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Coexistence in Macedonian Villages

Diversity Often Forgotten

It’s easy to overlook the fact that half of Macedonia’s population is Muslim and Turkish. Turkish peasants are just as hardworking and industrious as their Christian counterparts. Despite facing similar oppression from Turkish officials, who exploit them for taxes and military service, Turkish villagers lack the support systems available to Christians, such as foreign consuls or bishops to advocate for their rights. Nevertheless, they often accept their fate resignedly, seeing mistreatment as an inevitable part of life under Turkish rule.

Quiet Contentment Amid Misrule

For centuries, both Muslim and Christian villagers have lived under Turkish authority, adapting to the challenges of their environment. While it’s human nature to be drawn to tales of tragedy, we sometimes overlook the quiet contentment that exists in many Macedonian villages. Despite the oppressive rule they endure, countless Muslim and Christian villages coexist peacefully, devoid of any animosity between them Bulgaria Tours.

Harmony Amidst Diversity

In numerous Macedonian villages, Turks and Christians live in harmony, engaging in trade and daily life side by side without conflict. These villages serve as examples of how different religious and ethnic groups can peacefully coexist, even under challenging circumstances. While external narratives often focus on conflict and oppression, the reality is that many communities in Macedonia have found ways to foster understanding and cooperation among diverse populations.

Overlooking Quiet Coexistence

It’s essential to recognize the overlooked aspect of quiet coexistence in Macedonia. Amidst the turmoil of misrule and oppression, there are pockets of harmony where Turks and Christians live together peacefully, transcending religious and ethnic differences. By acknowledging and celebrating these instances of peaceful coexistence, we can better appreciate the resilience and adaptability of the people living in Macedonia, despite the challenges they face under Turkish rule.

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Unveiling Contradictions The Governor of Philippopolis

Turmoil in Philippopolis

The Multiserv of Philippopolis, known for his favorable stance towards Bulgarians, faced strong opposition from the Turks during our visit, who vocally called for his removal. Despite this, he appeared as an honest and conscientious individual, genuinely striving to do what was right.

A Concern for Suffering

In discussions with Mr. Schuyler and Mr. Baring, the Multiserv addressed the plight of the fire-ravaged people with earnestness and sincerity. He expressed a commitment to providing financial aid, restoring lost cattle, rebuilding homes, and offering all possible assistance to alleviate their suffering. His dedication was palpable, leaving no doubt about his genuine intentions City Tours Istanbul.

A Disappointing Reality

However, despite these assurances, the promises remained unfulfilled. Mr. Schuyler discovered that the same governor who made pledges of support was simultaneously enforcing strict orders for the people of Batak and other affected villages to pay their taxes as usual, disregarding their recent hardships.

A Dilemma of Good Intentions

This contradiction raises questions about the governor’s true allegiance. Despite his apparent sympathy towards Bulgarians, his actions cast doubt on his sincerity. The demand for his recall by the Turks underscores the complexity of his position and the challenges faced in navigating conflicting interests.

Navigating Contradictions

The case of the Philippopolis governor highlights the intricate dynamics of governance in a region torn by ethnic tensions. While his intentions may be noble, the reality of political pressures and conflicting allegiances complicates efforts to address the needs of all communities fairly.

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The Era of Wealth Accumulation

The accumulation of wealth in the Ottoman Empire reached its pinnacle during the eastern campaigns led by Yavuz Sultan Selim and Magnificent Suleyman.

Regulation of Treasury Affairs

Historically, before the reign of the Conqueror (Fatih), incoming booties and gifts were promptly deposited into the Treasury. The Treasury’s door would then be sealed, with the seal entrusted to the Grand Vizier or the Enderun’s doorkeeper. Access to the Treasury was strictly regulated, and entry by the Sultan or the Grand Vizier required oversight by a committee.

Investigation into Treasury Procedures

A thorough investigation into the handling of Treasury goods, particularly those recorded in registers related to the Royal Ward and Private treasuries, is necessary. Sultan Mehmet IV’s decree, overseen by Kara Mustafa Pasha of Merzifon, warrants scrutiny to understand the management of these assets Private Istanbul Tours.

Succession Protocols

The promotion of the Treasury Superintendent to the rank of Vizierate necessitated the transfer of Treasury responsibilities to the successor. Detailed explanations regarding the nature of the post were provided, ensuring a smooth transition in case of contingencies such as death, reflecting a tradition dating back to ancient times.

Historical Citations

The contributions of figures like Qandarli Halil Pasha and Karamanh Turk Rustem, who compiled registers and accounts, are documented in the History of the Ottoman Empire. These individuals played pivotal roles in organizing the Treasury and shaping its operations, leaving a lasting legacy inherited by subsequent generations.

Emphasis on Historical Figures

The significance of Qandarli Halil Pasha, Grand Vizier of Sultan Murat II, and Karamanh Rustem, the first Ottoman Minister of Finance, is underscored in the oldest and most reliable Ottoman history, Tevarih-i Ali Osman. Their contributions to Treasury management and financial administration remain noteworthy aspects of Ottoman history.

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Tragic Tales Unveiled

As we continued our journey through the ravaged village, each step revealed new horrors—testaments to the unspeakable cruelty inflicted upon its inhabitants.

A Heartbreaking Encounter

At the next house, a grieving man halted our progress. With tearful eyes, he pointed to the spot where his blind brother had perished in the flames, his remains reduced to calcined bones. Despite his anguish, he failed to grasp the solace that his brother’s release from suffering should bring, instead consumed by inconsolable grief.

Innocent Victims

Across the street, the grim sight of two children’s skeletons lay side by side, their tiny skulls marked by ghastly sabre cuts. The massacre had claimed the lives of countless innocent children, many subjected to unimaginable horrors. Eyewitnesses recounted chilling tales of infants impaled on bayonets, a grotesque manifestation of twisted beliefs.

Twisted Beliefs

The perpetrators of these atrocities acted upon a perverse interpretation of religious doctrine, believing that the slaughter of infidels, regardless of age or innocence, guaranteed them a place in paradise. In their misguided zeal, they spared no one, even ripping unborn infants from their mothers’ wombs to swell their tally of victims Tour Packages Balkan.

Streets of Sorrow

As we ventured further into the heart of the town, the streets became a haunting labyrinth of death and despair. Human remains littered the ground, with hardly a house left untouched by the carnage. Women, consumed by grief, wandered aimlessly, their mournful cries echoing through the desolate streets.

Agony Unveiled

In one heartbreaking moment, a distraught mother led us to a corner where the remains of her daughter lay, her once-flowing hair now entangled amidst the rubble. The mother’s anguished cries reverberated off the walls, a stark reminder of the unbearable pain inflicted upon the innocent.

Unimaginable Suffering

As we bore witness to the anguish of the survivors, it became clear that the scars of this tragedy would linger for generations to come. Each wail, each sob, served as a poignant reminder of the profound loss endured by the people of Batak.

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Unveiling Trapezitsa Uncovering Ancient Churches

Discoveries on Trapezitsa

Trapezitsa, the second part of the capital, has recently yielded remarkable discoveries, including seventeen churches. These findings have sparked two interpretations of this old quarter. Some argue that it served as the original city center due to its dense cluster of buildings, while others propose that its proximity to the south wall fortifications made it a place of refuge during turbulent times.

Historical Significance

Evidence suggests that some churches predating the major structures of the city (10th – 11th century) indicate Trapezitsa’s early importance. Under the 13th-century Asenevsi dynasty, a church was erected to house the relics of St. Ivan Rilski, which remained there until 1469. Remarkably, several churches boast well-preserved original frescoes from these early periods, indicating their enduring significance.

Continuity through Ottoman Rule

Surprisingly, some churches on Trapezitsa continued in use even after Turnovo fell to the Ottoman Empire in 1393. This continuity highlights the resilience and enduring spiritual significance of these structures amidst changing political landscapes.

Exploring the New Town A Hub of Spiritual and Commercial Activity

The New Town, situated between the Fortress and Trapezitsa hills along the Yantra River, remains largely unexplored. However Private Turkey Tours, initial excavations have uncovered significant sites, including the Velikata Lavra monastery, Sveti Dimitur church, and Sveti Chetiredesete Muchenici church. Exploration has also begun on churches such as Sveti Apostoli Petur & Pavel and Sveti Georgi.

Spiritual Centers and Commercial Hubs

Churches such as Sveti Petka and Sveti Georgi on the right bank, alongside monasteries like Sveta Bogoroditsa Termnichka and Sveti Ivan Rilski on the left bank, indicate the New Town’s role as a spiritual hub. However, it also served as a bustling commercial center, evidenced by the presence of blacksmiths, pottery workshops, and other artisanal activities. The abundance of tools and artifacts suggests a thriving economy supported by the town’s natural resources, ample water supply, and favorable climate.

The discoveries in Trapezitsa and the New Town provide valuable insights into Turnovo’s rich historical and cultural heritage. From ancient churches preserving frescoes to evidence of vibrant commercial activities, these sites offer glimpses into the daily lives and spiritual practices of past civilizations, enriching our understanding of Bulgaria’s fascinating history.

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King Boris and Bulgaria's Alignment with Central European Powers

Turbulent Period Under King Boris

King Boris witnessed a series of premiers who faced overthrow or employed repressive measures against political rivals. Stambolisky, the head of the Agrarian Party, was the first such premier, making significant contributions to constructive economic policies like land reform. However, in 1923, a coup ousted the Stambolisky government, leading to his tragic murder.

Influence of Dr. Stoyadinovich in Yugoslavia

The ascent of Dr. Stoyadinovich, a pro-fascist leader in neighboring Yugoslavia, played a role in Bulgaria intensifying negotiations with Central European powers. Unable to seek assistance from the Soviet Union or neighboring countries, Bulgaria turned to Germany and Italy.

Strengthening Ties with Italy (1930)

In 1930, King Boris married Princess Giovanna, the daughter of the King of Italy, further cementing Bulgaria’s relations with Italy. The Balkan Conference of the same year aimed to prevent Bulgaria from reclaiming territory lost in the World War I peace treaty. The 1934 Balkan Pact, signed by Greece, Turkey, Yugoslavia, and Romania, pursued a similar goal City Tours Istanbul.

King Boris’s Absolute Rule (1935)

By 1935, King Boris established himself as an absolute sovereign, ruling without political parties and legal opposition. During his rule, trade with Germany progressively rose, reaching 67% of Bulgaria’s exports and 65% of its imports in 1939. These figures continued to climb during the war, as Bulgaria maintained ties with Germany in hopes of regaining lost territory. This hope materialized with the return of southern Dobrudja, forced back from Romania to Bulgaria.

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King Boris and Bulgaria's Alignment with Central European Powers

Turbulent Period Under King Boris

King Boris witnessed a series of premiers who faced overthrow or employed repressive measures against political rivals. Stambolisky, the head of the Agrarian Party, was the first such premier, making significant contributions to constructive economic policies like land reform. However, in 1923, a coup ousted the Stambolisky government, leading to his tragic murder.

Influence of Dr. Stoyadinovich in Yugoslavia

The ascent of Dr. Stoyadinovich, a pro-fascist leader in neighboring Yugoslavia, played a role in Bulgaria intensifying negotiations with Central European powers. Unable to seek assistance from the Soviet Union or neighboring countries, Bulgaria turned to Germany and Italy.

Strengthening Ties with Italy (1930)

In 1930, King Boris married Princess Giovanna, the daughter of the King of Italy, further cementing Bulgaria’s relations with Italy. The Balkan Conference of the same year aimed to prevent Bulgaria from reclaiming territory lost in the World War I peace treaty. The 1934 Balkan Pact, signed by Greece, Turkey, Yugoslavia, and Romania, pursued a similar goal City Tours Istanbul.

King Boris’s Absolute Rule (1935)

By 1935, King Boris established himself as an absolute sovereign, ruling without political parties and legal opposition. During his rule, trade with Germany progressively rose, reaching 67% of Bulgaria’s exports and 65% of its imports in 1939. These figures continued to climb during the war, as Bulgaria maintained ties with Germany in hopes of regaining lost territory. This hope materialized with the return of southern Dobrudja, forced back from Romania to Bulgaria.

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The Second Balkan War and Bulgaria's Harrowing Losses

The Shadows of Defeat

The Second Balkan War, also known as the War of the Allies, cast a dark shadow over Bulgaria, culminating in the signing of the Bucharest Peace Treaty on July 28, 1913. This treaty, deemed unjust and unfortunate for Bulgaria, marked the division of Macedonia between Serbia and Greece, leaving Bulgaria to grapple with the aftermath of its first national catastrophe.

A Diplomatic Crime

The aftermath of the War of the Allies was far from favorable for Bulgaria. The Bucharest Peace Treaty saw Serbia and Greece seizing the larger part of Macedonia, a region with a predominantly Bulgarian population. To the dismay of many, Southern Dobrudja was assigned to Romania. British journalist James Boucher condemned the treaty as “the biggest diplomatic crime of the century,” underscoring Bulgaria’s plight on the international stage.

