When considering progression from research design through to data collection and analysis it was necessary to continually refer back to philosophies governing types of research question. These included positivism, realism, interpretivism, objectivism, subjectivism, pragmatism and others like functional interpretivism radical humanism as well as radical structuralism (see appendix 4). The approaches selected to answer the two primary questions in this study were mainly deductive in nature and the strategies adopted include survey questionnaires, mini case study and unstructured/ flexible interviews.
This mixed method approach allows greater freedom and choice which presents scope for continual refinement to best answer the posed questions. The study has aspects taken from longitudinal design because of the short term school placements and the type of data being collected on a daily basis over the placement duration. It also has aspects which are not longitudinally designed because the whole fieldwork data collection aspect would only offer a snapshot picture for that time frame. If I were to revisit in a supplementary study at a later date then it would resolve in to accepted longitudinal design. This might be an area for possible future research.
Information like the average number of GCSE’s or equivalent qualification entries by school type informs researchers of the current situation in English education. This facilitates determination of selected schools and classification relative to the rest of the nation. Such information as in Table 1shows this data for the year 2010-2011 and is taken as still being current and reflective of statistics today. It is also considered alongside the table above to inform this study and provide a general overview of education in England. This a useful reference point from which this research can proceed.
This information gives an insight which allows me to be confident in relating to facts or figures surrounding my sample. It may also help in establishing a link with their teachers by way of relating to their teaching styles and skills.
Table 1 showing the mean number of GCSE and GCSE equivalent entries by school type, 2010-11 from Deloitte (2013:10).
Source: Deloitte analysis of NPD and other datasets (2013).
The longitudinal design aspect incorporated is hoped to present a picture regarding effective teaching over the time duration of the placement even though a drawback is that it only offers a snapshot of phenomena.Arguments against this method might arise because in terms of research design in education there is requirement for focussing issues from a stance of what/how things can be done as well as grasping why. Books or linear educational research design is not because educational research is a different form of investigation resting on a commitment to developing theoretical insights and practical solutions in a real world as opposed to a laboratory.
The analysis of the NPD done by Deloitte included other data sets to elucidate on factors that can impact learner achievement outcomes. The authors inform us that ‘eligibility for free school meals (FSM) is associated with negative educational outcomes’ and that ‘greater levels of deprivation signify lower performance’ (2013: 31). In other research ‘FSM’ are considered with much importance and are used frequently as proxy indicators. This research offers a different view as it shows that depending on the measure scale used its position varies in indicator league table.
By addressing the notion of ‘what an effective teacher is or, what effective teaching is’ I am aim to gain an empirical understanding which should logically and naturally lead to informing the work of others. Similar arguments have been considered by Mc Kenney et al. (2012: 7) who quoting Langemann (2002) support the view that educational research design is concerned with developing usable knowledge, in other words ‘ the products of research are relevant to educational practices.’ Their explanations suggest that multiple method approaches used in studies such as this offer high degrees of ‘ecological validity’. This type of research resembles basic research design. It is accordance with an ‘empirical cycle’, which DeGroot (1969) had already previously described and is cited by (2012). Basic research may be described as seeking basic understanding governed by scientific methodology. This cycle is composed of 5 phases:
1. Observation to collect data
2. Induction to formulate a hypothesis
3. Deduction /constructing testable predictions
4. Testing/ new empirical data collection and,
5. Evaluation of where links between hypotheses and theories or new studies are made.
Applied research in contrast captures the notion of scientific methodology to predict or control phenomena with an ultimate aim of solving a real life problem. Mc Kenney et al. (2012: 8) inform us that John Dewey considered linking of science to theoretical and practical work. More recently in the late 1990’s Donald Stokes presented a new way of viewing the goals of science relative to use. My interpretation is that Stokes preferred the terms ‘use-inspired basic research’ instead of ‘applied research’. (2012: 9) explain that this view is similar to Louis Pasteur’s. The Stokes description is illustrated below.
Adapted from Stokes (1997) cited by Mc Kenny etal. (2012).
Quest for fundamental understanding
Consideration of approach use
The teacher observation protocol selected is the ISTOF 2006 Observation Protocol developed by Professors Muijs and Reynolds. Although it was originally designed to observe primary school children it allowed after critical evaluation and tailoring to study requirements. Its primary strength is that it specifically allows observation and measurement of behaviours in classrooms that are consistent with criteria indicative of effective teaching. These criteria were formulated as 21 main indicators comprising of forty five individual items which could be graded according to an included predefined scale ranging from 5 strongly agreeing to N/A, where 1 represents strong disagreement.
The seven main components of this instrument include assessment/ evaluation, differentiation/ inclusion, instruction clarity, instructional skills, promotion of active learning and metacognitive skills and classroom climate. Each of the above is further broken down to look for evidence of specific criteria by which that component could be judged. The instrument also allows incorporates an activity key by which determination of types of class engagement and the relative time scales involved can be recorded. It also allows for both quantitative and qualitative data to be recorded as well as classroom functional layout and included is a list of resources considered to be common for effective teaching and learning in classrooms.
Although other tried and tested likert style instruments exist to answer the primary questions posed, this instrument was chosen because it also enables capturing of qualitative data and has time recording.
Muijs et al. (2002) reflect on teacher effectiveness and value added constructs. These influential authors explain that variance in pupil outcomes can be explained better at classroom level than at school level by a factor of almost twice. They found that factors with moderate to large effect sizes transpired at classroom level and included variables like direct instruction or feedback which intrinsically involved teacher interaction. Traditional “teacher effectiveness” which employs a product-process design is similar to that used in most school effectiveness research, Brophy et al. (1986). This supports my introductory statement justifying why it is sensible to look for answer at the classroom level, as well as laying foundation to explain and capture classroom behaviour.
As reported, outcomes are usually measured and the role of the observation instrument or survey questionnaire is to estimate factors like classroom behaviours or pedagogical content knowledge to see how they impact outcomes. Such models have an empirical research basis for support although they also possess integral limitations. The limitations include exclusion to a large extent of other teacher roles which are more diverse, like management and pastoral roles along with community and parent relationships as described by Campbell et al. (2004). This also needed mention because classroom management is a key area noted to impact learning.
Up to the present a large proportion of teacher effectiveness research has been based on looking at academic achievement as an outcome, Teddlie et al. (2000). The selection of outcome is of paramount importance because the aim of the study characterises the outcome measures employed, Sanders et al. (1994).
The concept of rigour/validity regarding this study is never far from mind. Embretson et al. (2000) write to effect that validity cannot be taken based on prior studies alone, but needs to be evidenced as pertaining to the study being conducted. They add that more presently Item Response Theory has become a new paradigm in measurement. It states that all tasks on a test indicate a latent underlying construct, like mathematical ability or mathematical achievement. Proponents consider it to hold noteworthy advantages over Classical Test Theory- based models. This is because it allows determination of the quality of fit of indicators with the model. This includes relative difficulty and extent of discrimination between students of varying ability.
When considering these arguments I imagine solitude and looking at the clouds. Sometimes from the highest peaks imaginable. The synonym is that educational research to determine suitable answers to my particular research questions is like the cloud system. It is diverse, vast, and ever changing as well as beautiful. When I focus on one small point or area and glance back to another point, it has already shifted and no longer represents the original form it was observed in.
