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Glenn Greenwald: Surveillance, Security, and Snowden

Glenn Greenwald is known as the journalist who thrust Edward Snowden into the spotlight. However, Greenwald is more than just a journalist; he is also known as a civil-rights activist as well as the best-selling author of his novel “No Place to Hide: Edward Snowden, the NSA, and the U.S. Surveillance State.” Greenwald’s concern for his civil duty developed at a young age; at seventeen, he ran for city council in his hometown of Lauderdale Lakes, Florida (ExpressVPN). Despite not being elected, Greenwald continued to pursue his interest in civics (ExpressVPN). Greenwald went on to study philosophy at George Washington University, and he later continued his education at New York University School of Law, where he received his law degree in 1994 (ExpressVPN). Only two years later, he created Greenwald Christoph PC, his own litigation firm (ExpressVPN). Eventually, Greenwald’s fascination with law evolved into a hobby of writing on political issues. He started making a name for himself writing articles on a blog he titled Unclaimed Territory (ExpressVPN). Greenwald’s work became so popular that he was offered a job at Salon.com, writing articles critiquing U.S. intelligence agencies for abusing citizens’ rights to personal privacy (ExpressVPN). In 2012, Greenwald moved on to accept a job at The Guardian, the news outlet he used to break one of the most controversial stories of 2013 (ExpressVPN). By shamelessly reporting on issues of public interest, Greenwald inspires journalists to do the same, regardless of the government’s attempts to hinder the freedom of the press.

While journalists are often pushed to relentlessly badger their sources for controversial or secretive information, this was not the case for Glenn Greenwald’s NSA story. Rather, Edward Snowden sought out Greenwald as the source with whom he would share thousands of highly classified NSA documents regarding a system of mass surveillance the U.S. government uses to collect millions of American citizens’ communication records (Greenwald, 2014). According to an interview on Frontline, Greenwald (2014) acknowledged his reputation for shamelessly writing on controversial privacy concerns, and therefore Snowden must have been aware he had a handle on the technological and legal framework behind U.S. surveillance (Greenwald, 2014). Furthermore, Greenwald claimed Snowden likely knew Greenwald would have no qualms regarding the government’s opinion on the NSA story, given that Greenwald shared a sympathetic viewpoint on intelligence agencies’ maltreatment of personal privacy (Greenwald, 2014). Clearly, Snowden respected Greenwald’s craft for journalism and the impact he could have on society at large; Greenwald is not a journalist who would sit on a groundbreaking story in the public interest for fear of government disapproval.

Technology plays a key role in Greenwald’s work. His rise to fame as a journalist originated in writing on his independent blog, Unclaimed Territory. In 2005, Greenwald wrote a blog-post titled “FISA Court Rejected Bush surveillance?” In this piece, Greenwald was already speculating on intelligence agencies’ abuse of American citizens’ personal privacy. He states:

The court's repeated intervention in Bush administration wiretap requests may explain why the president decided to bypass the court nearly four years ago to launch secret National Security Agency spying on hundreds and possibly thousands of Americans and foreigners inside the United States, according to James Bamford, an acknowledged authority on the supersecret NSA, which intercepts telephone calls, emails, faxes and Internet communications (Greenwald, 2005).

As early as 2005, Greenwald was already drawing attention to surveillance discrepancies. Not only did a blog platform catalyze his career, but technology was also the subject matter of his writing. In order to report on issues regarding the Foreign Intelligence Service Act of 1978, Greenwald had to maintain a comprehensive understanding of the intricacies of surveillance, the inner workings of telecommunications, and intelligence agencies’ hacking strategies. When Snowden approached him in 2013, the role of technology in Greenwald’s career became even more complicated. For instance, when Snowden first contacted Greenwald hinting that he had a story worth sharing, Snowden refused to share specific information regarding his claims unless Greenwald would download encryption on his laptop to protect the highly classified documents against surveillance or leaks (Greenwald, 2014). Greenwald was frustrated with this, and eventually Snowden turned to journalist and documentary-maker Laura Poitras who had already installed encryption on her computer (Greenwald, 2014). Snowden was able to share more specific information with Poitras, and urged her to get Greenwald involved (Greenwald, 2014). As the story unraveled, Poitras was able to capture revolutionary moments on film, such as when Greenwald interviewed Snowden for the first time in his hotel in Hong Kong. Poitras later compiled these clips into the documentary Citizenfour, detailing the moments that lead up to the break of the NSA story. Furthermore, Oliver Stone released an academy-award winning Hollywood drama titled Snowden, which hit theaters in 2016. Ultimately, technology will sustain Greenwald’s legacy not only through his continued online writing, but also in the films that recount the rebellious tale.

Greenwald’s investigation of governmental power echoes the work of Murrey Marder and Edward Murrow during the McCarthy years. Marder’s obituary details his time spent investigating security cases at Fort Monmouth. In recalling his mission to expose McCarthy for falsely labeling innocent individuals as communist spies, Marder claimed that McCarthy “had built the thing so highly that it was sort of waiting for someone to come along and look at it. And nobody wanted to bother” (Bernstein). Marder’s notion of public service resonates with Greenwald’s ambitious mission to debunk the government’s use of mass surveillance; both journalists aimed to expose governmental abuse of power that had gone too far, but seemed to face little to no resistance. An article in The Columbia Journalism Review details Greenwald’s reaction to the highly classified documents he received: –“We had evidence that would indisputably prove all that the government had done to destroy the privacy of Americans and people around the world. What’s more, Snowden’s archive contains proof that NSA officials lied to Congress about the agency’s illicit activities” (Forbes, 2014).  Similar to Mr. Marder, Glenn Greenwald found himself in a position with evidence that a government official had blatantly lied to the American people. In his report condemning Joseph McCarthy, journalist Edward Murrow claimed, “We cannot defend freedom abroad by deserting it at home” (Mindich, 2016). This was the heart of Greenwald’s argument as well, as he struggled to portray the magnitude and severity of the government’s invasive privacy attack.

The social impact of Greenwald’s work can be seen in the debate that followed the story’s release. According to Jeffrey Toobin (2013), Greenwald claims that Snowden was pleased with the debate over privacy that took place in America following the leak. Snowden said, “I believe in the principle declared at Nuremberg, in 1945: ‘Individuals have international duties which transcend the national obligations of obedience. Therefore individual citizens have the duty to violate domestic laws to prevent crimes against peace and humanity from occurring’” (Toobin, 2013). Greenwald’s belief is that Snowden offered up the NSA documents for the greater good of the American people, to shed light on the fact that the United States government was attacking citizens’ basic right to privacy.

However, critics raise the question of whether or not Greenwald, as a journalist, should be allowed to decide what classified information poses a threat to national security (Forbes, 2014). Moreover, others claim no real harm comes from this type of ubiquitous surveillance if an individual has nothing to hide. In a TED Talk titled, “Why Privacy Matters” Greenwald responds to these claims:  “mass surveillance suppresses our own freedom in all sorts of ways. It renders off-limits all kinds of behavioral choices without our even knowing that it's happened. The renowned socialist activist Rosa Luxemburg once said, ‘He who does not move does not notice his chains’” (Greenwald, 2014). Greenwald (2014) further elaborates on this point referencing 18th century philosopher Jeremy Bentham who set out to resolve surveillance concerns that arose during the industrial age. Bentham speculated on new architectural designs for prisons. The panopticon design included a tall tower that would allow the controlling body of the prison to watch over the prisoners; however, not all of the prisoners could be watched at once (Greenwald, 2014). This would force the prisoners to assume that they were being observed at any given moment, therefore ensuring submission (Greenwald, 2014). Greenwald applies this viewpoint to the threat posed by the modern United States’ system of mass surveillance, claiming that whether or not an individual has something to hide, their behavior will likely be limited to conformity under the assumption that their privacy could be violated at any given moment (Greenwald, 2014). This, he claims, is the crux of why privacy matters. Overall–regardless of polarizing viewpoints–Greenwald’s work certainly sparked an international conversation regarding the protection of personal privacy.

Four months after Greenwald released the NSA story, he announced that he would leave The Guardian (Greenwald, 2013). In his farewell article titled “On Leaving The Guardian,” Greenwald (2013) urged his audience to take a stand against the unprecedented attack on press freedoms occurring in the United States. Furthermore, he announced his plans to create a new media organization with Pierre Omidyar, Laura Poitras, and Jeremy Scahill (Greenwald, 2013). The Intercept was conceived­ as a new platform dedicated to shedding light on national security, politics, civil liberties, the environment, international affairs, technology, criminal justice, and the media (The Intercept, 2014). According to the founders, “The Intercept gives its journalists the editorial freedom and legal support they need to pursue investigations that expose corruption and injustice wherever they find it and hold the powerful accountable” (The Intercept, 2014). Using this outlet, Greenwald continues to fight for freedom of press and Americans’ rights to privacy to this day.

Glenn Greenwald’s journalistic valiance will have a lasting impact for years to come. Unfortunately, Snowden’s leaks have not done much to stop the United States from collecting American citizens’ communications data (Hattem, 2016). However, this has not stopped Greenwald from reporting on the matter. In an interview with GQ, Greenwald claimed he planned to continuously release as much of the NSA archive as possible (Paterniti, 2014). In the same interview, Greenwald explains that Edward Snowden played little to no role in deciding what was published­–this was left up to Greenwald himself. This passion to unapologetically inform the American public of the United States government’s covert behaviors reverberates Daniel Ellsberg’s courage in releasing the Pentagon Papers. Although the government does not practice prior censorship, Priest (2016) points out the fact that authorities are still taking measures to silence journalists that seek to unveil the truth about the government’s clandestine efforts. However Priest (2016) remains optimistic, stating “This heroic act of journalism, and the legal ruling it forced the US Supreme Court to make, still stand today as the most powerful legal and moral weapon in the American media’s battle against government secrecy.” Overall, Greenwald’s insistence to pursue the truth through journalism­–regardless of government opinion–will likely inspire whistleblowers in the future, especially in this era where liberty and security are understood as mutually exclusive.

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The Internet and Citizenship

Citizenship is traditionally defined by four key factors: knowledge, expression, joining publics, and taking action (Weeks, “Nature of Citizenship in the Internet Era”). However, Bennett et al. (2011) argues that the Internet and social media have inherently changed the nature of citizenship. Following World War II, the traditional dutiful citizen was defined as someone who frequently followed news, identified with a politically engaged organization, conveyed political views through formal establishments, and contributed to organized action (Weeks, “Nature of Citizenship in the Internet Era”). However, the definition of citizenship has evolved as more information than ever before has become available to individuals online. Not only have the Internet and social media changed the means and frequency that individuals are able to acquire political knowledge, but technology has also created new outlets for expression, easier ways to join publics, and unique ways to take action. Nonetheless, while the Internet and social media have improved the quality of modern day citizenship, technology has also presented some threats to its ideal definition. Ultimately, the Internet and social media hinder the principles of citizenship due to a variety of factors such as the rise of fake news, potential echo chambers, the spiral of silence, “slacktivism”, and a notion of less personal investment. Yet, I propose a range of solutions to combat each of these issues  to further our company’s mission of using technology to encourage citizenship and political engagement across the nation.

Political knowledge is an important factor of civic competency, as it is necessary for individuals to maintain a basic awareness of their government system and current events in order to truly take advantage of citizenship. Traditional aspects of political knowledge include a general understanding of history, current events, how the government works, current office holders, and candidate positions (Weeks, “Nature of Citizenship in the Internet Era”). In the past, citizens primarily acquired this information from authorities, teachers, journalists, and public officials (Weeks, “Nature of Citizenship in the Internet Era”). However, the rise of Internet and social media has changed who can disseminate information online. Now, anyone can access the Internet and post generally whatever they desire. While this has given more individuals a voice, it has also posed obstacles to political learning.

The rise of fake news has become one of the most prominent threats to political knowledge in the Internet Era. Fake news can be defined as verifiably false information (Weeks, “Fake News, Misinformation, and Misperceptions”). According to Wardle (2017), misinformation in the media can take a variety of different forms, such as satire or parody, misleading headlines or visuals, misleading content, wrong context, real news impostors, manipulated content, or fabricated content. The 2016 presidential election was littered with misinformation, for instance, a headline proclaimed that, “Pope Francis Endorsed Donald Trump for President,” which was later proven to be false (Weeks, “Fake News, Misinformation, and Misperceptions”). Wardle (2017) claims that fake news is consistently believed and shared by citizens from both parties arguing, “Whether it’s the ‘rogue’ Twitter accounts that no one has been able to independently verify, the Trump executive order meme generator, users re-tweeting a post by Jill Stein’s parody account desperately wanting it to be real, or claiming Vice-President Pence has deleted a tweet condemning the Muslim ban when it was still sitting on his timeline from December, the Left is showing that it is just as human as the Right.” While the rise of fake news has become increasingly problematic, there are precautions citizens can take to protect themselves from misperceptions in the future.

Despite the widespread surge of fake news, our company provides insight on how dutiful citizens can use the Internet and social media to their advantage, in order to avoid the consumption of misinformation online. First, I would like to present a list of techniques to determine the credibility of news online. The ideal citizen would analyze whether providers of digital news utilize any of the following methods of deception: click bait headlines, compromised URLs, an overwhelming presence of advertisements, fear or emotional appeals, a lack of original reporting masked by the use of selective links, or frequent biased phrases such as “we all know.” Other factors to consider include the quality of sources and graphics, as well as the use of factual data. Furthermore, the Internet allows citizens to seek immediate and reliable analysis of information via fact-checking websites such as factcheck.org or politifact.com. That being said, the ideal citizen can use the Internet to their advantage by ensuring that they consume political information from sources that provide only quality journalism.

Another threat to political knowledge is the development of echo chambers online. Echo chambers can be defined as isolation from political disagreement (Weeks, “Partisan Media and Selective Exposure”). While research has not proven the reality of echo chambers, there is an existing concept that echo chambers may result from of an increase in partisan media, which in turn has generated a more fragmented society. Much has changed since the 1980s when ABC, CBS, NBC, and the Chicago Tribune were the four main media contenders broadcasting news (Weeks, “Partisan Media and Selective Exposure”). In today’s increasingly saturated media environment, individuals have the option to consume a variety of niche programs that cater to their pre-existing beliefs. As a result, Americans are more polarized than ever before. In Stroud’s (2011) piece on niche news, he discusses the concept of selective exposure, or the idea that individuals seek out information that confirms their existing beliefs. While this theory has not been proven, there is some evidence that when presented an option, partisans prefer LinkedIn news (Weeks, “Partisan Media and Selective Exposure”). Ultimately, it is possible that partisan media and algorithms online trap individuals in echo chambers or filter bubbles, thus increasing the probability of selective exposure. This is a potential threat to political knowledge because individuals are choosing what they believe to be true, as opposed to digesting unbiased factual information.

Despite the potential development of echo chambers, the opportunity to gain a comprehensive view of political knowledge still exists. One of the greatest benefits of the Internet and social media is the breadth of information that is readily available to all citizens. The ideal citizen would take advantage of the Internet by following news targeted at both liberal and conservative parties, so as to remain unbiased in forming his or her beliefs. This could involve following candidates personal accounts on social media from both parties, watching a variety of cable news programs, as well as reading online journalism from diverse, credible sources such as the New York Times, the Washington Post, and the Wall Street Journal. In addition to consuming diverse media, it is important to be aware of the algorithms on social media that may be filtering out differing pinons. Citizens should make sure their social media “friends” or “followers” remain politically diverse.

Political expression is another form of citizenship that is essential to civic competency. Expression and deliberation can take the form of cooperation, negotiation, or persuasion (Weeks, “Nature of Citizenship in the Internet Era”). Citizens traditionally manifest these methods of expression by writing letters to editors, writing petitions to public officials, or speaking at public hearings (Weeks, “Nature of Citizenship in the Internet Era”). However, the internet has changed the way political expression and deliberation can occur online.

Not only do the Internet and social media pose threats to political knowledge, but digital media has also generated barriers to citizens’ expression and deliberation. Research shows that the spiral of silence is an increasing threat to political engagement (Weeks, “Spiral of Silence and Privacy Online”). The spiral of silence refers to the idea that social media creates an environment in which citizens are less likely to discuss issues online (Weeks, “Spiral of Silence and Privacy Online”). It is possible that this sentiment derives from citizens’ fears regarding the privacy of their personal information. Pew (2014) shows that very few adults express confidence that their records will remain private and secure online. Moreover, individuals feel that social media is the least secure medium (Pew, 2014). With the outbreak of scandals such as the recent Cambridge Analytica data breach, it is clear why citizens feel their information is not protected online. In March of 2018, it was revealed that Cambridge Analytica, a political data firm, harvested the data of over 50 million Facebook users without their consent (Granville, 2018). The firm’s goal was ultimately to generate targeted digital content that would affect users’ political beliefs (Granville, 2018). Another example of citizens feeling unsafe about posting information online was following the Snowden-NSA story. Pew (2014) revealed that, “People reported being less willing to discuss the Snowden-NSA story in social media than they were in person—and social media did not provide an alternative outlet for those reluctant to discuss the issues in person.” While it is clear that individuals feel unsafe expressing their political beliefs online for various reasons, there are still ways to get involved in deliberation online.

Even though many citizens fear for the security of their information, our company would like to suggest safe ways for individuals to participate in political expression and deliberation in the digital sphere. The Internet is a public sphere that encourages free speech and offers various forums for debate. Many news sites have developed comments sections that allow citizens to directly express their reactions or beliefs about particular stories. Most of these sites provide the option of remaining anonymous, which is a helpful tool for those who feel they hold a minority opinion and are afraid of getting attacked for their beliefs. However, incivility online has become an issue when individuals abuse this right. The ideal citizen would remain civil online, only using the anonymous feature when necessary. Furthermore, citizens should avoid derogatory, hateful, or unprofessional language when expressing their opinions online.

Joining publics is another key pillar of citizenship. This refers to the idea that citizens must exercise their right to become effective group members (Weeks, “Nature of Citizenship in the Internet Era”). Joining publics can take the form of organizing political proceedings, scheduling meetings, developing consensus, building leadership skills, and understanding what groups do (Weeks, “Nature of Citizenship in the Internet Era”). Traditionally, dutiful citizens joined hierarchical organizations such as service clubs, political parties, or political organizations (Weeks, “Nature of Citizenship in the Internet Era”). However, the Internet and social media have invented new definitions of what it means to join publics.

 #Activism, or “Slacktivism” has been identified as a threat to the traditional idea of joining publics. Slacktivism can be defined as, “The kind of activism undertaken when you “do something” about a problem by tweeting or posting links to Facebook without any intent of ever actually doing something. Nothing more than a nonsense feel good gesture so that one can say they “did something about” whatever trendy cause they’re pretending to care about; usually only lasts a week or two before the cause is completely forgotten (i.e. it stops being cool to forward/retweet on the subject.” Gladwell (2010) would argue that slacktivism is a threat to civic competency because—as opposed to joining publics in traditional ways— individuals are less willing to take part in group activities, and only willing to engage in low-stakes and low-cost interactions that are based on weak ties. Gladwell (2010) claims that online organizations lack the hierarchy and organization that existed in past political efforts. Gladwell (2010) uses the example of the Greensboro sit-ins to demonstrate how citizens in the past were highly devoted to organized group action with strong leadership, such as the civil rights efforts organized by Martin Luther King. Occupy Wall Street was a movement that originated online but lacked the hierarchy and organization to excel as a successful group effort.

           On the other hand, our company would like to point out the innovative opportunities the Internet has created for citizens to join publics online. It is easier than ever before for citizens to access groups online through social media. Facebook is a platform that allows individuals to form or join groups online with just the click of a button. In contrast to Gladwell’s argument, the Internet has demolished geographical barriers, generating the ability to reach more individuals across the world than any offline group could imagine. Furthermore, the Internet has granted closer and more direct access to political groups than in the past. Now, social media has given citizens the possibility to directly message party leaders or group organizers through their personal inbox. One example of how to engage with publics online is as simple as signing up for an email list, such as the Democratic National Committee. Just by entering an email address, citizens can gain membership in this group that will in turn grant them access to news updates, event invitations, and fundraising efforts. Thus, the ideal citizen would utilize the ease of online access to serve as effective group members in political organizations.

The fourth key pillar of citizenship is taking action and participating in political efforts. In terms of citizenship, taking action can be defined as the right to participate in politics (Weeks, “Nature of Citizenship in the Internet Era”).  Different forms of taking action can include voting, canvassing,  campaigning, donating money, attending rallies, or fundraising (Weeks, “Nature of Citizenship in the Internet Era”). Traditionally, citizens took action in activities managed by top-down organizations with little personal authority (Weeks, “Nature of Citizenship in the Internet Era”). However, the Internet and social media have entirely transformed the way individuals can participate in political efforts.

Critics of the Internet and social media claim that technology has created a notion of less personal investment in political efforts; thus, posing a threat to ideal citizenship. In the same vein as Gladwell’s argument on the negative effects that slacktivism can have on joining groups, the scholar claims that social media and #Activism lessens individuals’ motivation for political participation. Critics claim that social media presents lazy loopholes to taking meaningful action. For example, after the Bastille Day attacks in Paris, individuals all over Facebook changed their profile pictures to flaunt a filter of the French flag to display their support for the victims. While this may have spread awareness about the issue, it gave users an arguably undeserved sense of feeling as though they had taken action, as opposed to actually donating money, volunteering for relief efforts, or creating tangible change.

Nonetheless, our company would like to provide solutions regarding how citizens can use the Internet and social media to take meaningful political action. One of the benefits of using the Internet for political participation is the fact that it is not just for elites, but rather offers more democratic opportunities (Weeks, “Political Participation and Expression on the Internet”). In other words, the Internet offers low-cost participation, regardless of age, income, and education (Weeks, “Political Participation and Expression on the Internet”).  Individuals no longer have to participate in top-down organizations in which they have little individual agency. Social media serves as a two-way form of communication in which individuals can spark conversation that may not have been possible in the past. The ideal citizen could use social media sites such as Twitter to call out politicians, journalists, and ultimately engage with news on a new level. For example, individuals were able to voice their dismay over the Flint Water Crisis, urging Governor Rick Snyder to step down (Weeks, “Political Participation and Expression on the Internet”). Also, the #MeToo movement has inspired women across the world to speak up and share their stories of sexual abuse. Furthermore, social media can be used to organize political efforts offline. One example of a time in which social media was successfully used to generate political participation was in Facebook’s Get out the Vote effort. According to Raine (2012), “Social media platforms have become a notable venue for people to try to convince their friends to vote. 30% of registered voters have been encouraged to vote for Democrat Barack Obama or Republican Mitt Romney by family and friends via posts on social media such as Facebook or Twitter.” Ultimately, the ideal citizen would utilize social media and the Internet to their advantage by engaging with politics via sharing, retweeting, liking and commenting on news stories. Not only would the ideal citizen engage with news online, but he or she would also use social media as a means to organize political participation offline. This can be done by sending out event invitations on Facebook, creating donation pages, or encouraging individuals to take part in rallies, protests, or canvassing efforts in various communities.

Overall, the Internet and social media provide ease and access to various aspects of citizenship that did not exist in the past. Despite the threats that technology poses to political engagement, citizens that take the initiative to gain awareness and understand how to best exercise their civic rights will benefit the most from the Internet Era. The Internet and social media provide citizens with access to more knowledge than ever before, new outlets for expression, quick and easy ways to join publics, and a variety of methods to take action. The ideal citizen will take advantage of technology, as it is likely that the presence of online politics will only increase in the years to come.

References

Bennett, W.L., Wells, C., & Freelon, D. (2011). Communicating civic engagement: Contrasting models of citizenship in youth web sphere. Journal of Communiation.

Gladwell, M. (2010, 4 October). Small change: Why the revolution will not be tweeted. The New Yorker.

Granville, K. (2018, March 19). Cambridge Analytica: What You Should Know as Fallout Widens. New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/19/technology/facebook-cambridge-analytica-explained.html

Pew Research Center. (2014, August 26). Social media and the ‘spiral of silence.’

Raine, L. (2012, November 6). Social Media and Voting. Pew Research Center. Retrieved from

http://www.pewinternet.org/2016/10/25/political-engagement-and-social-media/

Stroud, N.J. (2011). Niche news: the politics of news choice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Wardle, C. (2017). Fake news. It’s Complicated. First Draft.          

Weeks, B. Fake News, Misinformation, and Misperceptions. [PowerPoint Slides].

Weeks, B. Nature of Citizenship in the Internet Era. [PowerPoint Slides].

Weeks, B. Partisan Media and Selective Exposure. [PowerPoint Slides].

Weeks, B. Political Participation and Expression on the Internet. [PowerPoint Slides}.

Weeks, B. Spiral of Silence and Privacy Online. [PowerPoint Slides].

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Time’s Relentless Melt

Susan Sontag’s renowned essay On Photography raises a range of ethical concerns about the practice of photography. She critiques Diane Arbus’ photography series that features mentally and physically disabled subjects arguing that, “To take a photograph is to participate in another person’s (or thing’s) mortality, vulnerability, mutability. Precisely by slicing out this moment and freezing it, all photographs testify to time’s relentless melt” (10). Similar to Arbus’ controversial work, The Globe and Mail’s article featuring a special photography series on hospital patients serves as an uncommon instance in which disabled individuals are brought to the forefront of public discourse, thus plausibly prompting ethical judgments. Kevin Van Paassen, the photojournalist behind the hospital series, was granted exclusive access to emergency rooms, surgical suites, and specialized units at the Sunnybrook Health Sciences Center in Canada. The purpose of the photo series was to “understand the challenges facing hospitals across the country –and how [health care reforms] might fix them.” However, the series revealed more than just logistical hardships that hospitals face—it produced powerful images of dementia patients throughout their last moments of life, testifying to photography’s ability to stir viewers’ emotions. Yet in addition to conjuring an emotional sentiment, the images generate a general representation of the elderly as a vulnerable social group. Sontag asserts that photography plays a role in determining the focus of public attention claiming, “Photographs alter and enlarge our notions of what is worth looking at” (1). This logic raises questions about the content that saturates contemporary media and the motivation behind what is considered newsworthy. According to research conducted by Kim Vickers, the elderly are so widely underrepresented in the media that their presence is practically invisible. This points to a central issue: not only do the elderly experience tremendous underrepresentation in the media, but also when they do appear in media texts, they are represented as members of a helpless community.

This calls to question American culture’s neglect for old age and what it is that christens the elderly unworthy of media coverage. Van Paasen’s photography series defies media norms by shedding light on old age and illness; however, in doing so, the images simultaneously present a variety of morally problematic representations. Thus, the photography series serves as a text which I use to examine how images of dementia patients can yield ethical judgments regarding issues of viewership privilege, consent, and emotional sensitivity related to change, and further propose why this might contribute to the mass media’s evasion of old age and illness. Viewership privilege, consent, and emotional sensitivity  work together to construct an ethical controversy. Dementia patients’ personalities and abilities change as the disease progresses, which conjures emotional sensitivity from family members and friends. Often times, the patients do not have the mental capacity to consent to the documentation of their experiences, which further contributes to ethical conflict. Consequently, this calls into question who has the right to view or document patients during this stage of their life. Collectively, these ethical concerns contribute to an overarching theme that steers mass media away from old age and illness. Using critical discourse analysis, I aim to contextualize the lack of media attention shown to the elderly. Subsequently, using Sontag’s arguments as an ethical lens, I employ semiotic analysis to scrutinize Van Paassen’s images featuring dementia patients. Ultimately, I propose that in an attempt to avoid ethical issues of viewership privilege, consent, and emotional sensitivity related to change, the media tends to neglect old age and illness.

Literature Review:

In order to gain a comprehensive understanding of ethical problems that may encourage the media’s misconception or utter neglect of old age, it is necessary to draw on a variety of scholarly research. Chapter 1 of Practices of Looking explains that media representations function to symbolize aspects of the real world. However, Vickers points out the incongruent relationship between the portion of the population that the elderly comprise and the frequency with which they are represented in the media. According to Vickers, “Even though in the 90s Americans over 60 comprised nearly 17% of the population, they made up only 5.4% of all network primetime characters and only 4% of the casts in daytime serials.” A study at Cambridge University examined negative stereotypes of older people in 40 print advertisements and likewise, found that older people were under represented in the media. This study also shows that the images portrayed older people as less favorable than young people. Furthermore, the research revealed that the negative portrayal of the elderly in the media not only affects how older people feel about themselves, but also how young people feel about the prospect of growing old. In narrowing my research to fit the context of my textual analysis, I found that Alzheimer’s and Dementia patients similarly experience neglect and stereotyping in the media. Alzheimer’s disease has been identified as the main cause of dementia, and is a pervasive health issue in society. According to the American Psychological Association, “An estimated 40 million people, mostly older than 60 years, have dementia worldwide, and this figure is projected to double every 20 years.” In her research on Alzheimer’s Disease and Media Representations, Megan Johnstone identifies the use of Alzheimer’s in contemporary media as a negative connotation referencing, “the loss of identity, the loss of control, and the loss of dignity.” Professor Johnstone calls for a new mode of communication that will enable a constructive representation of old age and illness in the media. According to Alzheimer’s statistics, one in nine people over the age of sixty-five suffer from dementia. Thus, it is likely that most viewers of Van Paasen’s photography series have some type of relationship with someone suffering from dementia, or are at least familiar with the illness. Yet for being the sixth leading cause of death, there is a lack of research and funding directed towards curing Alzheimer’s Disease. It seems as if dementia has been overlooked in society, not only due to the lack of research surrounding it, but also in terms of the general underrepresentation of old age in the media. Ultimately, scholars agree that the elderly are underrepresented throughout the media, and furthermore, that old age is commonly represented in a negative stereotypical manner. Thus, in order to dissect ethical issues that may lead to such misconception and neglect, I analyzed Van Paassen’s hospitals series.

Analysis:

Van Paassen’s photography series poses issues of viewership privilege related to public exposure and audience interference. The “behind-the-scenes” perspective of Van Paasen’s hospital series highlights the intrusive nature of photography; therefore, it is possible that media outlets rarely provide the public with viewership privilege on this topic in order to preserve privacy of the personal domain. Chapter 6 of Practices of Looking asserts that, despite continual debate-the public can be defined as “a place of discourse which involves relation among strangers”-whereas the private sphere remains distinctly seperate  (243). However it seems as if respect for privacy was disregarded throughout the hospital series, as Van Paassen had to enter an intimate realm in order to capture many of his photographs, whether this meant dropping in on family interactions or witnessing a patient’s last breath. This invasion of privacy is depicted in images featuring Ted Ramsdale, age 91, who suffers from dementia, being visited by his wife Dorothy, age 90. The lounge furniture and hanging decor, are signifiers that the image was likely shot in Ted’s home unit at Sunnybrook. Furthermore, the photographs display visual signifiers of Ted’s dementia related behavior, such as the depiction of Ted staring into the distance with his eyes glazed over as his wife gives him kiss. His unfamiliar gaze combined with his unresponsive body language signifies a lack of intimacy in the interaction. By publicly exposing the personal moments shared between Ted and Dorothy, Van Paasen’s photography series could be interpreted as an ethical violation.  Sontag would likely argue, “What good was served by seeing [the images]? They were only photographs—of an event I had scarcely heard of and could do nothing to affect, of suffering I could hardly imagine and could do nothing to relieve” (15). Here, Sontag raises a relevant point about audience interaction—she emphasizes her role as a viewer and the lack of agency she has in response to observing images. Therefore, not only does Van Paassen’s series publicly expose an invasion of privacy, but it also positions viewers as participants in the midst of a controversial context.

Old age and illness tend to serve as indexical icons for imminent death; thus, by documenting this experience, the photographer is situated as an interfering onlooker in the midst of a highly personal circumstance. It is possible that the media attempts to avoid invasion in the emotional context of this often stressful, sad, or agonizing experience, contributing to the rarity of end-of-life documentation. Sontag condemns taking pictures of others’ personal experiences, claiming that the photographer places himself in a position of power, and chooses to interfere with, invade, or ignore whatever is going on. However, Parsons claims that the moral distinction depends on 
the intention or the relationship of the photographer to the subject (298). In the case of the hospital series, Van Paassen likely had no prior relationship to the individuals he photographed, and thus his unwarranted viewership privilege could be interpreted as an appropriation of their experience. Similar to her critique on Arbus, Sontag would likely argue that Van Paassen had no intention to intervene within the horrific experience of grief-ridden family members coping with the looming death of their loved ones. Rather, she would claim that he aims to colonize their experiences from the sidelines (33). In fact, Sontag might even argue that by documenting the experience of death, Van Paassen is enabling the continuation of sorrow as opposed to appeasing it in some way. She argues, “[the act of photography] is a way of encouraging whatever is going on to keep happening” (9). Ultimately, taking pictures of dementia patients stirs up ethical controversy by offering the public viewership privilege of a private realm while also situating viewers in positions of active participation in one of the most personal experiences—death. Perhaps media outlets are hesitant to feature old age and illness for fear of coming in contact with these concerns related to viewership privilege. Not only does photography involve participation from the photographers and viewers, but it also raises questions about receiving consent from the subject.

Patient Donald Parr is comforted his sons Bob Parr, centre, and Steve Parr while the family gathered for a Christmas Day celebrations at Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre in Toronto, Ontario Toronto, Ontario, Wednesday December 25, 2013. It would be Parr’s last Christmas with his family. (Kevin Van Paassen/The Globe and Mail)

Patient Donald Parr is seen in the palliative care centre at Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre in Toronto, Ontario Toronto, Ontario, Wednesday December 25, 2013. (Kevin Van Paassen/The Globe and Mail)

Since dementia is associated with a loss of memory, it is possible that media outlets avoid coverage of old age and illness due to an inability to receive consent to photograph the affected subjects. Van Paassen’s series showcases images in which Kevin, a patient in palliative care, celebrates the holidays for the last time with his sons. In the first image above, Kevin displays a distressed expression, and avoids making eye contact with his family members by staring blankly at the ground. Similarly in the second image, his distraught expression and failure to make eye contact with his son signify a mental disconnect that likely stems from dementia-related symptoms. The images could be interpreted as exploiting Kevin’s disabled state, as Sontag argues “To photograph people is to violate them, by seeing them as they never see themselves, by having knowledge of them they can never have” (10). Therefore Van Paassen’s images could be interpreted as unethical, given that often times the elderly, especially those with dementia, do not always have the mental capacity to give their consent. Furthermore, the lack of consent poses ethical concerns regarding the subject’s inability to approve the unpredictable manner in which the photographer might compose an image. Sontag claims that photographers unconsciously manipulate reality based on personal aesthetic preferences. She claims that the camera “may presume, intrude, trespass, distort, [or] exploit” the manner in which a situation unfolds in reality (10). Not only does the photographer have the ability to frame the subject in a particular way, but also the mere act of taking a picture objectifies a moment in time simply by producing a physical artifact that one can keep and look at again (13). Thus, Sontag would argue that Van Paassen’s images provide the viewer with an unwarranted ability to possess someone else’s experiences. While the subject may be unaware of such exploitation, family members and friends can become particularly sensitive when faced with documentation depicting the deterioration of their loved ones.

Dorothy Ramsdale, 90, visits her husband Ted, 91, in his room at the Dorothy Macham Home at Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre in Toronto, Ontario, Tuesday January 14, 2014. The Dorothy Macham Home is a state-of-the-art facility for veterans with challenging behaviours related to dementia. All residents admitted to the home suffer from moderate to severe dementia. (Kevin Van Paassen/The Globe and Mail)

Visual depictions of old age and illness have the ability to conjure emotional sensitivity among viewers, as a result of acknowledging the changes that take place in the aging process. According to the Alzheimer’s Association, “dementia patients can experience fluctuating personality changes, becoming extremely confused, suspicious, fearful or dependent on a family member”. In the photo above, Dorothy leans over, tucking a napkin into Ted’s shirt to serve as a bib. While the visual denotation is simply a wife helping her husband with his napkin, the connotation of the image reveals that Ted may have lost his motor skills and independence, and is no longer able to recognize and respond to his wife in a way that he once could. This represents a change in the family dynamic that conjures pathos, and might surface feelings of grief and heartache for many viewers. Sontag asserts that photography naturally accompanies family life. She claims, “Through photographs, each family constructs a portrait-chronicle of itself — a portable kit of images that bears witness to its connectedness” (5). Moreover, she argues that a lack of photographic evidence of a child’s upbringing is seen as a sign of parental indifference. However, this leads me to question the underrepresentation of the elderly in media, particularly those suffering from dementia. Does this imply indifference towards the elderly? Why is it that childhood & adolescence are excessively photographed but yet we lose the motivation to document the final chapters of life? Perhaps the answer lies in that by photographing a subject, we are inherently acknowledging and memorializing it. Sontag claims that the camera serves as a device that affirms the reality of what one is experiencing. Perhaps old age and illness are neglected in the media as a way to avoid coming to terms with the emotions that accompany the process of aging. According to Psychology Today, the reality of growing old is hard to swallow in the midst of our contemporary, youth-obsessed culture. Dynamic changes, such as that in Ted and Dorothy’s marriage, relate to Sontag’s idea that breaking with the past can be particularly traumatic. She claims, “A beautiful subject can be the object of rueful feelings, because it has aged or decayed or no longer exists” (11). However, the media’s denial of old age only heightens the emotional impact that images such as Van Paassen’s have on viewers. As opposed to embracing the emotions that accompany coming to terms with growing old, the mass media seems to rely on saturating magazines, billboards, television and the Internet with promises of eternal youth and beauty. While the selfless nature of Dorothy’s assistance to her husband is a beautiful act, it is possible that this depiction simultaneously summons emotional anguish due to the visual connotation that her relationship with Ted as it was before dementia no longer exists. Thus, Viewers might feel that the depiction of this experience is too upsetting, which likely contributes to the media’s evasion of old age and illness.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the media’s skewed portrayal of the elderly contributes to an overarching ethical controversy encompassing issues of viewership privilege, consent, and emotional sensitivity related to change. Relying on inaccurate, media-rendered stereotypes can be problematic, as these depictions play an essential role in establishing how we view and interact with one another. Research has distinguished negative stereotyping of older individuals as a pervasive issue in society that yields realistic implications. Furthermore, research shows that the mass media are a potent source of socialization that shape outlooks, especially those of young people, toward the elderly. Thus, it is possible that the failure to recognize old age and illness in the media contributes to the correlating lack of attention that the elderly receive in the real world. Social isolation has been recognized as a rising problem for seniors, indicating that this issue might stem from the media’s failure to accurately represent old age.

Despite Sontag’s ethical arguments regarding photography, I can attest to the fact that I was moved by Van Paassen’s hospital series and feel that it could be beneficial to increase the presence of the elderly in the media to raise awareness for Alzheimer’s Disease and dementia. As Parsons notes, Sontag herself claimed, “ ‘only that which narrates can make us understand’…[highlighting] a logical discrepancy in [her own] essay” (290). This is not to say that the media should consistently portray the elderly as victims of social isolation and illness, but rather that this population’s stories—whether beautiful or painful—deserve to be shared.

References

Archer, D. (2013). Forever Young: America’s Obsession With Never Growing Old. Psychology Today.

Johnstone, M. (2013). Media Representations, Metaphors, and the Stigmatization of Alzheimer’s Disease. Routledge.

Laputz, S. (2016). Personality Changes in Dementia. Alzheimer’s Association.

Paassen, V. (2014, February). The Big Picture: The Best of The Hospital Series. Retrieved from http://www.theglobeandmail.com/life/health-and-fitness/health/the-hospital/the-big-picture-the-best-of-the-hospital-series/article17033901/

Parsons, S. (2015). Sontag’s Lament: Emotion, Ethics, and Photography. Photography and Culture.

Robinson, T., Gustafson, B., & Popovich, M. (2008). Perceptions of Negative Stereotypes of Older People in Magazine Advertisements: Comparing the Perceptions of Older Adults and College Students. Cambridge Core.

Scheltens, P., Blennow, K., Breteler, M. M. B., de Strooper, B., Frisoni, G. B., Salloway, S., & Van, d. F. (2016). Alzheimer’s disease.

Sontag, S. (1977). On Photography. Peguin Books Ltd.

Sturken, M. & Cartwright, L. (2009). Practices of Looking: An Introduction to Visual Culture. Second Edition.

Vasil, L., & Wass, H. (2009, July). Portrayal of the Elderly in the Media: A Literature Review and Implications for Educational Gerontologists. Educational Gerontology.

Vickers, K. (2007). Aging and the Media: Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow. Californian Journal of Health Promotion 2007.

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Evaluating News Content and Biases

It is undeniable that in a society so dependent on media as a means of seeking communication and information, the press plays a dynamic role in constructing the public opinion on current affairs.  News reports have become accessible with just a click of a button, but this leaves the lingering question of whether information this readily available can actually be considered reliable. When critically reviewed, it is clear that public information is susceptible to certain biases that re-frame news content and shape the communal outlook on news stories. As identified by Bennett (2012), three biases in the news are personalization, dramatization, and authority-disorder bias. Each of these biases has a unique way of swaying the public view of news content to attain a desired reaction or to shift attention to a specific focal point. As a result of personalization, dramatization, and authority disorder bias, trending concerns and selective scenarios often take precedence over pervasive political, social, and economic issues in the news.

 The personalization bias is defined by a focus on details that are specific to the private life of certain persons in a news story, while emotional or humanitarian angles are used to influence the public opinion (Bennett, 2012). Consequently, the large-scale, universal problems relating to social or political issues tend to take a backseat in significance. Bennett (2012) states, “Whether the focus is on sympathetic heroes and victims or hateful scoundrels and culprits, the media preference for personalized human interest creates a ‘can’t-see-the-forest-for-the-trees’ information bias that makes it difficult to see the big (institutional) picture…” (p. 41). This exact notion is evident in stories such as the news article, “Surviving the ‘Murdered Child’s Club’.” This article tells the story of Dan and Gil Harrington’s struggle with the loss of their daughter, Morgan, who was murdered in the fall of 2009 (Hardie, 2014). Instead of focusing on the broader context and persistent social problems of kidnapping and homicide, the article falls subject to the personalization bias, emphasizing the family’s emotional strife and personal tragedy. For example, the article discusses Gil seeking solace by using her daughter’s hand lotion as she states, “I like to use it because Morgan’s hands touched it, but it’s almost done. The stuff of Morgan, and the things that ran through her hands, are fewer and fewer in our lives. The ones that are there we like a lot. We find comfort in them” (Hardie, 2014, p. 3).This passage is dominated by a focus on Gil and her individual pursuit of consolation, thus giving preference to the emotional and private details of the situation

In exchange for these personal details, a scope of the big picture (attentiveness to the institutional problem of murder itself) is sacrificed. Because personalization puts emphasis on individual emotions and judgments, this allows for an entire audience to be influenced by any error or personal opinion presented by the subject in a news story. Hinsz et al. (2008) elaborates on this idea stating, “Research has found that, if a bias or error is prevalent in individual judgment, group judgments are influenced to an even greater extent by that bias or error. If this pattern arises, then group interaction may also serve to enhance the biases and errors that exist among individuals, and result in decisions that reflect a greater, rather than lesser, degree of bias” (p. 117).This research supports the idea that the individualistic aspect of personalization can contribute to distorting public reception of information to a significant extent. In turn, it is this distortion that shifts public attention from the core matter of news content to the selective personal affairs presented in a story.

Similar to the personalization bias, the dramatization bias alters the public view of news content by shifting the focus of a story away from extensive global issues, and instead concentrating coverage on conflict or excitement (Bennett, 2012). Dramatization captivates the public audience by turning a news story into an overly exaggerated, fiction-like scenario, while downplaying the more serious root issues (Bennett, 2012). By highlighting dramatic or disputed aspects in the news, the stories appeal to the public in a light of entertainment or scandal. A primary example of this bias can be found in the recently aired Washington Post video titled “Obama’s ‘latte salute’ controversy spins into second day.” The video depicts the president stepping off an airplane with a coffee cup in his right hand, which remains in place as he half-heartedly salutes the military officers stationed to greet him (Lamothe, 2014). While some critics feel that Obama’s slip up displays a spectacle of utter disrespect and unprofessionalism, others argue that the man is only human and the substandard salute was a minor mistake for someone dealing with some of the most important conflicts in the world (Lamothe, 2014). Regardless of whether Obama’s sloppy gesture holds a serious degree of significance, one thing is for sure; news coverage of the incident was dramatized. Bennett (2012) states, “One of the things that makes the news dramatic- indeed, that may even drive news drama- is the use of visuals: photos, graphics, and live-action video. These elements of stories not only make the distant world seem more real, they make the news more believable” (p.42). The fragmented video clip posted by the Washington Post certainly seems to utilize this dramatic visual effect. Instead of commentating on principal concerns such as where President Obama had been traveling, the purpose of his travels, or the outcome of his pursuit, the newscast simply highlighted one easily manipulated aspect of controversy (the salute). Thus, the dramatization bias was utilized to stimulate public attention towards the President, as is often the case when targeting authoritative figures.

In the same way as personalization and dramatization, the authority-disorder bias skews substance in the news to favor a specific perspective. However, in this case the attention is neither on personal details nor dramatic displays, but rather on authority and the ways in which superior force can reestablish stability in the midst of disarray (Bennett, 2012). Often times as a result of this bias, the fundamental social, political, or economic issues lose impact in the context of the report. Recently NBC news released a video clip titled, “Obama Sends Aide to Texas to Help With Ebola Response.” Instead of an in depth report on the initial problem itself (the Ebola crisis), the video makes its key focus the authority that has been designated to restore order to the emergency. While the public learns that three officials have been appointed to direct the response to Ebola in Dallas, detailed coverage regarding updates on the crisis on worldwide scale, as well as an extensive review of informative facts about the disease are left out (NBC, 2014). Bennett (2012) explains, “Whether the world is returned to a safe, normal place, or whether the very idea of a normal world is called into question, the news is preoccupied with order, along with related questions of whether authorities are capable of establishing or restoring it.” It is this preoccupation that fosters the advancement of biases that place precedence on narrowed perspectives over long term universal problems.

In summary, although technology today provides the public with easy access to international news at any given moment, it is necessary to be weary of biases that can warp the content of broadcasted media. Through priority coverage on individual human-interest angles, exaggeration directed towards action-filled controversy, or concentration on power structures reinstating order, news stories tend to zero in on selective perspectives (Bennett, 2012). With public reliance on information distorted by these biases, many potential implications exist. For example, a person may feel more or less inclined to vote for a certain political candidate as a result of a biased news report. Consequently, this could affect the outcome of an election. In addition, with informational biases concentrating news attention on trendy stories rather than pervasive issues such as political oppression or resource depletion, these problems may be viewed as too mainstream or not exciting enough to be deemed “news worthy.” Thus, these problems may fall by the wayside, failing to receive adequate consideration and responsiveness from the public.

To improve the quality of news reporting, news publishers must be conscious and sensitive to biases that may exist in the stories  presented to them, and subsequently they must do everything in their power to eradicate all angles potentially tainted by error or opinion. Hinsz et al. (2008) suggested that one way to reduce the impact of information-processing biases and errors is “to ensure that important decisions are made in group settings. Inherent in these suggestions…is the general belief that group interaction involves certain processes (e.g., error correction, moderation of extreme viewpoints, or increased creativity; cf., Hastie, 1986) that result in better decisions relative to individuals” (p. 117). If strategies such as Hinsz’ group interaction approach are utilized to eliminate the presence of personalization, dramatization, or authority disorder bias in the news, it is possible that the public may begin to attain a well-rounded, impartial representation of current events taking place in the world.

References

Bennett, W. L. (2012). News content: Four information biases that matter. In News: The Politics of Illusion (pp. 32-72). New York: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.

Hardie, Ann. (October 17, 2014). Surviving the 'Murdered Child's Club.' Retrieved Novemeber 3, 2014 from http://www.cnn.com/2014/10/17/us/virginia-girl-anniversary-harrington-death/index.html?hpt=ju_c1.

Hinsz, Verlin B., Tindale, Scott R., Nagao, Dennis H. (January 2008). Accentuation of information processes and biases in group judgments integrating base-rate and case-specific information. In: Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, Volume 44, Issue 1 (pp.116-126).  Retrieved November 3, 2014 from http://www.sciencedirect.com.proxy.lib.umich.edu/science/article/pii/S0022103107000443

Lamothe, Dan. (September 24, 2014). Obama’s ‘latte salute’ controversy spins into second day.

Retrieved November 3, 2014 from http://www.washingtonpost.com/news/checkpoint/wp/2014/09/24/obamas-latte-salute-controversy-spins-into-second-day/.

NBC News. (October 17, 2014). Obama Sends Aide to Texas to Help with Ebola Response. Retrieved November 3, 2014 from http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/ebola-virus-outbreak/obama-sends-aide-texas-help-ebola-response-n228676.

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Intergroup Dialogue: White Racial Identity

Social Identity:

Before enrolling in intergroup dialogue, I had a shallow understanding of my white racial identity. For the most part, the time I spent reflecting on my race was limited to checking a box on standardized tests, medical forms, and job applications. I identify as a white female. More specifically, I consider myself Caucasian, which I understand as a classification that is synonymous with white. In terms of ethnicity, I know that my ancestors come from a range of European countries such as Belgium, Germany, and Scotland, but I do not strongly identify with any of these nationalities. My parents and grandparents all come from Michigan, which is as far back in my genealogy that I know off hand. Therefore, I consider myself American. However, prior to taking this course, the concepts of race and ethnicity were not salient in my daily life. I grew up in a predominantly white neighborhood, went to a predominantly white, all-girls high school, and I now attend a predominantly white university. Up until this point in my life I have had the privilege of ignoring race all together. The deceit of colorblindness—that we should not dwell on race, but rather see people for “who they are” instead of the color of their skin—served as an excuse that allowed me to obliviously go about my daily life without seeking out perspective on modern-day racism.

I have always been passionate about social justice, and I decided to take this course as a response to the lack of diversity in my life. Over the years, I’ve felt that I have been missing out on perspectives from people of different races, genders, religions, and socioeconomic statuses. I figured that this course could offer me experiences and insight that I may have missed out on in the past. However, upon being placed in the White Racial Identity Dialogue, I was doubtful that I would gain new perspectives among a class of all white students. As the course comes to a close, I realize I could not be more mistaken. I have learned how important it is to acknowledge whiteness and explore what it means to be white in contemporary society, just as it is equally important to acknowledge being black, Hispanic, Asian, or any other race.

The insight that I have gained on the topic of white privilege has changed the way I perceive my daily life. At the beginning of the semester, I participated in an activity that visualized the institutionalized oppression that operates in society today. Each student held a note card that was connected with string, forming a giant web: The Web of Oppression. One by one, we read the notecards, which contained examples of cultural and institutional oppressions that minorities experience. I had never thought twice about many of the facts on the notecards, given that as a white person, they never put me at a disadvantage. I learned that I live in a country that caters to my race in every aspect. For example, school systems teach white history. Whites created the ground rules for what is considered standard, acceptable grammar and dialect. Children’s books, films, and the media are dominated with white heroes and role models. Whites are more likely to forego typecasts, whereas Asians might actively experience subjection to common stereotypes in which they are picked first for study groups because they are “good at math” but are picked last during sports. Similarly, Black students might experience subjection to common stereotypes that place them in the butt of jokes about which foods they like or what their profession will be, whereas whites get to decide these things on their own. The list continues. After we read the notecards, we reflected on the activity. We discussed how as whites, we were the ones upholding the web. Even if a few students dropped their cards, the web was still intact, held up by the other students’ notecards.

Not only was this activity a white privilege wake-up call, but it was also a lesson on the idea that no hierarchy of oppressions exists. The activity demonstrated that pouring resources into fixing one problem does not eradicate the entire web of deep-seated oppression. Audre Lorde (1996), a self-proclaimed “black feminist lesbian warrior”, warns of the danger in prioritizing forms of oppression declaring, “I know I cannot afford the luxury of fighting one form of oppression only. I cannot afford to believe that freedom from intolerance is the right of only one particular group.”  With people of multiple identities experiencing disadvantages on various levels, I wondered how we could possibly address solutions to such widespread oppression—an issue I am continuously exploring. This activity shook me awake; I realized that as an in-group member of white racial identity, I experience unprecedented racial privilege in multiple spheres of my life. White privilege is ingrained in society.

Moreover, this insight has increased my awareness of the active role white privilege plays my life. Zúñiga et al. (2007) point out that, “in the process of developing awareness at multiple levels, participants become clearer and more reflective about the meaning of their social identities and their groups’ relationship with other groups.” I noticed this take effect in my own life as I began to analyze my daily interactions with whites versus my interactions with people of color. I realized how often primarily white faces surround me on campus—in my classes, at the library, at coffee shops—and how few times I find myself in situations that position me as a minority. McIntosh (1992) describes the effect of white privilege stating, “In proportion as my racial group was being made confident, comfortable, and oblivious, other groups were likely being made unconfident, uncomfortable and alienated. Whiteness protected me from many kinds of hostility, distress, and violence.” McIntosh’s idea that whiteness serves as a shield of protection is exemplified in my life by the fact that I was unaware of the racist flyers posted around campus earlier this fall until the topic was brought up in dialogue. While black students walked to class feeling afraid and unsafe, I was shielded from such distress due to the color of my skin. Even after learning about colorblindness in class, I did not truly realize the extent to which I held colorblind beliefs until putting it in the perspective of a movement that is taking place here on campus. In Halstead’s (2016) article, he explains that racism has taken a more subtle form in the present-day. We often participate in racism by omission, even by failing to see where it exists (Halstead, 2016). The fact that white people like myself are privileged enough to claim ignorance on issues that are so deeply affecting black students that attend this very university speaks to the extent of the racist campus climate.

Similarly, I became attuned to how often whiteness grants me access to comfortable situations. Johnson’s (2007) idea of the “luxury of obliviousness” or “the ease of not being aware of privilege” resonated with me as I read about examples of basic human rights that all people deserve. According to Johnson (2007), these are things such as feeling protected in public, feeling a notion of belonging, and feeling comfortable contributing in the work place—all sentiments that I have been accustomed to my entire life. McIntosh (1992) would argue that white people are actively taught not to see these privileges. Yet in the midst of dialogue, the more I have been forced to think about the comfortable access I’ve had to safety, inclusiveness, and authority, the more I have been actively noticing whiteness protect me from distress in my everyday life. For example, the University of Michigan is a predominantly white school, placing me in a “privileged” group because of the color of my skin. Generally in my classes, I never consider my race in relation to my likelihood to participate in a discussion or lecture, unless in the context of a racially charged conversation. Yet now, I have begun to take note of the ease and regularity I feel in the midst of small everyday instances such as raising my hand to speak in a class. I’ve come to realize that not everyone feels safe and confident in sharing his or her views, and it is an unearned privilege that I’ve taken for granted up until enrolling in this course. If I imagine myself as the only white face in a classroom, I realize that this environment would likely suppress my comfort and willingness to speak up. Eventually, I began to apply this insight to analyze identities in my life other than just race, noticing how my levels of comfort shift throughout various environments.

Not only has Intergroup Dialogue taught me about my white racial identity, but it has also shed light on the way that intersectional identities contribute to our experiences with privilege in society. This was best exemplified when we played a board game in which each participant took on the identities of a specific character. I drew the card of a Black female character with citizenship in the U.K. My character was able-bodied, part of the middle class, and identified as bisexual. Each player would roll the dice and then read a card that posed a real-life situation. The card would require players to move forward or backwards on the board based on how the situation advantaged or disadvantaged members of certain identities. My character came in dead last place, as she was continuously disadvantaged in social, political, and economic situations as result of her sexuality, gender, income, and race. I found myself comparing my intersectional identities to the situations on the playing cards, and I began to understand how being straight and white often times places me at an advantage while, on the other hand, being a woman sometimes places me at a disadvantage. It was fascinating to see how each character progressed throughout the game in relation to their varying identities. Straight white males came in first place in each group, followed by males containing alternative identities, and white females. The exercise highlighted how not one identity outplays the others, but rather each identity interacts on various levels to create situations of privilege versus disadvantage.

At the beginning of the course, I was doubtful about the amount of diversity an all white group could offer, but as the class progressed I began to realize how each participant is unique based on different identities relating to gender, religion, sexuality, ability, family-life, upbringing, and regional roots. In my opinion, some of the most meaningful moments of dialogue took place when students admitted to sharing a personal experience they had never discussed with anyone else. This speaks to the extent that the experiences students share have affected them, and displays the trust they put in the confines of our dialogue. Information about the intersection between family relationships, sexual orientation, mental health, physical health, childhood, and schooling all in relation to white racial identity changed my perspective on the students around me. However this information did not lead me to judge my peers, but rather the opposite. I felt as if I had subconsciously judged the other students prior to getting know them, but after hearing everyone’s experiences unfold I had to back track and erase the preconceived notions I had initially developed.

Group Interaction and Communication:

Since beginning my experience in Intergroup Dialogue, I have tremendously improved my communication and group interaction skills. Not only have I had the opportunity to practice speaking up and sharing my personal life experiences with a group people, but I have also benefited from actively listening to my peers while exercising the LARA/I method of communication. The principles of dialogue have allowed me to harness my communication skills to effectively bridge differences and seek to understand others. Before taking this class, I would often find myself so wrapped up in my own opinions that I could not focus on hearing another side of the story. However, this course has challenged me to practice actively understanding where others’ insight comes from, which in turn has helped me develop a well-rounded, open mind. The idea that experiences are personal and therefore they cannot be deemed “right” or “wrong” is a concept that has changed the way I communicate. I now consider how others’ identities shape their experiences, which is ultimately reflected in their opinions. I have become more thoughtful in formulating my own opinions, and I’ve learned that I now prefer to be informed on both sides of a story before I speak up on an issue.

Working in ICP groups taught me how to effectively collaborate with my peers while remaining organized and on top of our assignments. We were required to assign roles to each group member throughout the course of the project, whether these roles pertained to facilitating our out-of-class discussion, completing sections of our write-ups, or researching specific target areas of our topic. Choosing the topic for our project required that we work through varying opinions in order to come to an agreement. We organized logistical details by choosing times and locations to host our out of class meetings, as well as preparing what to discuss, write, and research. Luckily, my group got along well and experienced minimal setbacks. The more we worked together outside (and inside) of class, the more trust we built within our group. We were able to rely on one another to complete an assigned portion of the project, or to show up on time and ready to work outside of class. The IC Project gave me experience actively practicing communication and group interaction skills outside of the classroom, which inspired me to further implement my abilities in everyday social settings.

Exploring Differences and Disagreements:

While the principles of dialogue encourage pro-social communication, they also provide strategies for effectively engaging in hot button conversations. During one class, our dialogue began to turn into a debate about whether or not taking a knee during the National Anthem to show support for the Black Lives Matter Movement is appropriate or not. Some students felt that taking a knee during the National Anthem was disrespectful to war veterans and Americans in general, while other students felt that the public display was necessary in order to make a statement. At times, the opposing viewpoints made me feel as if I was engaging in an argument rather than a dialogue. In the midst of back-and-forth banter, it was difficult not to become defensive of my perspective and frustrated with others for not understanding my point of view. However, I was able to diffuse frustration by relying on the “empathy question” referred to by McCormick (1999): “How would I feel right now if I were the other person?” Reflecting on this allowed me to be more open to others emotions, remembering that the whole purpose of dialogue is to understand different perspectives. Furthermore, I realized that I struggle with confrontation and am not usually one to pick a fight, so I tend to quiet down when someone voices a conflicting perspective. I’ve learned a solution to this can be taking a step back to collect my thoughts, which allows me to more confidently articulate my point and remain in the conversation as opposed to quieting down.

From this “debate,” I learned how important it is to leave some time before jumping into the next point. I did not feel that I contributed significantly throughout the dialogue because I could barely get a word in. Pausing before responding leaves time to reflect on what you want to say or what has already been said. It is a time to make sense of the other person’s perspective, and to rephrase what to say so as to speak from experience. Still, there were times when someone spoke out to oppose my viewpoints in which I began to feel my hot buttons being pushed. However, this did not last long. I was able to pause and remember that everyone’s perspective is unique and pertains to their identities and upbringing. Remembering this always helps me calm down and focus on the purpose of dialogue: to be enlightened by different perspectives.

Challenges and Rewards:

Reflecting on the course of the dialogue, I recognize the many challenges and rewards that accompany the learning process. Yankelovich (2001) explains the magic of dialogue and explains that, “constant readiness is the key to success” because,  “you never know when an opportunity for spontaneous dialogue may arise.” He insists that we must feel comfortable applying principles of dialogue in the midst of casual encounters by “treating the other as an equal in every respect, being willing and able to listen empathetically; and being willing and able to bring your assumptions and those of other participants into the open without becoming judgmental (Yankelovich, 2001). While this may be challenging, our relationships will transform and our minds will become more open as a reward.

I remembered to practice Yankelovich’s tips over Thanksgiving, and as a result, my family was impressed with my ability to maturely participate in discussions about relevant social and political issues. However, I found myself feeling judgmental as I internally took note of all the times that my relatives were not practicing principles of effective dialogue during sensitive conversations. In times like this, I experience moments of fear that I will become angry and lose sight of the skills I have acquired in dialogue. Despite that it is not always easy, I hope that in the future I consciously continue to practice active listening and empathetic perspective taking. I hope that I continue to feel confident and comfortable speaking up when I am faced with a politically sensitive topic. Furthermore, I hope that I can share what I have learned with others and inspire them to become more aware of their privilege. Most importantly, I hope to engage others and myself in taking action to improve society as a response to the modern racism that we have learned about throughout the semester. I have already begun to see a change in the way I interact with others, and I look forward to applying the principles of dialogue throughout my future relationships.

Future Implications:

In a time of such rapid change and astonishing controversy, I feel that I could not have been luckier to participate in Intergroup Dialogue. Going forward, dialogue will stay active in my life as I practice serving as an ally to the marginalized. This entails taking action—however Park (2013), emphasizes how “white anti-racists often fall into the trap of viewing change through activist work rather than as organizers, as teachers, and as members of communities of  ‘ceaseless agitation’ and change.” I will reflect on the times that false assumptions have been made about my own identity, and I will challenge members of my communities to analyze their identities as well (Gordon, 2014). Park’s (2013) argument outlines the idea that white anti-racists tend to take action for the wrong reasons—for self-interest, aspiring altruism, praise, and celebration of ourselves as “good white folks.” It is crucial to keep this in mind and to move away from talking and towards listening. Being an ally for social justice, I will work with those who are oppressed not just for them. I will enable the marginalized to become leaders by actively contributing to their visions as a participant in student organizations here on campus. I will avoid giving advice but rather take on a learning role, and I will be receptive to critical feedback (Gordon, 2014).

One of the topics we discussed that struck a chord in me was the Being Black at the University of Michigan (BBUM) movement here on campus. I am ashamed that I did not know about BBUM until we talked about it in class, but I now realize that as Friedman (2016) argues, it is time to be more than just ashamed. I found Friedman’s article particularly eye-opening, perhaps because I identify as a liberal leaning white person—the identity she specifically addresses. I resonated with feeling uncertain about how my help as a white person might be received by black protest organizers. Friedman’s (2016) writing kept my feelings in check and gave me a new perspective arguing, “Some low-level alienation at a Black Lives Matter event is nothing compared to a lifetime of being relegated to outsider status by the systems that run this country.”  This article helped me realize that just because I am liberal and believe in social justice, this does not exempt me from feeling uncomfortable in the act of contributing to protests, and these feelings are what restrain me and so many others from actually taking action to make a change.

Ultimately, I can conclude that learning about the BBUM campaign in the context of dialogue will have a lasting impact on me as it has opened my eyes to racism on this campus that I had never truly internalized. If you had asked me how I felt about the racial tension on campus before exploring this topic in dialogue, I probably would have acknowledged that it exists and that I truly believe it is immoral, but then concede by claiming that I don’t know how to fix it or what I could do to help. I now understand that if I actually want to eradicate racism in this nation it takes more than feeling ashamed and uncertain, and it takes more than simply keeping up with news and staying informed. I feel that I have a role to play in improving the campus climate here at U of M, and that role entails taking action to collaborate with people of different races instead of just feeling sorry for them, feeling guilty on my own behalf, or not paying mind to issues of race at all. 

References

Friedman, A. (2016, August, 3). It’s Time to Get Over Your White Feelings and Start Taking Action for Black Lives.

Gordon, N. (2014). A Message to Aspiring Allies.

Halstead, J. (2016, July 28). The Real Reason White People Say 'All Lives Matter'

Johnson, A. (2007). Chapter 2: Privilege, Oppression, and Difference. The Forrest And The Trees: Sociology as Life, Practice, and Promise.

Lorde, A. (1996). There is No Hierarchy of Oppressions.

McCormick, D.W. (1999). Listening With Empathy.

McIntosh, P. (1992). WHITE PRIVILEGE AND MALE PRIVILEGE: A Personal Account of Coming to See Correspondences Through Work in Women's Studies. Race, Class, and Gender: An Anthology.

Park, Suey. (2013). Challenging Racism and Problems With White Allies.

Yankelovich, D. (2001). Transforming Casual Encounters Through Dialogue.

Zúñiga, X., et al. (2007). Educational Goals of Intergroup Dialogue.

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Multi-Tasking & The Effects of Technology on Academics

INTRODUCTION

In this endlessly advancing era dubbed the “Age of Information,” technology has become a primary means of seeking communication and knowledge. Technological advances have allowed for a widespread increase in efficiency and productivity around the world; however, society’s growing reliance on digital media also presents a broad range of potential implications. Excessive digital exposure can obstruct interpersonal connections and pose significant distractions in particular settings. The present study attempts to address the phenomenon of college students’ ability to learn in the midst of digital based distraction. The study examines elements of social media, technology, and study habits as a way to draw conclusions about the effects that electronic devices have on college students’ academic success. From a critical standpoint, it is necessary to understand and control the potential negative impacts of digital based distraction, so that technology is utilized to advance knowledge and efficiency rather than hinder it. Students of today are the world leaders of tomorrow; therefore, technology should be manipulated to ensure that students get the most out of their education.

PREVIOUS ACADEMIC RESEARCH

Eileen Wood’s research study, “Examining the impact of off-task multi-tasking with technology on real-time classroom learning,” aims to “examine the effects of multi-tasking with digital technologies while attempting to learn from real-time classroom lectures in a university setting (2012).” In a series of three lectures, Wood et. al compared 4 digitally based electronic multi-tasking activities (such as using Facebook or a cellphone) to 3 control groups (paper-and-pencil note-taking, word-processing note-taking and a natural use of technology condition.) After analyzing their data, the team found that “participants who did not use any technologies in the lectures outperformed students who used some form of technology (Wood, 2012).” Wood’s findings are consistent with the cognitive bottleneck theory of attention, which states that, “interference arises from a constraint in decision-making (2012).” In conclusion, the study provides evidence that engaging digital technologies for off-task activities during lecture can have a detrimental impact on learning.

INDEPENDENT, DEPENDENT, AND THIRD VARIABLES

In the present study, frequency of electronic device usage has been designated as the independent variable, which allows for observation regarding varying amounts of digital exposure. GPA has been designated as the dependent variable, which yields a measurable indication of students’ academic success. Level of social media distraction has been designated as the third variable, which serves as a moderator to the expected relationship.

HYPOTHESIS

H1: The more often students use electronic devices while studying, the lower students’ GPA will be. This relationship will be stronger for students who are exposed to a higher level of social media distraction.

METHODS AND RESEARCH DESIGN

OPERATIONALIZATION

The independent variable, frequency of electronic device usage, was operationalized in question 131 on the survey, which asks, “When studying, how often are you also using an electronic device [ex: listening to music, using your computer (not for studying), etc.?” The question was assigned eight attributes ranging from “Never” to “Always” including labeled intermediate options as well. However, these response options were designed poorly. The choices “sometimes” and “never” both appeared twice within the response options, creating a long and unnecessary list of repetitive selections. The dependent variable, GPA, was operationalized in question 106 on the survey, which asks, “What is your college GPA?” The question was assigned eight attributes ranging from “less than 1.0” to “3.5-4.0,” also including labeled intermediate options. This question has strong face validity, yet could have yielded more accurate data by allowing students to freely record their GPA instead of offering grouped interval response options. The third variable, level of social media distraction, was operationalized using three indicators drawn from the survey. Question 75 assessed “hours of social media usage per day” asking, “How many hours per day do you spend on social media sites?” and was assigned five attributes ranging from “none” to “more than 4 hours.” This question succeeds in offering an explicit time range—hours per day—but if this specific time constraint had not been included, the question would have lacked sufficient clarification. Question 130 assessed “number of electronic devices” asking, “ If you multitask with an electronic device while studying, how many usually do you use at the same time?” and offered five attributes ranging from “none” to “more than 4 devices.”  Lastly, question 127 assessed “number of social media sites” and asked, “How many different social media sites do you use?” and was assigned eight attributes ranging from “none” to “more than 6.” All of the above indicators offered labeled intermediate response options as well.

EXPECTED OBSERVATION

If the proposed hypothesis is indeed true, the independent variable will have a negative relationship with the dependent variable; the more often a student uses electronic devices while studying, the lower that student’s GPA will be. Likewise, the higher level of social media distraction a student is exposed to, the lower that student’s GPA will likely be.

DATA SOURCE

Each COMM 121 student designed two survey questions that were compiled into a questionnaire style survey. Each student was then instructed to complete this survey online, which provided the data for the study. The final sample was composed of 152 cases. Non-probability convenience sampling was employed, as the COMM 121 enrollment list served as a sampling frame. While convenience sampling may be one of the least expensive survey methods, there is no sense of how this sample (featuring only COMM 121 students) relates to the entire population: in this case, the entire University of Michigan student body. Furthermore, a 152 case sample size seems to be a rather small if this the study aims to represent the entire university student body composed of over 28,000 undergraduate students. Therefore, the dataset is not generalizable. It is likely that this sample may yield an accurate representation of students interested in communications studies, but it is not representative of the entire diverse student body.

RESULTS

CLEANING THE DATA

Cleaning data is a procedure that eliminates missing data and outlier cases that may be a result of accidental responses or error. This procedure ensures that the data being analyzed is accurate, and that analyses are not skewed as a result of mistakes respondents made while taking the survey. While cleaning data from the independent variable—frequency of electronic device usage—we had to eliminate one case due to missing data. We did not eliminate any cases while cleaning the dependent variable or any of the third variables, because each of these datasets contained a complete set of values with reasonable response options. However, we did drop one case while cleaning question 133, which is a question we used during our validity test. Again, the case was dropped due to missing data.

RECODING DATA

Recoding data is a procedure that sorts people into groups in order to make different kinds of analysis possible (Pasek, 2015.) To recode the data, we used the capstone codebook to categorize the response options into condensed sections. Then we conducted a custom sort on the dataset (column by column) to arrange the values in order from smallest to largest. After the values had been chronologically organized, we inserted a new column dedicated to holding a freshly recoded version of the data. In this new column, we manually assigned each response value its designated code number. The independent variable, frequency of electronic device usage, was recoded into three categories “1, 2, and 3.” The number 1 represents “Rarely, Almost Never” (students seldom use electronic devices while studying). The number 2 represents “Sometimes” (students sometimes use electronic devices while studying.) The number 3 represents “Always, Most of the time” (students almost always use electronic devices while studying.) The dependent variable, GPA, was recoded into the three categories, “1, 2, and 3” as well. The number 1 represents, “Low GPA” (students with a 2.0 or below.) The number 2 represents “Average GPA” (students with a 2.5-3.5.) The number 3 represents “High GPA” (students with a 3.5-4.0.) Likewise, each of the third variables was recoded. One of the third variables, daily hours spent on social media, was recoded into four categories, “0, 1, 2, and 3.” The number 0 represents “none” (students who spend no time on social media.) The number 1 represents “low” (students who spend less than 1-2 hours on social media.) The number 2 represents “medium” (students who spend 3-4 hours on social media.) The number 3 represents “high” (students who spend more than 4 hours on social media.) The next third variable, number of different social media sites, was similarly recoded into 4 categories, “0, 1, 2, and 3.” The number 0 represents “none” (students who do not use any social media sites.) The number 1 represents “low” (students who use 1-3 different social media sites.) The number 2 represents “medium” (students who use 4-5 different social media sites.) The number 3 represents “high” (students who use 6 or more different social media sites.) Lastly, the third variable “number of electronic devices used while multitasking,” was recoded into 4 categories, “0, 1, 2, and 3.” The number 0 represents “none” (students that do not multitask while studying.) The number 1 represents “low” (students who use 1 electronic device while multi-tasking) The number 2 represents “medium” (students who use 2 electronic devices while multi-tasking.) The number 3 represents “high” (students who use 3 ore more devices while multi-tasking.)

BUILDING AN INDEX

In order to simplify the measurement of a complex concept, the weighted average of the indicators can be combined into a single index. To do this, we came up with a weighting arrangement by assigning weights based on the importance of each variable. “Daily hours spent on social media” and “number of different social media sites” each received a 40% weight assignment, while “number of devices” received 20%. We then used a formula that multiplied each variable by its designated weight assignment and added the results together. [Example: =(E2*0.2)+(H2*0.4)+(K2*0.4).] The resulting values ranged from 0.2-3. However, we wanted to separate our third variable into two groups, “high level of social media distraction” and “low level of social media distraction.”  To do this, we recoded these values into two categories. The numbers “1 and 2” were used to represent the varying levels of distraction. The number 1 represents “low level of social media distraction” (0-1.5), while the number 2 represents “high level of social media distraction” (1.5-3.) (See figures 1-4 for distribution charts.)

RELIABILITY TEST

Because our third variable measures a complex concept, it includes three different indicators. In order to ensure that these three variables did indeed measure the same concept (social media distraction), we ran an inter-item reliability test. This was done using a Cronbach’s Alpha template, in which we copied the recoded dataset from each of our third variables, and inserted it into the template’s “items” columns. After analyzing the results tab, we found that our Cronbach’s Alpha value = 0.5326738. Because this value is >0.25, we can conclude that our third variable is adequately reliable.

VALIDITY TEST

Measuring predictive validity is done to ensure that the variables of different concepts associate in the ways that would be expected. Because we cleaned and recoded our data without IDs, we had to pull a seemingly related question from the survey to conduct a validity test. We decided to use question 133, which asks, “How often do you attend class?” We figured that this question might be indicative of students’ academic motivation, which we expected to have a strong correlation with our dependent variable, GPA. To measure the validity between GPA and class attendance, we ran a correlation test. After using the =CORREL formula in Microsoft Excel, we received a correlation = 0.064952318. This is an extremely weak and nearly nonexistent correlation, which means there must have been some systematic error or limitation in our test. Nonetheless, we created a scatter plot to get a visual idea of how these two variables relate (See Figure 5.)

LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT

The independent variable was measured using a scale of eight ordinal response options ranging from “Never” to “Always.” The dependent variable was measured using a scale of eight ordinal response options ranging from “less than 1.0” to “3.5-4.0.” Question 75 (indicator #1) was measured using a scale of five ordinal response options ranging from “none” to “more than 4 hours.” Question 130 (indicator #2) was measured using a scale of five ordinal response options ranging from “none” to “more than 4 devices.” Question 127 (indicator #3) offered eight ordinal response options ranging from “none” to “more than 6.” All of the above response options contained labeled intermediate selections as well.

TESTING THE HYPOTHESIS

Because the independent and dependent variables were both discrete, we produced crosstabs to test our hypothesis. Chi-squared tests tell us the chances that identical distributions could have led to our results (Pasek, 2015.) We evaluate this relationship by examining the p-value, which is “a measure of the proportion of the time that an effect of the size observed would appear by chance if the actual effect were null (Pasek, 2015.)” After manipulating our data into a pivot table, we produced 2 tables, one of our observations and one of our expectations if the variables were unrelated. Using the data from these tables, we ran a chi square analysis test between our independent and dependent variables. We used the =CHITEST formula, and found the p value = 0.313074533. Because this value is >0.05, it does not meet the threshold for statistical significance. Therefore, our hypothesis is not supported. Nonetheless, we ran a subsequent chi square test on the third variable, to see if it had a significant moderating effect. Moderation indicates that the outcomes for some groups will differ from others, so our test statistics and p-values should vary for high and low levels of the moderator. We first created a pivot table that separated the data from our Index into two groups, Group 1 (low social media distraction,) and Group 2 (high social media distraction.) When computing the chi test for group 1, we encountered a “divide by 0 error” because we had expected values of 0, which means there was not a sufficient amount of data that fell into this group. Thus, the p value could not be computed. For group 2 (high social media distraction), we created observed and expected tables and then ran another chi test. We found that the p value = 0.501003402. Again, this value is >0.05, meaning it does not meet the threshold for statistical significance. Because we were unable to compute a p value for Group 1, we cannot reach a conclusion about whether our moderator had a significant effect on the expected relationship.

 DISCUSSION/CONCLUSION

Although our hypothesis was not supported, Wood et. al’s findings suggest that students who are exposed to electronic devices while learning have a worse academic performance than students who are not exposed to electronic devices while learning (2012.) The cognitive bottleneck theory of attention suggests that electronic devices can serve as an interference that creates a conflict of attention in the midst of students’ learning. In other words, electronic devices distract students, which in turn weakens their academic performance.

LIMITATIONS/ERROR

Our study contained several limitations. As previously mentioned, the convenience sample of COMM 121 students did not yield generalizable results. In future research, I would suggest using probability based random sampling with a sampling frame of students from a University enrollment list. This sample would be more representative of the entire student body, and would yield more generalizable results. Also, we should have included IDs with our data before we started cleaning and recoding. Had we done so, we would not have needed to pull a new question from the data to use in order to conduct a validity test. Perhaps this is why the correlation between class attendance and GPA had such a weak relationship. Another limitation of our study is the error we encountered during the chi square test conducted on our moderating third variable. Perhaps we could have avoided the divide by 0 error by regrouping the data in a different way, so that more participants would have fallen into certain categories. Because of this error, we could not definitively identify if the moderator had a significant effect on the expected relationship. We had one outlier case in our dataset, but we could not eliminate it because it could not be determined that the case was a mistake. Because our independent and dependent variable did not meet the threshold for statistical significance, there may have been a deeper underlying systematic error in our analyses.

SUMMARY

Overall, I have learned that a broad range of research exists on the topic of multi-tasking, and more specifically the effects that technology can have on academics—both good and bad. Technology can certainly be used to enhance students learning, but when used for off-task activities, electronic devices can pose a significant distraction. Although our proposed hypothesis was not supported, I have learned that many things can go wrong in the research process, beginning with the way survey questions and response options are worded, to effectively cleaning and recoding the dataset, to properly running multiple complex analyses. In order to conduct an effective research study, an appropriate sampling method must be used to produce generalizable results, and survey questions must be worded with utmost clarity including but not limited to labeling interval response options correctly and targeting the question around the intended concept. Furthermore, one must be thorough when cleaning and recoding the dataset so as not to accidentally delete any cases or unintentionally include skewed data. When building an index, one must appropriately weight the variables, and be careful when typing in the formula. When running statistical analyses, it is important to choose the most effective test method depending on whether the variables are discrete and/or continuous. Lastly, one must be careful when interpreting results, and remember to be sure that the three “time-order, causality, and a non-spurious relationship” criterion are met.

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Responsibility to Protect: Genocide in Burma

As a response to the pervasive human rights abuses taking place worldwide, the United Nations created the “Responsibility to Protect” as a designated standard that holds states accountable for the well being of their inhabitants. The first pillar declares that states have a responsibility to protect citizens, and further emphasizes that this protection is not just a right held by citizens but also a responsibility held by states (Uehling). Building off this, the second pillar asserts that the international community has a duty to support states in their efforts of protection, including the establishment of suitable authority or a stable economy (Uehling). The third pillar underlines the idea that if the state is incapable or reluctant to protect its citizens, then the international community will be prepared to intercede (Uehling). The “Responsibility to Protect” norm pertains to a variety of crimes against humanity ranging from war crimes to genocide. Recently, the rapidly worsening circumstances in Burma have raised much concern among the humanitarian sectors of the international community. After conducting a critical analysis of the present situation in Burma, it is clear that the nation-state as a whole is failing to uphold the standard degree of protection outlined by the United Nations. With the Burmese government failing to provide adequate protection for Rohingya Muslims falling victim to organized campaigns of hatred, various acts of dehumanization, and other alarming indicators of genocide, it is certainly appropriate and necessary to invoke the “Responsibility to Protect.”

In order to confirm the need to invoke the “Responsibility to Protect” it is necessary to first understand and identify the persecution occurring in Burma. A report in the Kashmir Monitor gives detail of the long-term build up of conflict that has cultivated the animosity existing in the country today stating, “It was after the coup of 1962 that State-sponsored persecution of Muslims started. General Ne Win and the military junta that replaced him played the religious ultra-nationalist and racist card to manipulate the masses for the entirety of the dictatorial regime...He also fostered a sense of a Burmese identity strongly linked to Buddhism, which has been the breeding ground for waves of anti-Muslim violence” (Burma: Genocide in the Making). Currently, ethnic conflict pursues as extremist nationalist Buddhist monks persecute Rohingya Muslims through planned and financed campaigns of hatred (Andrews, Sullivan 1). Furthermore, the Burmese government has dismissed life saving health care that hundreds of thousands of Rohingya Muslims depended on for survival (Andrews, 1). In “Marching to Genocide in Burma” Congressman Andrews describes his witness of a personal account of the Burmese injustice claiming, “A forty three year old mechanic with an open wound on his abdomen who had arrived at the MSF clinic was told that the staff could not help him because the clinic was no longer open...I was told by several that they had to buy food and pay bribes for their security. They feared for their lives and the safety of their family and mistrusted those providing treatment” (Andrews, 10). Hundreds of victims have already been murdered, while simultaneously 140,000 people have been involuntarily placed in brutally restricted and horribly overpopulated “concentration camps” (Andrews, 1). This evidence further verifies that there is a legitimate cause behind instating the “Responsibility to Protect” as a necessary means of resolving the discord amongst the people of Burma.

The UN Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide provides a definition of genocide classified by various atrocities such as mass killings, inflictions of severe bodily harm, enforced life conditions that intentionally amount to physical damage, hindrance of birth within a certain group, and the removal of children from a certain group for rearrangement in an alternative group (Andrews, 2). The crisis in Burma satisfies many of these determinants, thus it is fair to say the ensuing predicament could be classified as genocide. Howe and Jang support this claim stating, “The government has failed in its responsibility to protect and provide for the people of Myanmar...National security in Myanmar [has] been determined by a small elite group. As a result, there are many prevailing and potential threats to the people in Myanmar, such as smuggling of people for sexual exploitation, forced labor and child soldiering” (Howe, Jang). As already noted, mass murders of the Rohingya Muslims, enforced relocation of large numbers of inhabitants to unhealthy living conditions, purposeful lack of attention from the government, and open protest against an entire ethnic and religious group have been recognized as serious issues pointing to the possibility of an attempt to eradicate an entire population in Burma.

With progressing danger and ensuing threat to the Rohingya people, it is essential that the United States, along with the rest of the world, take action to halt any further massacre. President Obama has been called on to enact changes through a number of options. A few main recommendations as noted in “Marching to Genocide in Burma” include producing a higher amount of public awareness through speaking out against these disturbing incidents, as well as conducting a legitimate and effective investigation by international associates in the areas of Burma where violence is prevalent (Andrews, 8). Utilizing other tools of international relations has been suggested such as negotiating with President Thein Sein to reinstate health care services, imposing or revising sanctions, and temporarily suspending diplomatic and military conferences until reasonable progress is made (Andrews, 8). As noted by Howe and Jang, other nations such as France, have similarly called to question the need for international action, as they state, “Finally, in response to what was seen as amounting to criminal incompetence by the authorities in response to the devastation of the cyclone, French Foreign Minister, Bernard Kouchner, proposed that the Responsibility to Protect be invoked to legitimize the forcible delivery of humanitarian assistance without the consent of the Government of Myanmar.” Not only is it crucial that President Obama, supported by the rest of the United States, endorse effective actions for change, but humanitarian networks all over the world must unite to create a stronger force with a higher potential of improving life for the Rohingya Muslims.

In order for the “Responsibility to Protect” to be officially invoked, it is necessary that the crisis meet a number of legitimizing standards as determined by the “R2P” decision-making template. It is fair to say that the prevailing situation in Burma fosters a legitimate cause, as McCormick states, “Analysts contend that the SPDC’s actions have met (many times over) the Rome Statute’s standards for crimes against humanity. Between 1992 and 2008, the U.N. General Assembly issued resolutions consistently identifying human rights violations occurring in Burma, including ‘forced displacement, sexual violence, extrajudicial killings, and torture.” If the tools of international relations previously noted were carried out without success, it would be a legitimate claim that calling on “The Responsibility to Protect” is a last resort to provide resolution of the pending catastrophe. Nonetheless the recommendations identified in “Marching to Genocide in Burma”, have realistic potential to significantly alter the path to which the crisis in Burma is headed. Pressure from President Obama along with support from additional humanitarian networks including funding from NGOs and IGOs could sway President Thein Sein in his decisions pertinent to the future of the Burmese citizens.

In conclusion, regardless of whether or not every individual step in the “R2P” template has been satisfied, it is certain that there is a responsibility to protect the targeted Rohingya Muslims in Burma. The violation of their basic human rights defined by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights confirms the injustice of their situation and the notion that outside assistance is necessary. If auxiliary attempts by President Obama and other organizations fail to improve the crisis, there is enough credible evidence of human violation that the United Nations should be prepared to intervene by means of the “Responsibility to Protect.”

References

"Burma: Genocide in the Making." Kashmir Monitor May 16 2013. ProQuest. Web. 13 Nov. 2014 .

Howe, Brendan M., and Suyoun Jang. "Human Security and Development: Divergent Approaches to Burma/Myanmar." Pacific Focus: Inha Journal of International Studies, 11 Apr. 2013. Web. 10 Nov. 2014.

McCormick, Allison. "From Sovereignty to Responsibility: An Emerging International Norm and Its Call to Action in Burma." Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies, 2011. Web. 13 Nov. 2014.

Andrews, Thomas H. and Sullivan, Daniel. "Marching to Genocide in Burma: Fueled by Government Action and a Systematic Campaign of Hate Aided and Abetted by the Diverted Eyes of the World. United to End Genocide, 28 Mar. 2014. