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Introduction

 The shift from traditional analogue film technology to digital is widespread, thus in the digital age, computer generated imagery (CGI) has become ubiquitous. There is now a plethora of animation techniques such as traditional animation, 3DCG, motion capture, stop motion, cel shading, 2D, rotoscoping, and photorealistic animation. Thus, the medium is an integral aspect in shaping how we understand a text. While digital technologies have significantly affected the animation method and visual culture, they have also affected production, aesthetic style, distribution and response (Crawford 2003). New tools and techniques have allowed for an extraordinary degree of realism which results in an uncanny visual aesthetic as is the case with Steven Spielberg’s The Adventures of Tintin (2011). Computer generated imaged has become the predominant technique in animation which has allowed filmmakers to explore new artistic, technical and thematic options in animation. Although most animation production companies in the West have turned to 3DCG films, through the use of technology, 2D hand-drawn animation can still produce feature length films such as Motoko Shinkai’s The Garden of Words (2011).

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Marshall McLuhan’s concept of ‘the medium is the message’ is useful in understanding animation in the digital era. For McLuhan (1964), it is the form of the content rather than the actual content itself that has a greater impact. Sometimes, we focus too heavily on the content and neglect to note how it is actually the form that is shaping our experience. Changes in animation reveal that if we notice how a medium is changing society and culture in both desired and unwelcome ways, then it is producing a new message. Thus, the animated stories being produced by digital technologies are being transformed by the new media. Digital technologies such as CGI extend us beyond our human capacity. However, we often get distracted by the content of a medium. As McLuhan (1964, 13) says,

this is merely that the personal and social consequences of any medium - that is, of any extension of ourselves - result from the new scale that is introduced into our affairs by each extension of ourselves, or by any new technology.

The shift from hand-drawn animation to computed generated imagery could be considered positively in that we have reshaped our storytelling abilities, but it could also be considered negatively as an art form is being lost. Ultimately, the way animation is delivered affects the meaning expressed.

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In contrast to McLuhan, Steven Spielberg says, “the medium is not the message, the characters and narrative are” (Boucher 2011). In his adaptation The Adventures of Tintin, Spielberg used motion capture animation which extended the boundaries animation. For Spielberg, the motion capture was simply a tool. Yet, when a film such as Tintin uses photo-realism it blurs the line between reality and animation and the spectator re-evaluates it by comparing it to live-action films. Animation films thus can either try to be purely illusory and fantastical or try to become real. The former openly affirms that it is a representation while the latter is not so clear-cut. As a result, motion capture holds a unique and disputed position as to whether it should be categorised as live action, animation or a visual effect (Freedman 2012).

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Hyper-realistic animation

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Motion Capture

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The main problem with the film is the connection between character appearance and behaviour which involved shape, surface and motion” in creating believability (Carter 2016, 191). While the uncanny valley theory can be applied here, it does not provide adequate justification for why the characters were negatively received by audiences. Instead, the idea of the distance model where there is an “essential line” which has a critical point where abstract forms become photorealistic is more applicable (Carter 2016, 195). The character in Tintin cross this line and thus creates visual conflict. While it is more successful in creating character believability than other hyper-realistic films, it did not succeed either. Tintin highlights the difficulties in defining digital film technologies in the digital age because although we have digital advances to create hyperreal characters and worlds, it remains contested among filmmakers and spectators alike.

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The Uncanny Valley

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Distance model

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The predominant shift from 2D to 3D digital animation has not drastically diverged from the main principles of animation. When creating animated films most filmmakers still adhere to the twelve principles of animation; squash and stretch, anticipation, staging, straight ahead and pose to pose, follow through and overlapping action, slow-in and slow-out, arc, secondary action, timing, exaggeration, solid drawings and appeal (Lasseter 1987). Many of these are applicable regardless of the medium used. Having the tools, software and programs are not enough in producing good quality animation. Animators also need knowledge and skills in the art of animation. Furthermore, Isaac Kerlow (Carter 2016, 77), argues that the principles have successfully been applied to 3D animation, but develops the framework further by adding six more relevant ‘forms’ (“limited animation, cinematography, facial animation, visual styling, motion blending and user-controlled animation”. These principles/forms are still the basics of animation.

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12 Principles of animation

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With digital technologies, filmmakers have increased opportunities in more than simply visual style, but also the stories they impart. Filmmakers have the ability to produce and explore new stories and broader subjects and use different story structures. With digital technologies such as CGI, it involves processes such as modelling and mapping on textures (Crawford 2003). Animated films of the 1990s and early 2000s diverged from the traditional and generally more conservative stories that had come before as these new films dealt with disorder and innovative themes that confronted social relations and ways of being (Herhuth 2016).

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One significant change enabled through digital technologies is movement. Movement is an archetypal feature of animation. Movements vary in level of liveliness depending not on speed, but rather, on how complex they are (Chow Ka-nin 2009). Movement can be either “lively, organic or intentional” or “less lively, inorganic or mechanical” (Chow Ka-nin 2009, 79). In the digital age, most movement is livelier because we have the tools to create more complex and meaningful movements. With CGI, characters and objects are mapped out in three dimensions which means they can be viewed from any perspective. It is a considerably more timesaving process because means changes can be made without completely redoing everything. Thus, the camera is able to move in a very lively and flexible manner. Visual techniques that were not physically, financially or labour intensively possible in analogue become achievable such as smooth tracking shots, shots from multiple angles of characters and environments and long zooms (Crawford 2003). Dynamic camera movement also aligns with spectator demand for more adventure and excitement. Medium influences character design, the setting and thematic possibilities. Studios such as Pixar have capitalised on CGI to create believable stories over realism. The impact of CGI on 2D cell animation is clearly evident with box office success. Once Pixar made 3D animation doable and worthwhile, 2D animation began to look outdated to the masses.

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Furthermore, this predominant shift in animation is mainly a US-centric occurrence, while in Europe and Japan, 2D is still thriving. The objective of most US production companies such as Disney, Pixar and DreamWorks are to produce feature animated films aimed towards a large target audience, and thus have large budgets. As American audiences are accustomed to the 3D animation of Pixar, DreamWorks, and Disney, they are struggling or not even attempting to produce 2D animation. In contrast, in Europe and Japan, there is not a dominant technique which has allowed for greater animated style diversity and is also why hand-drawn animation is still a predominant technique. Yet, technique is not all one or the other. Directors do not simply choose one technique, but rather, often use a multitude such as combining 2D animation, CGI, painting and more. Japan is home to the leading 2D animation industries such as Studio Ghibli. McLuhan (1964, 16) states that “nothing follows from following, except change” which is true for director Makoto Shinkai who understands that digital technologies have both advantages and disadvantages in anime. While he understands change is expected, he still strives to preserve the art of hand-drawn animation. In an interview, he says due to “budget and scheduling issues in 3DCG…there’s a need for the technology to continue to advance in its ability to represent things” (Fenlon 2012). In The Garden of Words Motoko Shinkai combines hand-drawn animation, rotoscoping, and CGI, but the film still retains its unmistakably hand-drawn aesthetic. Effects such as lens flares, vivid and sophisticated lighting and reflection work, and vibrantly coloured skies feature predominantly in his work. As a result, he creates seemingly ordinary environments and locations such as apartments and train crossings appear hyper-real. This heightened sense of reality is able to capture more detail than a camera’s depth of field (Crawford 2003). While CGI can be merged flawlessly into 2D animation, Shinkai believes it can be almost too perfect, particularly movement and as a result, prefers cel shading (Fenlon 2012). Ultimately, Shinkai believes filmmakers need to emphasise “the story, the original art [and] the artistic concepts” because he believes there is no distinction between these whether in digital or analogue animation (Fenlon 2012). The Garden of Words is an example of a film that successfully combines analogue and digital animation.

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Lens flare

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Conclusion

In the digital age, digital technologies have afforded filmmakers a selection of tools that were not previously available during the analogue era such as CGI and motion capture. They have changed the storytelling and aesthetic opportunities for animators and their audiences. The Adventures of Tintin highlights the tension between the abstract nature of 3D animation and realism. The Garden of Words highlights how 2D animated films need to have a style that makes people forget that it is 2D film or a such as great story that people are oblivious to the style. Ultimately, it is crucial to understand that digital technologies have played an important role in shaping how animation is today, but that does not mean it is the only aspect in creating successful and further animation.

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Bibliography

Boucher, Geoff. 2011. “’Tintin’: Steven Spielberg says ‘the medium isn’t the message’.” Herocomplex. December 02, 2011. Accessed September 12, 2018. http://herocomplex.latimes.com/movies/tintin-steven-spielberg-says-the-medium-isnt-the-message/.

Carter, Chris. 2016. “Animated Mise-en-scène and Aesthetic Harmony: An Expansion of the Traditional Principles of Animation to 3D Computer Animation.” PhD diss., Queensland University of Technology. Accessed September 12, 2018. https://eprints.qut.edu.au/93800/1/Christopher_Carter_Thesis.pdf

Crawford, Alice. 2003. “The digital turn: animation in the age of information technologies.” In Prime time animation: television animation and American Culture, edited by Carol Stabile & Mark Harrison, 110-130. London: Routledge.

Chow Ka-nin, Kenny. 2009. “The spiritual-functional loop: animation redefined in the digital age.” Animation: an interdisciplinary journal 4(1) : 77-89. doi: 10.1177/1746847708099742

Fenlon, Wesley. 2012. “2D Animation in the Digital Era: Interview with Japanese Director Makoto Shinkai.” Tested. September 20, 2012. Accessed September 12, 2018. https://www.tested.com/art/movies/442545-2d-animation-digital-era-interview-japanese-director-makoto-shinkai/  

Herhuth, Eric. 2016. “The politics of animation and the animation of politics.” Animation: an interdisciplinary journal 11(1) : 4-22. doi: 10.1177/1746847715624581

Lasseter, John. 1987. "Principles of traditional animation applied to 3D computer animation." Computer Graphics 21(4) : 35-44. https://courses.cs.washington.edu/courses/cse456/18su/resources/lasseter.pdf

McLuhan, Marshall. 1964, 2013. ‘The Medium is the Message’. Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man, 7–37. Berkeley: Gingko Press.

Filmography

Shinkai, Makoto, 2013. The Garden of Words. Produced by Noritaka Kawaguchi. CoMix Wave Films. Japan. 46 minutes.  

Spielberg, Steven, dir. 2011. The Adventures of Tintin. Produced by Steven Spielberg, Peter Jackson and Kathleen Kennedy. Columbia Pictures. United States. 107 minutes.