The PhD is similar in this respect. If the literature research on any one aspect is but a point in the cloud, then it too is ever evolving and changing. Somehow, effective teaching needs to reflect the ever changing face of education because knowledge banks are expanding rapidly. Accounts vary, some suggesting doubling every decade or so because of modern technology. Finally, I have to persistently remind myself to focus on the original goal of my study and that it is part of the whole cloud.
The paradigm wars or epistemologies underlying quantitative and qualitative approaches frequently portray them as in opposition to each other. Quantitative epistemology is seen as realist whilst qualitative is subjectivist meaning that the former uncovers existing reality with methods venturing from the natural sciences. Realism’s main point is that no pre-existing objective reality can be observed.
2.6. Summary and Reflections
If I were to hazard a description for’ effective education’ at this stage of my PhD it might be seen as an equation where, Effective education ↔effective teaching+ effective learning. The concept of effective education has been studied by many influential authors the likes of: Reynolds, Muijs, Creemers, Geen and Teddlie to name but a few. They appear to concur that effective education may incorporate many facets and skills. They agree that it must necessitate class study, good communication skills as well as including a variety of appropriate teaching techniques.
Harris et al. (2012: 373) for example, write that ‘effective teachers’ would be required to know and understand that ‘learners in disadvantaged areas have distinct interaction patterns, two years behind their peers from affluent schools.’ This may be so however, there are many pockets of poverty in what are superficially seen as affluent neighbourhoods. He considered 3 measures: the proportion of open questions asked by teachers, rate of successful responses and wait times.
From a different perspective Rorty argues that ‘dualism’ serves to show hierarchy.’ This is mechanical as each rung eluded to is demonstrated. It is also humanistic because of each hierarchal step requiring individual humanistic application. He argues the importance of logical humanistic statements revolving around our assumed understanding being flawed. This offers some understanding of pertaining issues. More recently, Deloitte (2013:5) looked at both school and teacher quality which I find reason to be used interchangeably with effectiveness.
Since learning occurs at different rates then individuals have to continually make small behavioural adjustments to judge their own learning progress. It is also evidenced that classroom atmosphere is discussed much and thought to be intrinsic to the nature of both effective teaching and learning. Where different school of thought exist such as in Empiricist/ positivist vs Confucian it can be seen that interpretation allows similarity to be drawn. The example above shows how education and learning in the East may be similar to teacher and researcher in the west based on word interpretation.
It is Lincoln (2005: 165) who infers to how postmodernism culminated in refining paradigms, perspectives and epistemological windows. Arguments around effectiveness in teaching are varied and Appen (1997) considered it from both pupil behaviour and also examined teacher actions and the idea of teacher cruelty. This shows humanism in action bound by legislation resulting from positivism.
Boaler (1996) suggested that ‘time on task’ was a weak indicator for effective measurement of learning Pea (1989) examined ‘spectacular learning’ which again may be synonymous with ‘effective learning.’ The great American philosopher John Dewey considered mechanical and humanistic approaches. There is preference in science teaching for engaging, punctual and purposeful learning which he considers in terms of botany locating its place in the natural sciences.
Finally, the DfES KS3 National Strategy (2003: 16) provides clear definitions distinguishing between effective and ineffective teachers. It also provides clear explanations as to why defensive teaching is an indicator for an ineffective teacher. Therefore it becomes the first clear label with given criteria based examples. It also extolls the virtues of planned and structured lessons and debate the accepted preference for 3 tier lessons and episode teaching.
The DfES data is considered valid and reliable because it has been obtained using tried and tested research implements. Last but not least, it can also be seen that a ‘definition with clear construct’ is given for what an ineffective teacher is. This section ends by looking at what a teacher who wishes to be effective should refrain from engaging in.
Chapter 3: Methodology
3.1 Introduction
0 notes
Text
POP and DSC
CALORIMETRIC STUDIES OF POLYOXYPROPYLENE
by
ALEXANDER CHARLES DAVID BOWMAN [BSc. (Hons.)]
A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the University of Greenwich for the degree of MSc Open (Science) in Biochemistry
SCHOOL OF SCIENCE
UNIVERSITY OF GREENWICH –MEDWAY CAMPUS,
CHATHAM MARITIME
KENT ME4 4AW, UK.
May, 2005
ABSTRACT
CALORIMETRIC STUDIES OF POLYOXYPROPYLENE
The calorimetric phase transitions of polyoxypropylene 1000 (POP) have been examined by high sensitivity differential scanning calorimetry (HSDSC). HSDSC has been employed to acquire thermodynamic parameters associated with thermal aggregation in aqueous solutions of POP as a function of: repeatability (reversibility), concentration and scan rate. The effects of D2O, metal ions (NaCl and MgCl2), urea, guanidinium hydrochloride and methanol on the aggregation transition of POP have also been examined. POP transitions are reversible i.e. repeatable in that the first and second heating scans are superimposable. The aggregation transition temperature of decreases with increasing concentration of POP. However, the calorimetric parameters are independent of scan rate (10, 30, 60 0C/min) at a fixed concentration of POP. This allows the use of equilibrium thermodynamics for the interrogation of calorimetric parameters. The parametric values governing the quadratic relationship between changes in enthalpy resulting from aggregation as a function of temperature are similar to those descriptive of the linear relationship between heat capacity change and temperature.
The phase transition of POP has a sharp leading edge indicating aggregation, the calorimetric signal then tails off gradually. The difference between the initial and final heat capacities for POP is negative, indicating a loss of structured water from the hydration sphere around the POP.
In the presence of D20 the aggregation transition temperature is decreased, but the excess heat capacity (DCp,ex) is increased slightly yet the difference in heat capacity between the pre- and post-transitional baseline (DCp,d) remains negative and of the same value as in water. Similarly the metal ions Na+ and Mg2+ decrease the aggregation transition temperature of the POP compared to that in water. Increasing concentrations of urea and guanidinium hydrochloride, at a fixed concentration of POP, increase the aggregation transition temperature, decrease DCp,ex and result in DCp,d values which become increasingly less negative compared to POP in water. The effects of urea and guanidinium hydrochloride on POP, measured by HSDSC, are opposite to the calorimetric effects observed for by these agents on proteins.
ALEXANDER CHARLES DAVID BOWMAN BSc. (Hons.)
DECLARATION
We, the undersigned, declare that the work presented in this thesis is the candidate’s own work unless otherwise stated.
Alexander C. D. Bowman 3/05/2005
Prof. B. Z. Chowdhry 3/05/2005
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I remain indebted to Professor Babur Z.Chowdhry for his time and supervision throughout the course of this study. I also thank Professor S. Leharne for setting up the mathematical model for analysis of the POP1000 HSDSC data.
