blamingslaveryon

[blamingslaveryon]

Slavery: Who is to Blame?

At a recent social event I got the opportunity to chat with a teenager who is taking a US history class. As an ancient historian whose research over the last ten years has mostly focused on slavery, I decided to ask her what she had learned about the topic. Knowing that little effort is made to fit it into the big picture, that is, into the global history of slavery, I shouldn’t have been too surprised to hear her say that the British were unfamiliar with slavery until the time of the American colonies (untrue), that slavery was invented in the 17th century (also untrue), and that there had never been slaves in North America (also untrue; I will get back to all of this later in my blog). I felt it was my duty to enlighten the girl, so I spent some time lecturing her before finally letting her go back to being a teenager and gluing her eyes and fingers to her smartphone. The very next day I got my hands on a high school textbook and read, among other things, that before the trans-Atlantic slave-trade began, Africans practiced slavery but it was a “mild” kind, that it was more like European feudalism, and that all slaves were treated like “family.” I was also able to confirm the source of most of the teenager’s misinformation. All this inspired me to write a blog on the history of the institution of slavery which, although no longer legal in most parts of the modern world, is still practiced. As always, it follows the law of supply and demand. And although exact statistics are hard to come by, estimates made by the Polaris Project indicate there may be 21 million enslaved persons world-wide. But those are just estimates. *************************** Slavery is at least 5,000 years old, or perhaps more than twice that old. According to some scholars, the origins of this institution can be traced back 12,000 years, to the time when (many) humans made the transition from nomadism to sedentism, in other words, when they no longer moved about nearly all the time, hunting and gathering, and settled down, usually to become farmers. That’s when accumulating goods on a larger scale became an option. And it was a small step from being the proud owner of a goat or two, a hut, and a spare pair of sandals, to owning other human beings. Other scholars, such as Gerda Lerner (The Creation of Patriarchy, 1986), tell us that, some 5,000 years ago, women became a sort of slave “prototypes.” It was around this time that many ancient societies created patriarchy, and women became commodities, exchanged or given in marriage to men from other tribes. It was also around this time that it became customary in wars to kill enemy males and enslave their women, that is, to turn them into property (they would include the women’s young children too). Eventually it dawned on those people that males could and should also be enslaved as a source of income and/or free labor. We don’t need to agree one hundred percent with either one of these views. But we have evidence of slavery going back thousands of years and being practiced all over the globe. In trying to organize my thoughts I ran into several difficulties. I could not write about “ancient slavery” and then about “modern slavery” (meaning roughly from the 15th century onward) because the institution has followed an unbroken line. “Ancient slavery” didn’t disappear, only to be replaced by “modern slavery” later on. Also, in an attempt at dealing with, and staying within, geographical regions, I realized that slaves were not always supplied locally. The slave trade network has always had numerous and far-reaching tentacles. But around the 3rd century BC, humans began to be enslaved, owned, and traded in previously unheard-of numbers. With that in mind, I will begin in the “Old World” with the long period that preceded the mid- to late-Roman Republic before writing about the 3rd century changes. Sumer’s Code of Ur-Nammu (22nd century BC) regulates various aspects of slavery. No written code appears out of nowhere and simply “invents” a practice. Rather, a practice (in this case, slavery) can be around for centuries and be regulated by unwritten customs before the need arises to carve them in stone. Exactly how far back it went in the region of Sumer is not clear. And we do not know what percentage of the population was made up of slaves. Babylonia’s Code of Hammurabi (18th century BC) also regulates slavery, as do texts from the nearby Hittites, but again we have no statistics. And the warlike Assyrians left behind reliefs showing them taking slaves, something they did in rather large numbers after their victories. In Ancient Egypt, during the Middle Kingdom (which started in the 21st century BC), Asian