An Unenviable Dilemma

Following a relatively swift recovery of its economy and army post-War of the Allies, Bulgaria faced strong public sentiments advocating revenge against former allies. The Radoslavov government sought support from Germany and Austro-Hungary for a potential new war against Serbia and Greece. The Central Powers had already solidified their influence in Bulgaria, but as the global conflict escalated, Bulgaria found itself in a complex position Sightseeing Turkey.

Bulgaria’s Pivot to the Central Powers

In exchange for Bulgaria’s participation in a military action against the Central Powers, the Entente powers promised significant territories inhabited by Bulgarians, currently held by neighboring countries. Serbia and Greece vehemently opposed these promises. In August 1915, Bulgaria, enticed by agreements with Germany and Turkey, joined the Central Powers. The Bulgarian army, now aligned against Serbia, set the stage for a new chapter in the conflict.

The Complex Dynamics

In 1916, as Romania entered the war against the Central Powers, the Bulgarian army achieved victories, reclaiming South Dobrudja. In December, Bulgarian and German divisions triumphantly entered Bucharest. However, the tides turned in 1918 when Bolshevik Russia and Romania exited the war. The Central Powers, including Bulgaria, faced betrayal, leading to Bulgaria’s compelled signing of the first armistice in September.

A Nation’s Trauma and Shifting Alliances

The Second Balkan War left Bulgaria grappling with territorial losses and diplomatic betrayals. The complex web of alliances and shifting loyalties during the European conflict underscored the challenges Bulgaria faced in navigating a path to recovery and redemption on the global stage.

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A Disturbing Tale of Despair

Questioning Reality A Disturbing Narrative Unfolds

In the aftermath of the besieged village’s collective tragedy, a haunting narrative emerges—one that, while seemingly in keeping with the somber character of the Sclaves, lacks confirmation. The tale, recounted by an Armenian girl who spent four harrowing nights in the throes of unspeakable horrors, introduces a distressing episode. According to her, two men, driven to the brink of despair, purportedly killed their wives and children within the confines of the churchyard. As the story unfolds, skepticism arises, prompting a closer examination of the girl’s account.

The Limits of Belief Seeking Rationality Amidst Desolation

While the narrative paints a bleak picture of the villagers succumbing to unthinkable acts, the lack of confirmation casts a shadow of doubt. The grim reality, as presented by the Armenian girl, seems to defy the bounds of rationality. The notion that, in the throes of exhaustion and surrounded by horror, she might have succumbed to hallucinations raises questions about the veracity of the account. Could the mind, pushed to the brink, conjure such horrifying scenes as a coping mechanism for the relentless despair?

Anatomy of Desperation Unraveling the Two Tragic Episodes

The heart of the chilling narrative revolves around the actions of two men—one with two children, the other with three. Allegedly, these individuals, in a state of utter despair, chose to end the lives of their own families. The scene, as described by the Armenian girl, portrays a floor ankle-deep in blood, a macabre tableau of familial bonds shattered. The brutality of such an act speaks volumes about the psychological toll exacted by the Bulgaria Holidays relentless torment inflicted by the Turkish commander.

A Desperate Struggle Grappling with Unbearable Despair

As the narrative unfolds, the insinuation that these tragic events unfolded because the villagers refused to surrender adds a perplexing layer to the unfolding tragedy. Mr. Guarracino, baffled by what he perceives as the perverse resistance of the villagers, implicates their choices in the horrors that befall them. The complexities of this situation challenge conventional understanding, prompting reflection on the limits of human endurance and the nuanced dynamics at play.

The Mundane Face of Despair Contrasting Reality and Romantic Notions

The Armenian girl, described as a mere peasant girl with a phlegmatic demeanor, dispels any romantic notions surrounding the harrowing events. Her blunt admission that, at one point, she too contemplated seeking death underscores the depths of despair reached by the besieged community. Stripped of poetic illusions, the narrative forces a reckoning with the stark realities faced by individuals pushed beyond the bounds of endurance.

Confronting the Incomprehensible: A Collective Descent into Madness

As the tale of despair within the besieged village unfolds, questions linger about the limits of belief and the tenuous line between reality and hallucination. Whether driven to madness or a witness to unthinkable tragedies, the Armenian girl’s account serves as a chilling reminder of the human capacity to endure, break, and confront the incomprehensible depths of despair.

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The Unfired Bulwark

Absence of Resistance in Perustitza’s Church

Perustitza’s tragic tale takes a critical turn as the examination of the fortified church reveals a startling lack of defensive measures. The absence of fired shots and the peculiar architectural features of the church raise questions about the villagers’ intent to resist the impending assault. This chapter in the narrative challenges preconceptions and invites a closer scrutiny of the villagers’ choices during this dire confrontation.

The church, a symbol of potential defense, had only two windows from which shots might have been fired. These round windows, high on the gable ends of the building, held the key to any potential resistance. However, investigations revealed that no scaffolding had been erected to enable firing from these openings. The absence of any evidence suggesting shots were fired from the church prompts a reevaluation of the villagers’ commitment to resistance.

The peculiarities of the church’s design, typical of Bulgarian churches, added to the enigma. The low structure with a floor sunk below ground level presented limited options for effective defense. The failure to utilize the few available firing positions, combined with the decision to abandon a more defensible location, paints a complex picture. The villagers’ relocation to a less fortified position raises doubts about their resolve to resist the impending assault Balkan Tours.

Coercion and Allegations The Unfounded Insistence on Resistance

As the investigation unfolded, Mr. Guarracino sought to bolster the narrative of resistance by attempting to extract specific accounts from the villagers. Allegations surfaced that Aziz Pacha had sent a summons to surrender, a claim vehemently denied by the villagers. The absence of corroborating evidence led Mr. Guarracino to resort to intimidation tactics, labeling the villagers as insurgents and placing blame squarely on their shoulders.

The Armenian girl’s testimony further complicates the narrative. She reveals that the majority of the men fled the church and sought refuge outside, leaving behind only a small contingent with the women and children. This mass exodus provides compelling evidence that the intention to resist the regular troops was virtually non-existent. The flight of the men, a significant portion of the village’s potential defense, underscores the abandonment of any genuine resistance.

The coercion, allegations, and attempts to shape the narrative notwithstanding, the facts on the ground tell a different story. The villagers, faced with the impending onslaught, chose not to resist but to seek shelter in a place ill-suited for defense. The changing dynamics of the conflict beg a crucial question: What were the true intentions of Aziz Pacha and the villagers as they found themselves embroiled in a tragic confrontation?

In unraveling the layers of Perustitza’s narrative, the absence of fired shots from the fortified church, coupled with the villagers’ flight to a less defensible position, challenges preconceptions about the nature of the conflict. It urges a deeper exploration into the motivations and actions of both the aggressors and the aggrieved, unraveling a complex web of decisions that shaped the tragic events in Perustitza.

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Obtained from Turkish Government

He could not have obtained it from the Turkish Government, for the reason that even the Turkish authorities here do not claim more than 500 Turks killed altogether, of whom the greater part, they admit, were killed in battle, with arms in their hands ; and further, because while they claim some thirty women killed , they have not so far given Mr. Schuyler proof that a single woman or child was killed or outraged. Kiani Pacha told him that the Mudir of the village of Avrat-alan had been killed with his wife and daughter.

Mr. Schuyler found, upon inquiry, that the wife of the Mudir was absent in a different part of the country when the fight occurred, and that the report of her death was therefore untrue; while as to the daughter, he learned that the Mudir never had a daughter. But supposing that proof may yet be forthcoming of thirty Turkish women killed—as they may have been in the street fighting—it is very evident that at the time Lord Derby spoke, he had no proof of such a fact City Tours Istanbul, nor the slightest reason for the sweeping assertion that the Bulgarians had shown themselves equal in barbarity to the Turks.

Mr. Disraeli

The only inference is that he made a perfectly reckless statement, in support of which he had not the slightest particle of evidence ; and this at the moment when Mr. Disraeli was accusing well-informed newspapers, that had taken pains to obtain correct information, of giving credence to exaggerated and unfounded rumours It is said that the Bulgarians had no business to rise, that they made an insurrection which was put down with a strong hand, and that they must take the consequences. The best answer to this is the manifesto published by the new Government, after the deposition of the late Sultan, in which it was shown that the misrule and oppression of the late Government had passed the limit of endurance.

The extortions and mismanagement of the Government had produced such a degree of misery among the peasantry, that without a change their existence was no longer possible. This, indeed, was the reason for the revolution at Constantinople. And yet Midhat Pacha and his associates are still hanging and imprisoning these poor people for doing what they have shown the Bulgarians were perfectly justified in doing, and for what they themselves have done—revolting against the Sultan.

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Obtained from Turkish Government

He could not have obtained it from the Turkish Government, for the reason that even the Turkish authorities here do not claim more than 500 Turks killed altogether, of whom the greater part, they admit, were killed in battle, with arms in their hands ; and further, because while they claim some thirty women killed , they have not so far given Mr. Schuyler proof that a single woman or child was killed or outraged. Kiani Pacha told him that the Mudir of the village of Avrat-alan had been killed with his wife and daughter.

Mr. Schuyler found, upon inquiry, that the wife of the Mudir was absent in a different part of the country when the fight occurred, and that the report of her death was therefore untrue; while as to the daughter, he learned that the Mudir never had a daughter. But supposing that proof may yet be forthcoming of thirty Turkish women killed—as they may have been in the street fighting—it is very evident that at the time Lord Derby spoke, he had no proof of such a fact City Tours Istanbul, nor the slightest reason for the sweeping assertion that the Bulgarians had shown themselves equal in barbarity to the Turks.

Mr. Disraeli

The only inference is that he made a perfectly reckless statement, in support of which he had not the slightest particle of evidence ; and this at the moment when Mr. Disraeli was accusing well-informed newspapers, that had taken pains to obtain correct information, of giving credence to exaggerated and unfounded rumours It is said that the Bulgarians had no business to rise, that they made an insurrection which was put down with a strong hand, and that they must take the consequences. The best answer to this is the manifesto published by the new Government, after the deposition of the late Sultan, in which it was shown that the misrule and oppression of the late Government had passed the limit of endurance.

The extortions and mismanagement of the Government had produced such a degree of misery among the peasantry, that without a change their existence was no longer possible. This, indeed, was the reason for the revolution at Constantinople. And yet Midhat Pacha and his associates are still hanging and imprisoning these poor people for doing what they have shown the Bulgarians were perfectly justified in doing, and for what they themselves have done—revolting against the Sultan.

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Insurrection in Bosnia and Herzegovina

Things went on pleasantly enough until the breaking out of the insurrection in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Raika was eighteen, she had been a teacher for two years, and had nearly paid her debt. Then there were signs of approaching trouble. Fresh upon the news of the war in Herzegovina came the tax-gatherer with demands for the year’s taxes and those of the previous year, which had been remitted owing to the failure of the crops.

Many were unable to meet these unlooked-for demands. Their property was instantly seized and sold at any price it would bring. The cattle, the agricultural implements of the peasants, were seized and sold without the slightest regard to future consequences. Some were even thrown into prison, when nobody offered to buy the poor effects that were offered for sale. Naturally these acts resulted in a great deal of misery and dissatisfaction Private Turkey Tours.

Population are heavy enough

The taxes upon the agricultural population are heavy enough, often amounting, as they do, to twenty and thirty per cent., according to the tax farmer’s capacity for extortion, without being suddenly doubled at a moment’s notice. Hard upon this followed the demand for the taxes of 1876 in advance, which resulted in still more forced sales, extortions, quarrels with the tax-collectors, misery, and discontent.

The young men of the place began to hold secret meetings and to talk of throwing off the yoke of the Turks, and asserting their independence, like their brothers of Bosnia, Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Servia. I may as well state here that it was in this place that the insurrection, if such a puny outbreak as occurred here may be dignified by that name, broke out. There was, it seems, an Insurrectional Committee at Bucharest, composed of young Bulgarians, in the schools or in business there.

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Transition to Christianity and the Cyrillic alphabet

By the middle of the 9lh century Christianity was already wide-spread in the old continent. The Roman Curia and the Constantinople Patriarchate – representing Catholicism and Orthodoxy – were running a struggle for influence in the European South-East. Realising that the imposition of Christianity as an official religion will help to be surmounted the linguistic, cultural and religious differences between Slavs and Proto-Bulgarians Presiyan’s son Khan Boris I (852-889) made steps in that direction. In 853 Bulgaria – in alliance with France and Great Moravia – fought against the German King

dom and Croatia. Ten years later – this time in alliance with the Germans – the Bulgarians were fighting Great Moravia. Bui Byzantium took side in favour of the latter and its army invaded Bulgaria Tour Packages Bulgaria. The defeat forced Boris 1 to break the promise he had made to the German king to adopt Christianity from the Roman Church and after signing in 863 a peace treaty with the Byzantine Emperor Michail III he was compelled to receive the Christian religion from the Church in Constantinople.

Prince as the Emperor

In 864 the Khan was converted to Christianity and assumed the title Prince as the Emperor became his godfather. But it had to be done secretly to avoid the reaction of the pagan aristocracy. However a mass rebellion followed and Boris had to suppress the resistance by slaughtering a consid-erable part of his nobles along with all their clans. A Byzantine ecclesiastical mission was settled in Bulgaria and it ordained the first archbishop of the newly converted Bulgarian people – Josef. In 865 Christianity was declared the state religion.

By the same time in an aristocratic family in Thessaloniki were bom two brothers: Cyril and Methodius. The elder one, Methodius, became governor of a Slavic region, while Cyril chose the fate of a scholar and after graduating the famous Magnaur School in Constantinople under the name Constantine the Philosopher he was appointed as court librarian. In fact, Cyril was his adopted byname when he became a bishop. Later the brothers received an assignment from the Byzantine emperor for which they joined and retired to a monastery.

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Salonica in 1887

Sarcophagus No. 88.—This sarcophagus was discovered at Salonica in 1887. It is of white marble, and its trough is rectangular. At two of its corners are two nude cupids, standing on one leg with arms extended and holding up a drapery spread behind them; in the background are two eagles.

The central figures on one of the sides are those of Cupid and Psyche standing arm-in-arm by a kindled altar; on the other side of them are cupids nude but for a chlamys over their shoulders. In each of the two groups of cupids, one is represented leaning on the other for support. The one on the left is laying a wreath on the altar, and the one on the right holds a butterfly. The carvings on the opposite side of the sarcophagus represent two lions’ heads encircled in a garland supported by a nude cupid. At the head of the sarcophagus is the figure of a winged sphinx; and at the foot that of a nude cupid holding a lowered torch in one hand and a wreath in the other. This sarcophagus belongs to the Roman art period also.

Sarcophagus No. JO.—This sarcophagus comes from Tripoli in Barbary, and was discovered in November 1885. It is of yellow marble and has never been completed, one of its panels only having been carved, while the others remain uncut and are quite plain, save for the sketched design made for the sculptor. At each end of the carved panel is a tree, that on the left having the figure of a dog sitting under it. In the centre is the figure of Hippolytus, nude, except for a chlamys hanging down from his left shoulder and appearing as if .about to fall off altogether. In his left hand is a javelin, and at his baldric hangs a hunting-knife. In front of him is his horse ready bridled and pawing the ground, and beyond are two nude hunters.

He is being accosted by Phaedra’s nurse, who has given him some tablets which he is holding. Behind the nurse, and apparently listening to all she says, is a standing female figure leaning its chin on its hand. At the extreme left is Phaedra, seated in an arm-chair, veiled and wearing a wreath, and in the attitude of listening to a woman behind her who is stooping down to whisper to her; at Phaedra’s feet stands a cupid with his hands on her knees, looking up into her face.

Eoom No. 1 contains a Greek-Roman sarcophagus covered with representations of Bacchanalian scenes, besides various funereal bas-reliefs, and a fine collection of Phoenician cast-lead sarcophagi, covered with bas-reliefs. These monuments seem to have been peculiar to Phoenicia, inasmuch as they have all come from the Lebanon and Homs districts in Northern Syria, and apparently date from the very beginning of the Christian era, or from the end of the first century B.c. The ornamentations on them are chaste and varied in design, and indicate an admixture of Phoenician and Greek-Roman style.

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John Palseologus

The reigning emperor, John Palseologus, succumbed to his demands, aud purchased his alliance by the annual payment of a considerable tribute. Murad was, beyond many of his line, observant of his oaths, and during the whole of his long reign of thirty years the Byzantine city enjoyed the unusual privilege of an assured immunity from all Turkish aggression. All this, however, quickly changed on the accession of his more resolute son. Muhammad II., who succeeded him, and whose great ambition was to make the Byzantine capital the chief seat of his dominion, on some slight pretext abrogated the treaty of his father, and announced his intention to build a fort on the European side of the Bosporus. This threat he carried into execution, and the Castle of Burnell Hissar ( Citadel of Europe ’), opposite the ‘ Citadel of Asia,’ remains intact to the present day, as an ornament of the Bosporus, and a proof of the substantial character of the Turkish construction. In the spring of 1453 Muhammad II. environed the city with his troops.

His army consisted of 60,000 horse and 20,000 foot, while Constantine, the reigning emperor, could only muster 5000 native soldiers and a band of 2000 Genoese mercenaries, under a noble Genoese leader, John Justiniani. Of the triangle which composes the site of the city, the two sides along the sea were considered inaccessible, and the attack was, therefore, directed against the third or land side, which was protected by a double wall and deep ditch extending across the promontory from sea to sea. A desperate and persevering courage was shown both by the besiegers and besieged, but the city at last fell into the hands of Muhammad II., after a forty days’ struggle.

Muhammad with the possession of Constantinople

The thirst for conquest was not satisfied in Muhammad with the possession of Constantinople. His daily cry was, ‘ First Belgrade and then Rhodes,’ both of which places he hoped to gain as steps to a firmer footing in Christendom. But he was repelled from both, and his aspirations for further conquest were thus frustrated and restrained. Within half a century his successor, Suleiman the Magnificent, effected at a mighty cost the subjugation of Rhodes, but thereby made no progress towards dominion in Europe. He was repulsed with ignominy by La Yalette and his heroes from the attempted conquest of Malta, while the victorious squadrons of Venice, Genoa and Spain, under Don John of Austria, in the great naval battle of Lepanto, on the 5th of October 1571, finally extinguished all fear of the establishment of Muhammadan rule in the West. From that time the Turks have had enough to do in maintaining the integrity of their own empire guided istanbul tours. Thus the great victory of Muhammad II. has been comparatively barren of results. It extinguished indeed the Byzantine Empire, already long ripe through its own corruption for destruction; but the capture of Constantinople may be rightly described as at once the culminating glory of the Ottoman Sultans, and their last successful attempt at permanent conquests within the precincts of Eastern or Western Christendom.

Government.—The Government of Turkey has oden, from the time of the foundation of the Turkish Empire in 1326, an absolute monarchy, the Sultan being absolute ruler of his people and head of the Muhammadan religion. But since the 23rd of July 1908, owing to an army insurrection, and the dethronement of Sultan Abd-ul- Hamid Khan II., it has been changed into a Constitutional Monarchy. It consists of the Sultan, the Grand Vizier (Prime Minister), ten Cabinet Ministers, the Senate, and the Parliament. The Sultan’s accession to the throne is hereditary and goes to the eldest male of the family. The Grand Vizier and the Senators are appointed by the Sultan ; the Cabinet Ministers by the Grand Vizier, and the Deputies are elected by the people, one Deputy elected for every 50,000 male inhabitants.

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Corinthian capitals

Inside the cathedral six pairs of slim columns ending in splendid Corinthian capitals divide the nave into three aisles covered by a solid vaulted ceiling. The Debur School masters, the brothers Andon and Dimiter Stanishev, were commissioned to carve the iconostasis and they executed it in the Empire style. The icon of the Assumption and most of the other icons were created by renowned Nikola Odrinchanin, newly-settled in Plovdiv at the time.

Bulgarian Church

At the end of 1859 a religious service, the first in decades, was held in Bulgarian in the church of the  Holy Virgin – an achievement in the struggle for an autonomous Bulgarian Church. On March 12th 1860 Bishop Paisii served the first lithurgy in Bulgarian. 40 Bulgarian priests from the main towns in Plovdiv Diocese attended the great event and celebrated officially the separation of the National Church from the Istanbul (Constantinople) Patriar- chate.lt was in this church that, after the estab-lishment of the Bulgarian Exarchate in 1872, Plovdiv welcomed its first Bulgarian bishop – Metro-politan Bishop Panaret travel bulgaria. After the Liberation in 1881 architect Joseph Schnitter added a belfry to the western door of the cathedral designed in the currently modern style of Russian Classicism. It is an imposing three-storey structure crowned by a dome.

On its western side there is an inscription: ‘In memory of the liberators’ – a dedication to the Russian troops who liberated the town on the 4th January 1878. A thanksgiving service was held in the church in honour of the Liberation on the same date. An old cemetery lies to the east of the cathedral under whose elaborately wrought tombstones are buried eminent Plovdivian clerics and notable citizens. People who fought for an independent Bulgarian church were laid here, such as the metropolitan bishops Panaret, Natanail and Maxim as well as national Revival figures – Hristo Danov, Yoakim Gruev, Stoyan Chalukov and Iskro Kesyakov.

SS. CONSTANTINE AND HELENA CHURCH

Years of archaeological research, conservation and restoration work at the site of the SS. Constantine and Helena Church, rising very near the eastern Hisar Gate into the acropolis, have created a remarkable antique and Revival architectural complex.

The excavations uncovered a considerable section of the fortress of the antique city to the south of Hisar Gate and as far as the round tower on the corner. At the end of the antique period this part of the Three Hills became a Christian sanctuary devoted to Severian and Mnemon who died for the creed together with 38 Plovdivian martyrs killed here in the time of Emperor Diocletian in 304. Later on the church was dedicated to the apostles SS. Constantine and Helena. At the beginning of the 19th c. the church at Hisar Gate was in a tumbledown state.