ABBREVIATIONS
Symbol Meaning
a Extent of reaction
CP Cloud point
EtOH Ethanol
GdnHCl Guanidinium hydrochloride
H2O Water
HSDSC High sensitivity differential scanning calorimetry
kDa Kilo Dalton
LCST Lower critical solution temperature
Ln Natural logarithm
M Mole
MeOH Methanol
Mg Milligram
mL Millilitre
MW Molecular weight
n Aggregation number
NaCl Sodium chloride
POE Polyoxyethylene
POP Polyoxypropylene
RSD Relative standard deviation
T1/2 Temperature at which a equals 0.5
ΔCp,d Difference in heat capacity between initial and final states of a system
ΔHCal Calorimetric enthalpy
ΔHVH Van’t Hoff enthalpy
ΦCp,xs Apparent excess heat capacity
CONTENTS PAGE NUMBER
TITLE PAGE
ABSTRACT
DECLARATION AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ABBREVIATIONS
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1. POLYOXYPROPYLENE (POP)
1.1.1. POP SYNTHESIS
1.1.2. PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF POPs
1.1.3. USES OF POP
1.1.4. POLYPROPYLENE GLYCOL (PPG)
1.1.5. POP BLOCK CO-POLYMERS
CHAPTER 2: HIGH SENSITIVITY DIFFERENTIAL SCANNING CALORIMETRY
2.1. INTRODUCTION
2.1.2. HSDSC
2.1.3. INSTRUMENTATION
2.1.4. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
2.1.5. MATERIALS
2.1.6. HSDSC EXPERIMENTAL PROTOCOLS
CHAPTER 3: POP RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 HSDSC PROFILE FOR POP
3.2 HSDSC OF POP 1000 IN H2O
3.3 HSDSC OF POP 1000 IN D2O
3.4 HSDSC OF POP IN THE PRESENCE OF METAL IONS
3.5 HSDSC OF POP IN THE PRESENCE OF UREA
3.6 HSDSC OF POP IN THE PRESENCE OF GUANIDINIUM HYDROCHLORIDE
CHAPTER 4: SUMMARY AND FUTURE STUDIES
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1. POLYOXYPROPYLENE (POP)
Polyoxyproylene
Polyoxyproylene (POP) is a polymer used by itself or in conjunction with other polymers to form co-polymers commercially known as poloxamers, superonics, or pluronics [1]. Wurz discovered POP in 1860. Its structure consists of three carbon atoms bonded to six hydrogen atoms and a double bond to an oxygen atom (figure 1.1):
The structure of POP is composed of n number of repeating units of oxypropylene. POP can be synthesised from propylene via an oxypropylene intermediate. POPs are hydrophobic, can exist in the solid or liquid state, and are obtainable over a wide range of molecular weights. POPs have many uses in e.g. cosmetics, inks and drug delivery systems some of which will be discussed later.
1.1.1 POP synthesis
POPs are synthesised from the organic compound propylene (figure 1.2). Propylene is converted to the halohydrin, propylene chlorohydrin, by the addition of a halogen, such as chlorine and water to the double bond in propylene. To propylene chlorohydrin concentrated aqueous –OH is added to obtain the epoxide, oxypropylene (figure 1.3) [2]. Oxypropylene is the starting block for the synthesis of POP. Addition polymerisation under controlled temperature and pressure conditions yields POP. POP has a zigzag chain structure (figure 1.4) [3].
Figure 1.4 The schematic zigzag chain structure of POP [3].
1.1.2 Physico-chemical properties of POPs
POP can form an extensive network of hydrogen bonds in aqueous solution. When POPs are added to water the water molecules form large clusters around the POP and the structural order of water is enhanced. Therefore the unassimilated water molecules will further interact to give stronger hydrogen bonds between the water molecules [4].
Triblock co-polymers of POE (polyoxyethylene)-POP-POE can form micelles at high temperatures whereby the POP blocks increase in hydrophobicity and undergo phase separations when the temperature is raised [2]. These micelles are formed when the POP molecules reduce their exposure to water by self-association and because the POE, which is hydrophilic, occupies the space between the water and POP [5]. At temperatures above 20°C water is a poor solvent for the POP and in a block co-polymer this will induce micellization into spherical, rod-like and maybe layered aggregates depending on the concentration and temperature of the co-polymer [6]. Self-association of the POP in water and the POE block behaving as an ice-like structure in water induces an enthalpy change but can result in an entropy penalty due to enhanced structuring of water [1]. The critical micelle concentration (CMC) is an important value in that if it is lower than the polymer concentration it may affect its function e.g. partitioning of a drug added to a co-polymer may occur [7]. High temperature or the introduction of aqueous salt solutions may influence the CMC value of a particular polymer.
The presence of alcohols and salts in a polymer solution substantially change the physical and chemical properties of the polymer, for example, alcohol solutions are used in water-based printing inks in order to reduce the surface tension of the polymer [8]. Small-angle neutron scattering experiments carried out on pluronics F-88 and P-84, triblock co-polymers of POP, have shown that the addition of salts to the polymers changes the micelle orientation and also that the micellization depends on the salt concentration and temperature whereby micellization increases for the pluronics with temperature [9]. Knowledge of the phase transition properties of polymers will enable determination of how the physico-chemical properties of polymers may be altered by an addition of a co-solute or co-solvent. Understanding the mechanisms behind these processes i.e. how a co-solvent/ co-solute affects the self-assembly of co-polymers is important in terms of their potential clinical and industrial applications [10-12].
Many analytical techniques have been used, for example mass spectrometry, chromatography, and ultracentrifugation to determine the molecular weight of POPs. The molecular weight of commercially available POP is in the range of 1-20 kDa. Furthermore, POPs can exist in the solid or liquid state with a range of melting points from –193 to 87°C.
1.1.3 Uses of POP
POPs are used in diblock co-polymers and triblock co-polymers and have many industrial applications. The most common monomer that is used with POP is POE, and by changing the block lengths during synthesis, the co-polymer will change in size and enable the co-polymer to have many uses [12]. For instance POE-POP-POE, a triblock co-polymer, is used in the synthesis of detergents, dispersion stabilisers and control release agents in the pharmaceutical industry, and water-based printing inks [5]. Also, thin liquid films of the diblock co-polymer POE-POP on the surface of fused quartz has been investigated [13]. Crodamol PMP (a polyoxypropylene (2) myristyl ether propionate block co-polymer) has been employed in human cosmetics for decades and has potential uses in veterinary pharmaceuticals for food-producing animals [14].
The POP monomer can be used in a variety of pharmaceutical products where it acts as an emulsifying, wetting, thickening and/or dispersing agent [15]. Pharmaceutical co-polymers are used as anti-infectives and antibiotic drug delivery systems for the treatment of bacterial and viral infections. High molecular weight co-polymers can also act as vaccines [16]. In Toxoplasma gondii infection in mice, POPs have been tested for acute anti-infection activity [17].
CRL1005 (consists of 95% of POP and 5% of POE) can stabilise emulsions and the binding of antigens between the interface of oil and water and in turn can be used in oil-free vaccines due to its carrier effects [6]. Pluronic F-68, POE-POP-POE block co-polymer, can prevent aggregation occurring in the human growth hormone. However, pluronic F-68 cannot stabilise the hormone when thermal stress is induced [18]. It can also inhibit thrombosis, improve perfusion of damaged tissue, and decrease the viscosity of the whole blood [19].
When pluronics are absorbed across cell membranes, they have been found to increase the translocation of the anti-cancer drug doxorubicin, into the cytoplasm. This leads to doxorubicin accumulation, in turn allowing the drug to bypass P-glycoprotein found in resistant cells. This finding is important in investigating the mechanism of co-polymer transportation across a membrane and may provide an explanation of pluronic drug formulation behaviour [20].
1.1.4 Polypropylene glycol (PPG)
Polypropylene glycol (PPG) is a liquid form of POP, its structure is [H{O-CH(CH3)CH2}n-OH] and it has the same properties and uses as POP. PPG is important in separating and purifying enzymes, proteins, nucleic acids, and other substances that are involved in biological processes. For example, a study has shown that PPG did not affect the release of glutamate (which is converted into glutamic acid) from the bacteria Corynebacterium gluytamicum. This is due to its hydrophobic structure not inducing the bacterial cell membrane to release glutamic acid unlike polyethylene glycol, which is less hydrophobic, incorporating and not interacting with the lipid membrane [21]. PPG forms intra- and intermolecular hydrogen bonds. PPGs of a low molecular weight are water soluble while those of higher molecular weight are only partially soluble [22].
1.1.5 POP block co-polymers
Many investigations [23, 24] have been conducted on block co-polymers containing the POP block, however there is limited information on POP itself. Poloxamers and poloxamines commonly known as pluronic and tetronic or superonics, are two common nonionic block polymers containing blocks of POP and POE. These two block co-polymers exhibit characteristics of amphiphiles due to the hydrophobic and hydrophilic components, respectively. These amphiphilic co-polymers have the ability to self-organise into supramolecular structures at interfaces [11]. Poloxamines have a different structure from poloxamers (figure 1.5), they are tetrafunctional block co-polymers containing four POE-POP blocks joined together at the centre by an ethylene diamine moiety.
Poloxamers posses a symmetrical structure (figure 1.5b) whereby (a) and (b) denote the number of oxyethylene and oxypropylene monomers per block, respectively [25].
Poloxamines have a range of molecular weights from 1650 to 30000 Da. Low molecular weight poloxamines are viscous oils or pastes, and high molecular weight poloxamines exist as solids [26]. Nonionic block co-polymers that are synthesised from oxypropylene are synthesised in such a way that each co-polymer displays a unique physico-chemical property with different levels of adjuvant activities in drugs [27]. Both poloxamers and poloxamines have a variety of uses as the size (chain length) of the oxyethylene (OE) and oxypropylene (OP) can be varied (Table 1.1) .
Table 1.1 Uses of some poloxamers and poloxamines.
Polymer
Average Molecular Weight (kDa)
OE
Blocks
OP
Blocks
Uses
Poloxamers
188
8.4
52 x 2
30
Antithrombotic, haemorheological activities, phagocyte activation, and neutrophil degranulation
401
2.0
5 x 2
67
Inhibition of multidrug resistance and adjuvant activities
407
12.6
98 x 2
67
Slow release gels and stimulating the production of endothelial growth factor
Poloxamines
904
6.7
15 x 4
17 x 4
Nanoparticle engineering and macrophage stimulation
908
25.0
119 x 4
17 x 4
Long circulating particles and macrophage stimulation
Health and safety aspects include: classification as a primary irritant, a mild protoplasmic poison, a central nervous system depressant and is thought to be carcinogenic in animals (lethal doses in rats by inhalation 4000mg/kg , ingestion 930 mg/kg) [4].
CHAPTER 2
2. DIFFERENTIAL SCANNING CALORIMETRY
2.1. INTRODUCTION
Over the last three decades calorimetry has gained popularity as an instrumental technique, facilitating the understanding of energetic and thermodynamic properties of synthetic and natural (bio-) polymers.
Heating of aqueous solutions of POP results in phase separation, however and interestingly POE does not phase separate below the boiling point of water, except in the presence of salts. Explanations presented to account for the molecular processes occurring during phase separation in aqueous polymer solutions have been reviewed by Almgren et al, [28]. One reason suggests that the temperature dependence of aqueous solubility of POP is on account of the molecules ability to be housed within an ice-like conformation [29]. It is worth noting that poly (oxyethylene) [POE] has been shown to be readily incorporated into such an ice-like structure [29]. In the case of POE, this structural conformation results in a favorable (exothermic) enthalpy change while at the same time resulting in an entropy penalty due to the increased structuring of water. At lower temperatures this enthalpy contribution along with the combined entropy contribution of the polymer chains and the free energy of mixing, outweighs the entropy penalty. However an increase in temperature reverses this equilibrium, resulting in phase separation.
The pendant methyl group in POP causes a tension in the ice-like structure of water in the hydration sphere, consequently phase separation occurs at lower temperatures in relation to that observed in aqueous solutions of POE [29]. Finney and Soper [30] reported that by using neutron scattering, “there was no evidence for the ordering/ice-like structure of water molecules around non-polar methyl groups”, but this hypothesis is controversial. Furthermore, other research groups have inferred that the increasingly hydrophobic POE as a function of temperature results from the changing orientation of OE segments [31]. With reference to the backbone segments –O-C-C-O-, a trans-gauch-trans orientation about the bonds is preferred [31,32]. Polar conformational states such as these favor interaction with water, on average, there being two water molecules to each OE unit [32]. This is a state of low energy as well as of low probability, there being only two of these conformations [31]. At higher temperatures there is a preference for less polar orientations. These are of higher energy and higher probability, there being some 23 non-polar conformations.
Evidence has shown that less polar structures interact less favorably with water. Water loss due to higher temperatures allows OE chains to be in closer proximity to each other. This model allows successful explanation for phase separation of OE in aqueous solutions [31] and non-aqueous solvents [33]. Alterations in -C-C- bonds from gauche to trans leading to polarity changes, have been confirmed by C-NMR [33, 34]. POP phase separation seems to occur for the same reasons.
Crowther and Eagland [35] have examined the rheology and density of aqueous POP solutions (MW 400) and concluded that POP solution behavior is dictated by hydrophobic interactions. Privalov [36] has postulated that protein denaturation in aqueous solutions is accompanied by an exposure of hydrophobic amino acid residues to the solvent, which results in an increase in ordered water structure. This effect is observed in HSDSC, as an increase in the heat capacity between the onset native state and the final unfolded protein conformation. The inference drawn is thus that in systems where the hydrophobic interactions become reduced a negative change in heat capacity should result.
2.1.2 High Sensitivity Differential Scanning Calorimetry
In recent years several macroscopic analysis techniques have been introduced or modified to meet contemporary demands for the quantitative and qualitative analysis of chemical and physical phenomena in biological systems. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) is one such technique. It is used to measure the excess apparent specific heat of a system (DCp,ex) in a continuous manner as a function of temperature at a fixed scan rate of e.g. 0.1 to 1 0C min-1. Biologically relevant macromolecular and polymolecular structures in their native state are stabilised by numerous weak forces and usually undergo conformational and/or phase transitional changes on heating and/or cooling in the easily accessible and pertinent temperature range of -10 to 105 0C (263.15 to 378.15 K).
Figure 2.1
An idealised DSC scan (C
p
vs.
T plot) indicating the parameters used to describe the data. The shaded area represents the enthalpy H (T).
HSDSC provides information on the temperature dependence of the excess apparent specific heat over a wide temperature range (Cp vs. T curves, figure 2.1). This allows the determination of the thermodynamic functions for well defined molecular systems. These include: DHcal-calorimetric enthalpy; DHVH-Van’t Hoff enthalpy; and DT1/2-width of the transition in 0C at ½ Cex,.max. Attempts can then be made to relate these macroscopic thermodynamic parameters to data on microscopic structural/conformational changes occurring in the sample. Alternatively, changes in thermodynamic properties of a series of structurally related molecules can be examined.
The use of HSDSC has become more widespread because of:
· commercial availability, in the last twenty years, of suitable DSC instruments at reasonable cost ($ 50,000-80,000).
· increasing availability of high purity, well characterized analytes in sufficient quantities for DSC, and the ability to synthesize a series of related analogues or homologous molecules.
· the development of more sophisticated methods of data analysis.
· increasing realisation of the need for thermodynamic parameters of biologically relevant phenomena.
· better theoretical knowledge of systems under investigation.
· increase in high-resolution structural analysis using methods such as X-ray crystallography, NMR and neutron diffraction.
· availability of other techniques such as high-sensitivity differential scanning densitometry which yield complementary macroscopic data on the system being investigated.
These factors allow a more quantitative physicochemical interpretation of the relationship between thermodynamic parameters obtained by DSC and molecular phenomena.
2.1.3 Instrumentation
A HSDSC consists of two cells: the reference cell and the sample cell (see figure 2.2; Privalov, 1980).
Figure 2.2 Schematic of HSDSC cell assembly.
The cells contain solvent (reference) or solvent plus the sample (sample) and are heated to raise their temperature across a given range. When a temperature-induced process takes place in the sample cell, the calorimeter supplies more or less electrical power (depending on whether the process is endothermic or exothermic) to the sample cell through appropriate heaters to maintain it at the same temperature as the reference cell. The calorimeter thus records the difference in electric power, which is proportional to the difference in the heat capacity of the sample and the reference cells, as a function of temperature.
Table 2.1
DSC instruments vary in the way this basic principle is put into practice (Table 2.1). In HSDSC instruments, such as the MC-2, both cells are enclosed (suspended) in adiabatic shields. Thermopile systems detect temperature differences between the cells, and activate heating mechanisms to ensure that very little, if any, temperature difference exists inside the adiabatic assembly. One of the cells is equipped with an additional electrical heater for calibration. Sample and reference cells are filled by volume. HSDSC instruments are highly accurate and sensitive in estimating heat capacity (errors are <0.1%). This means they can be used to study samples in the dilute solution range (<10-4M sample) needed to avoid intermolecular interactions. High sensitivity is also necessary to ensure that small changes in the thermodynamic parameters and the shape of the excess apparent specific heat vs. temperature curves can be detected.
In HSDSC instruments (such as the MC-2 used in this project) there is near identity of cell geometry, cell volume, rate of heating, physical properties (e.g. thermal conductivity) and environment. This ensures that the calorimetric output reflects only the thermally induced events taking place in the sample and not other parameters such as non-identical heating of the two cells, enthalpy of ionisation of buffers, etc. This and the adiabatic cell block arrangement and fixed volume measurement, contribute to a near linear, highly reproducible and stable baseline for both cells filled with solvent (Chowdhry & Cole, 1989).
HSDSC cannot be used to study small molecules unless they form aggregates showing intermolecular co-operation, as in crystals. Since the enthalpies of chemical processes are rarely as large as 20 calg-1, it is evident that molecules having molecular weights, or molecular aggregates, in the thousands of Daltons are required to give sufficiently sharp transitions for useful HSDSC observation.
In a scanning calorimeter, one measures the specific heat of a system as a function of the temperature. For a solution, the apparent specific heat of the solute, C2, is given by the expression:
C2=C1+1/W2(C-C1)
where C is the specific heat of the solution, C1 is that of the solvent, and W2 is the weight fraction of the solute. Since the quantity C-C1 is usually relatively small, for example, approximately 0.7% of C1 for a 1% aqueous solution of a protein, it is essential to employ a differential scheme of measurement in which C-C1 is directly measured. This is accomplished in a differential scanning calorimeter by using two closely matched cells filled with equal weights or, more usually, with equal volumes of solution. When one considers that in general a significant, or even major, fraction of the total change in apparent specific enthalpy is due to the simple heating or cooling of the solvent, it becomes evident that the highest possible sensitivity and accuracy should be realised.
2.1.4 Theoretical considerations
Interpretations of DSC data are usually based on the equilibrium thermodynamic expression:
(dlnK/dT)p= DHVH/RT2 (1)
where K is the equilibrium constant for the process under study, T is the absolute temperature, and DHVH is the apparent or Van’t Hoff enthalpy. It is immediately evident that any equilibrium process observed during an increase in temperature is necessarily endothermic and that any exothermic process so observed must involve rate limitation.
DIFFERENTIAL SCANNING CALORIMETRY (DSC)
Biological samples are usually small and dilute, so conventional calorimetric measurements have until recently required too much material and have lacked sensitivity. However, recent technical advances have led to the development of microcalorimeters, which can detect the very small amounts of heat generated or consumed by polymer transitions. Here differential scanning calorimeters are considered, in which processes such as polymer transitions can be studied as a function of temperature. A schematic diagram of a differential scanning calorimeter is shown below.
Heat is supplied at the same rate to two matched cells. The solution cell will generally absorb more heat than the buffer cell, causing a slight difference in temperature DT between the two cells. A feedback loop monitoring T will supply a small amount of heat DQ to the solution cell, so as to equalize the temperatures. The change in heat capacity (DCp) = DQ/DT.
Determination of DH and DS from DSC
A schematic illustration of how DSC traces are integrated to obtain enthalpy and entropy:
Note how the same data (CP as a function of T) can be used to obtain both DH and DS, and thereby DG as well.
As an example of how DSC can be used in a biologically relevant situation, consider the figure below which represents the typical thermal denaturation of a protein.
RELATION BETWEEN CALORIMETRIC AND VAN'T HOFF ENTHALPIES
The two ways to determine the enthalpy of a transition, DHvH from the temperature dependence of the equilibrium according to the van’t Hoff equation, and DHcal from a calorimetric measurement, will not generally yield the same result. The relation between the two depends on the cooperativity of the transition.
• If DHvH = DHcal, this indicates a two-state transition. However, it has been noted that many reactions that are thought to be two-state do not obey this equality, for reasons currently unknown.
• If DHvH < DHcal, some intermediate states are involved. The number n of "cooperative units" can be defined from the relation:
DHcal/DHvH = n
As a simple example, if a polymer had n independent, identical domains, each unfolding
independently, since the equilibrium transition for each domain would proceed independently of the others.
• If DHvH > DHcal, this generally indicates intermolecular interactions between molecules
which must be overcome to get from one state to the other.
Both DHvH and DHcal can be obtained from DSC, by using the following equation:
DHvH = RT2m (2 + 2n)[ da/dT]T = Tm
a can be viewed as the reaction progress variable (the fraction of reactant converted to product), which can be evaluated from the heat capacity curve, such that:
so that:
[ da/dT]T = Tm
=
and
DHvH = (2n +2)RT2m
where Cp,ex (Tm ) is the excess heat capacity at the half-way point of the transition
(approximately the maximum in the Cp vs T curve
2.1.5 Materials
Reagents
All chemicals (Analar grade) were obtained from Aldrich Ltd, Dorset, UK and double de-ionized water was used throughout. The POP 1000 sample gave a single elution peak by gel permeation chromatography analysis and was used without further purification. Polymer solutions of POP in the concentration ranges (2.5 – 51.46 g dm-3) were prepared using doubly distilled/deionised water. These were then left to chill at 277 K for an hour in order to enhance dissolution prior to examination by HSDSC.
2.1.6 HSDSC EXPERIMENTAL PROTOCOLS
Calorimetric measurements made on the dispersions were carried out using a Microcal, MC-2D ultrasensitive differential scanning calorimeter (MicroCal Inc., Northampton, MA, USA) interfaced to an IBM 486/SX computer for instrumental control and data acquisition. Samples were run against the appropriate reference sample (H2O/D2O/metal ions or co-solvents e.g. GdnHCl, urea or methanol). Reference samples in both cells were used to obtain the baselines, which were subsequently subtracted from the sample scans. During scanning all samples were kept under an atmosphere of nitrogen to suppress bubble formation. Calorimetric data was obtained at scan rates of 10, 30 and 60 Kh-1. Unless otherwise stated data acquisition and analysis was carried out using the DA2 software package, supplied by the instrument manufacturer. Uncertainties arising due to multiple scans have been estimated for the measured and calculated thermodynamic parameters: T1/2 (± 0.2%), DHcal (± 3%), DHVH (± 3%), n (± 6%) and DCp (± 6%).
A typical protocol for HSDSC experiments is given in Figure 2.3.
Figure 2.3
CHAPTER 3: POP RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1.1. HSDSC PROFILE FOR POP
This study set out to examine the thermally induced aggregation transitions of POP by HSDSC.
The HSDSC output for POP 1000 shown in figure 3.1 clearly shows an asymmetric leading edge indicative of aggregation with a gently sloping tail end. Tm is 32 ºC and the critical micelle temperature (CMT) or “onset transition temperature” is approximately 28.5 ºC.
Figure 3.1 HSDSC output for POP 1000 showing the CMT and the negative change in excess s heat capacity between initial and final states (ΔCp,d values).
It is particularly of interest to note that the difference in heat capacity between initial and final states (ΔCp,d) is negative indicating an increase in structured water in the hydration sphere around POP. This in turn favors increased aggregation in POP as well as increased water ordering. This is indeed the case as shown by the thermogram and is explained by the hydrophobic portions of POP molecules coming together in order to maximize their distance from the bulk water in solution.
POP samples were also scanned as a function of scan rate (10, 30, 60 K/h). The experiments yielded very good quality data, as shown in Fig 3.2a.
Figure 2a HSDSC signal acquired for POP 1000 at a concentration of 5g/dm-3. The main profile shows the scan rate independence of the transition (10, 30 and 60 K/h) while the right hand corner insert portrays the captured transition at a scan rate of 57 K hr-1.
The insert seen on the right hand corner in Fig 3.2a denotes the scan rate normalized data for an aqueous solution of POP 1000 at a concentration of 5 mg/mL scanned at 57.9 K hr-1. The HSDSC output data is expressed in terms of power units (mcal s-1). Data normalization with regards to the scan rate leads to conversion of units to mcal K-1. By dividing the molar quantity of POP 1000 available in the sample cell we convert the data to molar heat capacity. Justification of the use of equilibrium thermodynamics in order to analyse data is only possible if it can be shown that the data are scan rate independent [49]. The main graph in Fig 3.2a illustrates that the acquired data for POP 1000 at a concentration of 5 mg ml-1 at the different scan rates used 12 are virtually super-imposable. At the higher temperature end a little fluctuation occurs in the superimposability which could be reflective of a real occurrence, or may be accounted for simply as a discrepancy in the method by which the calorimetric signal was manipulated in order to acquire the graph. A straight base line was placed by sight, using the software tools in the manufacturers DSC data analysis package (Microcal Software Inc. Northampton, MA, USA) to the pre-transition portion of the data and then subtracted from the signal as a whole. Secondly, of importance is the actual shape shown by the graph, characteristic of an aggregation transition whose thermodynamics may be explained using a mass action model of association [38].
HSDSC signals are dependent upon the concentration of POP (Fig. 3.2b). The figure clearly shows a direct correlation between increasing POP concentration and a corresponding decrease in the temperature values at which POP aggregation takes place. Previous studies have documented suitable methods for the quantitative analysis of calorimetric data resulting from such aggregation systems [38, 39]. It is important to note that the mechanism by which phase separation proceeds in aqueous solutions of POP is via nucleation and growth and furthermore that it is the nucleation phase which is observed by HSDSC.
Figure 3.2b HSDSC signals acquired for POP solutions at various concentrations ranging from 2.5 to 51.5g/dm-3.
MATHEMATICAL MODELLING
In brief, model fitting data encompasses the following: (1) based upon previously mentioned calorimetric data analysis techniques [39] (2) changes in enthalpy with respect to temperature for reactions stringently governed by thermodynamics is witnessed via HSDSC and given by:
(1)
dqp is the heat change at constant pressure; T is the temperature; ΦCp,xs is the apparent excess heat capacity (i.e. the difference in heat capacity between reference and sample cells); α is the extent of change in the system; ΔHcal (T1/2 ) denotes the experimentally determined enthalpy change (i.e. the integrated area of the HSDSC curve) at T1/2, the temperature at which α = 0.5 and ΔCp is the difference in heat capacity between the initial and final states of the system. Since we know that T1/2 is temperature independent and ΔHcal (T1/2) and assuming that ΔCp is independent in the system under investigation, then equation (1) above may be re-formulated as:
(2)
The degree of change to aggregates, α , for aqueous polymer systems investigated in this study is obtained from the temperature dependence of the equilibrium constant that describes the incorporation of single surfactant units in to micelles.
(3)
ΔHVH above represents the Van’t Hoff enthalpy. Ratios of the Van’t Hoff enthalpy to the calorimetric enthalpy give a measure of the magnitude of the co-operative unit involved in the process of micellization. Consequently the heat capacity change shown by equation {4} above, is scaled to show this co-operative effect in the system since the equilibrium constant mirrors those reactions involving the co-operative unit.
By integrating equation (3) we acquire K( T ) and this value can be used in the ensuing form of equation (4) to obtain a value for α the fraction of surfactant in micellar form :
(4)
where C is total polymer concentration.
Assessing K at different temperatures allows an evaluation of the temperature dependence of ΦCp,ex in equation (3). Sequential usage of the equations shown above allows a framework for model fitting of acquired HSDSC signals as well as for obtaining numerical values for the different thermodynamic parameters that occur in the above expressions.
Figure 3 gives an idea of the ability of the outlined model ability to adequately capture the main features occurring in the thermally induced transition. A worry in this study was delineating the temperature dependence of the calorimetric parameters. This is done by investigating solutions of differing POP (1000) concentration. HSDSC information shows unequivocally that the nucleation event is endothermic.
Figure 3.3
Results of fitting the acquired HSDSC data for a 5mg/dm
3
solution of POP 1000 to the thermodynamic model outlined in the text.
Based upon the mass action description for nucleation given by equation (4), it is obvious that if the polymers aqueous solution concentration is increased then the degree of aggregation will itself increase. Furthermore since aggregation is endothermic then it suggests that the systems temperature will decrease. Consequently under equilibrium conditions it becomes a mandate for the temperature range over which aggregation transpires to drop as polymer concentration increases.
Appreciation of the assumptions made, allows us to be aware of possible limitations with the model fitting procedure. An important assumption is that n is constant, while it is clear that systems in which phase separation occurs by way of nucleation and growth, n must increase rapidly. Earlier mentioned was an argument for n representing the quantity of discrete reaction units that initially link forming the nucleation center and its subsequent growth occurring by the exchange of molecules between individual nucleation centers [40]. The concentration-dependent data acquired by fitting the calorimetric signals to the above equations are shown in Table3.1. There seem to be definite trends in the data with respect to changing concentration except for the parametric data acquired for the aggregation numbers n. The relative standard deviation (RSD) in n is approximately 6 %.The difference between the largest and smallest n values are about ± 6 % and thus it is reasonable to believe n is independent of polymer concentration. Conversely the variation in the other optimized parametric values relative to concentration is markedly greater than the RSD and must thus denote genuine functional relationships with concentration.
Table 3.1 HSDSC parameters obtained for aqueous solutions of POP1000, as a function of POP concentration.
Concentration
(g dm-3)
DHcal
(kJ mol-1)
DHvH
(kJ mol-1)
n
T½
(K)
DCp
kJ mol-1 K-1
2.5
103
461
12.2
331.2
-13.3
5.0
111
556
12.0
324.6
-15.5
10.0
121
709
11.6
318.5
-15.4
30.6
138
953
11.9
310.5
-20.4
51.5
143
987
13.1
308.3
-25.9
The graphical association between enthalpy values, T1/2 and concentration are represented in figures 3.4 and 3.5 respectively. A log-linear association between T1/2 and concentration (R2 = 0.989) is clearly portrayed by the data. Excellent log-linear associations are also demonstrated between the Van’t Hoff enthalpy and concentration (R2 =0.988) and the calorimetric enthalpy and concentration (R2 =0.998).
Figure 3.4. The concentration dependence of the optimized calorimetric enthalpy values obtained through the use of the theoretical model fitting procedure.
Figure 3. 5.
The concentration dependence of the optimized Van’t Hoff enthalpy (ΔH
VH
) values using obtained using the theoretical model fitting procedure.
It is a reasonable suggestion that these functional dependencies are based upon the relationship between the polymer concentration and temperature range over which aggregation occurs. This in turn leads to temperature dependence in the enthalpy parameters due to there being an observable heat capacity change between the initial and final states in the system. To test this hypothesis, Figures 3.6 and 3.7 reveal the functional relationships for ΔHcal (T1/2 ), ΔHVH (T1/2 ) and
ΔCp (T1/2 ) with T1/2 .The two groups of enthalpy data (figure 3.6) show excellent curvilinear association with temperature but the derived empirical expressions are not analogs of the physical processes involved and should not be extrapolated.
The following regression equations are derived from the graphs:
ΔHcal = 0.03 T2 – 22.8 T + 4041 R2 = 0.999
ΔHVH = 0.43 T2 – 297 T + 52030 R2 = 0.996
The heat capacity values portrayed in figure 3.7 fluctuate more; probably mirroring the higher level of uncertainty in determining this parameter. However the data can be reasonably fitted to the following linear relationship:
ΔCp = 0.48 T1/2 – 170 R2 = 0.803
Heat capacity is the first derivative of enthalpy with respect to temperature. The ensuing relationship for heat capacity is derived if the Van’t Hoff enthalpy regression expression is differentiated:
Since the slope and intercept values are of the same order of magnitude and are quite similar in value to the regression parameter this infers some agreement between the values captured for the heat capacities and Van’t Hoff enthalpies. However it is possible that a correlation such as this may just mirror some cross-correlation in the model fitting procedure. The observation that ΔCp seems to be dependent upon temperature poses a problem with respect to the model fitting procedure since the model assumes that ΔCp is temperature-independent. It should be appreciated that the model postulates that ΔHVH will vary with temperature.
The temperature dependency used in the model could cause large errors at the extremities of the temperature range over which the aggregation transition occurs, if it is accepted that ΔCp is temperature-dependent. The heat capacities temperature dependence should not however give
Figure 3.6. The graphical relationship between the optimized T1/2 values and the Van’t Hoff (ΔHVH) and calorimetric enthalpy (ΔHcal) values acquired by using the model fitting procedure.
Figure 3.7. The relationship between the optimised values for T1/2 and the heat capacity change values acquired through the use of the linear model fitting procedure.
large errors in the transitions mid range, where the apparent excess heat capacity values are large and consequently should exert a controlling effect on the optimization procedure. The important question to be asked is thus: can these regression parameters give a basis for predicting DSC output?
3.3 HSDSC STUDIES OF POP 1000 IN D2O
The physico-chemical properties of D2O and H2O differ (see e.g. table 3.1).
Table 3.1. The physical properties of H2O and D2O at 298.18 K.
Property
H2O
D2O
P/(g cm-3 )
0.99703
1.10436
Cp.m/ (J K-1 mol -1)
75.23
84.67
u/(m s-1)
1496.7
1399.2
ks/Tpa-1
447.7
462.5
kT / Tpa-1
452.5
464.4
Cv,m/(J K-1 mol-1)
74.44
84.42
α/Kk-1
0.25705
0.1722
(Adapted from M.Nakamura and co-workers Thermochimica Acta: 253 (1995), p128)
Calorimetric scans of POP in D2O and H2O are compared in Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1 The effects of D2O vs H20 on POP 1000 at a concentration of 5g/ml-1 and scan rate of 10K/h.
In fact D2O forms stronger hydrogen bond interactions than H2O. The differences in excess properties between H2O and D2O mixtures are reflective of the strengths of hydrogen bonds of H2O and D2O. Deuterium oxide is a heavier isotope of hydrogen and occurs naturally, accounting for 0.01 % of water. The Tm of POP in H2O occurs at 33.02 °C and that in D2O at 32.01 °C.
3.4 HSDSC OF POP IN THE PRESENCE OF METAL IONS
Figure 3.4.1 shows the HSDSC scans of POP in the presence of NaCl and MgCl2. There is a significant decrease in the Tm of POP in the presence of 1 mol dm-3 NaCl and MgCl2. The POP has a Tm of 32.9°C in comparison to 1M MgCl2 at 21.7°C and 1M NaCl at 20.8°C. It can be seen that by adding a neutral salt such as NaCl, that is half way along the lyotropic (Hofmeister) series, a change in heat capacity (Cp) results. This phenomenon can also be seen for the magnesium chloride ion.
The Hofmeister series is shown below:
Anions: SO42- > H2PO4- > CH3COO- > Cl- > Br- >I- > ClO4- > SCN-
Cations: NH4+> Cs+ > K+ = Na+ > Li+ > Mg2+ = Ca2+ > Ba2+
Salt addition affects water structure. It is observable that with an increase in cationic radius there is a drop in Cp corresponding to a decrease in water structure. The more positively charged the ion is, the more it repels water molecules due to their positive protons. These water molecules have to rearrange themselves in a different space and so water becomes less ordered. This reorientation accounts for weaker H-bonds due to disruption of bulk water structure layering over the ions and thus requiring less energy to break the structure.
Table 3.4.1 POP thermodynamic parameters as a consequence of metal ions and D2O.
DHcal
(Kcal/M)
DHvH
(Kcal/M)
n
DThalf
(oC)
DCp
(Kcal/M/K)_
H20
128
864
11.54
312
-18.9
NaCl
143
954
13.09
299.7
-24.4
MgCl2
110
920
12
300.3
-20.2
D2O
140
848
10.8
310.8
-20.2
Figure 3.4.1 The effects of sodium chloride and magnesium chloride ions on HSDSC scans of POP 1000 solutions at a concentration of 5g ml-1.
3.5 HSDSC OF POP IN THE PRESENCE OF UREA
The effects of different concentrations of urea (H2N-CO-NH2) on the calorimetric output for POP are shown in figure 3.5.1., and the effects on the calorimetric parameters are shown in figure 3.5.2. It is immediately obvious that urea:
1) increases the T1/2, the temperature at which the Cp is a maximum.
2) DHcal decreases with increasing concentration of urea but at high urea concentrations (above ~4M), DHcal appears to remain constant or even increase.
3) DHvH decrease with increasing concentration of urea.
4) the value of n also seems to decrease as a function of urea concentration. However it is arguable as to whether or not this decrease is real because n only decreases from about 11.5 (at 0M urea) to 10.5 (8M urea).
5) the difference in heat capacity (DCp,d) between the initial and final states becomes more positive
Figure 3.5.1. HSDSC scans of POP (20mg/mL) as a function of different concentrations of urea (scan rate: 1oC/min).
Figure 3.5.2. Plots of calorimetric parameters vs concentration of urea.
3.6 HSDSC OF POP IN THE PRESENCE OF GUANIDINIUM HYDROCHLORIDE
The effects of increasing concentrations of guanidinium hydrochloride on the calorimetric output for POP are shown in figure 3.5.3 and the graphical plots for the effects of urea as a function of the different calorimetric parameters are shown in figure 3.5.4.
Figure 3.5.3. HSDSC scans of POP (20mg/mL) in the presence of the indicated concentrations of GndHCl (M).
Figure 3.5.4. Plots of calorimetric parameters vs concentration of GdHCl (M).
The overall effects of GdHCl on the calorimetric phase transition of POP are very similar, in terms of general trends, to those found for the POP-urea system. However it is to be noted that there is an “outlier” in some of the plots shown in figure 3.5.4. (C and D). The reasons for this are not known or understood. Nevertheless, the “results” were reproducible indicating that either something unusual is happening or the “effects” are the results of the data analysis methods employed.
Urea and GdHCl both denature proteins. Less work has been conducted on the effects of GDHCl on proteins compared to urea. Nevertheless it is important to note that both these molecules cause the calorimetric denaturation temperature of proteins to decrease and this is the opposite of what happens with POP. In fact it is interesting to note that very few studies of the effects of urea and GdHCl on polymer systems have been undertaken using HSDSC. This therefore is a potentially rich area of research.
Urea and GdHCl should be included in the Hofmeister series. There have been countless experimental and theoretical studies of the effects of both of these molecules (often referred to as chaotropes) on proteins where they act as denaturants. Generally speaking chaotropic agents have been hypothesized to increase the solubility of nonpolar substances in water. Consequently, their effectiveness as denaturing agents stems from their ability to disrupt hydrophobic interactions. But the manner in which they do so is not understood or agreed.
Urea (and GdHCl) is highly soluble in water and the corresponding solution has some interesting features:
(1) it increases the solubility of hydrocarbons in water,
(2) forms transition metal complexes,
(3) has nonlinear optical properties, and
(4) denatures proteins.
These properties have been rationalised with different mutually exclusive models of the characterisation of urea hydration. In a first model, first proposed by Frank and Franks, urea acts as a structure-breaker which indirectly alters the water structure in the vicinity of the solutes. It has been used to explain the increased solubility of hydrocarbons in aqueous urea solutions. This model is supported in several experiments such as NMR, X-ray, Raman and infrared experiments. The second model, known as the Shellman, Kreschek, Scheraga, Stokes model, attributes urea’s aqueous properties to its ability to form dimers and oligomers via hydrogen bonds (H-bonds). The authors of this model assume that urea–urea interactions play an important role in solvation phenomena in aqueous urea solutions with the formation of urea dimers and oligomers. The validity of these two models has been investigated mainly by a number of molecular dynamics studies, but the existence of urea dimmers in water strongly depend on potential functions used in the calculation. Urea forms dimers and higher aggregates as demonstrated by osmotic pressure measurements. In opposition, the experimental work of Keuleers and co-workers as well as that of Lee and co-workers show non-existing intermolecular urea–urea H-bonds.
Chapter 4.
Summary
n HSDSC has been employed to acquire thermodynamic parameters associated with thermal aggregation in aqueous solutions of POP as a function of repeatability (reversibility), concentration and scan rate.
n Aggregation transition temperature decreases with increasing concentration of POP.
n Calorimetric parameters are independent of scan rate at a fixed concentration of POP. This justifies use of equilibrium thermodynamics for interrogation of calorimetric parameters.
n The phase transition of POP has a sharp leading edge indicating aggregation, the calorimetric signal then tails off gradually.
n The calorimetric output for POP in water is a completely reversible process and differences in the initial and final heat capacities are negative, indicating a loss of structured water from POP’s hydration sphere.
n In the presence of D2O the aggregation transition temperature is decreased but the excess heat capacity (ΔCp,ex) is increased slightly yet the difference in heat capacity between the pre- and post-transitional baseline (ΔCp,d)remains negative and of the same value as in water.
n The metal ions Na+ and Mg 2+decrease the aggregation transition temperature compared to that in water.
.
n Increasing concentration of urea and guanidine hydrochloride increase the aggregation transition temperature, decrease ΔCp,ex and result in ΔCp,d values which become increasingly less negative compared to the POP in water.
Future studies
The studies reported in this work could be expanded to include the following:
1) a more comprehensive examination of the effects of salts in the Hofmeister series on the calorimetric transitions of POP. This might allow an insight into the mechanism of action of salts on POP. Moreover it would be interesting to examine other metal ions, including a range of univalent, divalent and trivalent metal ions with the same counterion and also keep the identity of the metal ion the same and change the counter ion e.g. sulphate. It might then be possible to draw more detailed conclusions on their effects on POP. In addition the foregoing studies would allow correlations to be made with the effects of metal ions on water molecules and possible correlations between calorimetric parameters for POP in the presence of the metal ions with physical properties of the metal ions/salts e.g. ionic radii etc.
2) it would also be very useful to study the effects of a homologous series of alcohols (e.g.
methanol, ethanol and propanol etc.,) on the calorimetric properties of POP at a fixed concentration of the polymer.
3) the effects of GuSCN and Gu2SO4 as well as derivatives of urea (e.g. methylurea) on
POP would also be valuable. GuSCN is a much more potent denaturant of proteins than
GdHCl whereas Gu2SO4 stabilizes proteins.
4) the effects of carbohydrates (mono and disaccharides) at different concentrations on POP would also be worth investigating. In fact there is quite a lot of data in the literature relating to osmolytes and they could all be investigated.
5) calorimetric studies of the effects of urea and GdHCl on different polymer systems have not been widely reported, especially using calorimetric techniques. It would therefore be interesting to compare and contrast the properties of different synthetic water soluble polymers in the presence and absence of the two chaotropic molecules.
REFERENCES
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3 & 4. Kirk-Othmer, Ibid reference 1, p 737
5 & 6. Hicks, J (1982) Comprehensive Chemistry, (3rd Edn); Macmillan Press, pp 651-653
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11. Colin, P Ibid. reference 7, p
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13 &14. Skoulios, A E, Ibid reference12, p84
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18. Ibid 10. Castrol Oil Company, p 118
19. Personal communication with Dr Stuart, B University of Greenwich Laboratories.
20. Ibid reference 19.
21. Ibid reference 1, p 722
22. Schild, G H and Tirrell, D A, J.Phys.Chem. 1990: 94, 4352
23. Hicks, J, Comprehensive Chemistry , (3rd Edn) , Macmillan Press 1982 : 653
24. Ibid, reference 23: p650
25. Ibid, reference 23: p650
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