slaves were being imported, but slavery was hardly new among the Egyptians of that era. From the New Kingdom on (starting in the 16th century BC) it became widespread, until about 10% of the population consisted of slaves, many of them Africans coming from south of the Sahara through the kingdom of Nubia. And one must not forget the time when the Hebrews (Habiru) were enslaved in Egypt until their departure traditionally thought to have taken place in the 15th century BC. The Hebrews were not only the victims of enslavement at some point, but they also owned both Hebrew and foreign slaves. Some evidence for that is found in the book of Exodus. In the Hellenic world (which we incorrectly refer to as “Greece”) there are records of slavery among the Myceneans of the 12th century BC. And in the city-state of Athens of the 5th century BC, somewhere between 7 and 20% of the population was made up of slaves. Although many of them came from Thrace, Scythia, and Asia Minor, they may have simply been purchased there but had their origins farther away. Ancient African cultures south of the Sahara owned slaves, usually taken as prisoners in war. And while some were kept, others were sold elsewhere, for example, Egypt (see above). Starting in the 5th century BC the Greeks and later the Romans began taking slaves in North Africa. Farther to the east, in ancient China of the Qin and Han dynasties (starting in the 3rd century BC) some men were sentenced to become public slaves, after being castrated, and sometimes their families were also enslaved. In ancient Rome, the second king, Numa Pompilius (8th century BC), regulated what jobs should be performed by slaves. That was three centuries before the Laws of the Twelve Tables (5th century BC) provide us with written evidence about slavery. Although initially the numbers of slaves in Rome were small, they quickly increased with the wars of conquest, beginning in the 3rd century BC. Soon aristocrats were acquiring and using large numbers to work their land. By the 1st century BC, about 30% of the population was made up of slaves, and in the 1st century AD there were perhaps 10 million slaves empire-wide. Although for many reasons the percentages dropped over the next couple of hundred years, in the 5th century AD we still find individuals, such as a noblewoman named Melania, who owned more than 30,000 slaves. *************************** In the 5th century AD, even as the leftovers of the Western Roman Empire fragmented and turned into many Germanic kingdoms, slavery and the far-reaching slave trade continued throughout Europe, Asia, and Africa, and even expanded. New land routes were added to previous ones (like the old trans-Saharan route), and ships carried slaves across the Mediterranean, the Aegean, the Black Sea, the Red Sea, and the Indian Ocean, usually in both directions. In the 8th century AD the Vikings and the Arabs began playing an ever more active role, both in ownership and the trade, and later other Muslims would join them. Some cities and towns became famous for their slave markets: Zawila south of the Sahara in the 8th century, Dublin in the 9th century, Prague in the 10th century, Verdun in the 11th century, Novgorod in the 12th century, Venice and Genoa in the 12th through the 15th centuries, and Lagos in Portugal in the 15th century. It is probably hard for nearly every person living in the 21st century accurately to say: “I know who all my ancestors were” or “I’m Danish or Irish or Spanish or whatever.” Here are a few examples to illustrate that: English slaves went to Italy and Spain, Irish slaves to Iceland and the Islamic empire, African slaves to Arabia and India, Slavic slaves to Byzantium, Korean slaves to China, Chinese slaves to Portugal and India, Portuguese slaves to Muslim Spain, Franks, Anglo-Saxons, and Russians to markets all over Europe and the Near East to be resold elsewhere. (See Note 1 at the end of this blog.) **************************** So far I have focused on the “Old World,” but slavery also existed in the “New World.” Yet, the dynamics changed after Columbus’ voyages. The Maya peoples of Mesoamerica owned slaves, often those who had been captured in war, although we have no statistics about percentages of the entire population. The same can be said about the Aztecs to the north, the Inca, the Tupanimbá (in Brazil), and the Tehuelche (in Patagonia) to the south, and the Caribs (in the Caribbean), among others. And what about the Americas farther north? Slaves were owned by many cultures in what are currently the United States and Canada. A few examples include the Comanche of Texas, the Creek of Georgia, the Yurok that lived along the coast from California to Alaska, the Pawnee, the Klamath, the Haida and the Tlingit of Alaska, and the Nootka of Vancouver Island. It is estimated that among some tribes in the Pacific Northwest, 25% of the population was made up of slaves. When the European voyages of exploration began in the 15th century, the dynamics of the slave trade and slavery itself changed. Not only did Spanish, Portuguese, English, French, and Dutch ships, among others, create new routes, but most of the slaves taken to the “New World” came from the African continent south of the Sahara. But it was not the Spanish, Portuguese, English, French, and Dutch themselves who went into the heart of Africa to take slaves. They merely acquired them at markets along the coast and transported them elsewhere. There were plenty of nations with slaves to sell: 30% of the population of Senegambia was made up of slaves, in the Islamic states of Mali and Ghana also 30%, in Bornu (in central Africa) about 40%, perhaps 90% in Arab Zanzibar (which, due to its location, was a convenient place for the creation of its large slave market; it is estimated that 80,000 Africans died each year before reaching that market). Other peoples with large numbers of slaves were the Ashanti, the Yoruba, and the people of the Kingdom of Kongo. But even those nations that had fewer slaves participated actively in the slave trade. Many of them waged war for the sole purpose of acquiring slaves, or else they organized raids: the Oyo Empire, the Kingdom of Benin, the Imamate of Futa Toro, the Kingdhom of Kaabu, the Ashanti Confederacy, the Kingdom of Dahomey, and many others. Then they sold their slaves to the Europeans, and most of them were taken to the Americas (somewhere between 12 and 20 million). Trading in slaves was not seen as something wrong, and statements have survived, made by African rulers, one of whom said the trade had been ordained by God himself (king of Bonny in present-day Nigeria), while another one said the trade was the source and glory of his people’s wealth (king of Dahomey But while this was going on, the Muslims continued buying slaves and sometimes capturing them themselves, then taking them overland (across the Sahara) or on ships crossing the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. Including the ones they sold to Europeans, they benefited from the sale of 25 to 35 million Africans. They also continued enslaving others, including Christians during the Ottoman wars. And Muslim pirates raided coastal cities in addition to taking ships, for the purpose of taking captives and selling them into slavery. In the 19th century, one country after another abolished the slave-trade, and then slavery itself. However, it took some African countries until the 20th century to follow suit. By then, countless individuals had been enslaved and sold, and used and abused, all over the world. Many still are, although outside of the context of legal slavery. **************************** Now I come back to the question which I posed in the title of my blog: Who is to blame for slavery? My readers will probably agree that there is no simple answer. Blame the Sumerians? The Egyptians? Slavery was hardly new when they began leaving evidence of slave-holding and trading more than 4,000 years ago. The Romans bought, sold, and used them on a much larger scale than other peoples, but they did not come up with the institution of slavery. Whether it was a byproduct of private property or of patriarchy, it had been around for a long time. We cannot blame the Mongols, the Arabs, the English, the French, or the Spanish either, despite the changes they made to trade and/or ownership. The same goes for all the individuals all over the globe who have participated in a system that was perceived to be OK. But we can blame those who, despite the fact that they operate outside the law, enslave and sell human beings in the 21st century. And I want to encourage all those who are aware of trafficking to speak up. **************************** Note 1. Being forcefully transported from one’s place of origin is, of course, not the only reason why our ancestors moved. The search for better land or opportunities, as well as the need to escape persecution, religious or of another nature, are a few other reasons that account for that. Note 2. As the reader may have noticed, no attempt has been made to describe the many ways in which a person could become a slave, or about how slaves were treated in different parts of the world at different times, and even in the same part of the world depending on a number of factors. But there are some excellent books that go into a lot of detail, including the following: Five Thousand Years of Slavery (Marjorie Gann and Janet Willen; 2011), and Slavery and Social Death (Orlando Patterson; 1982).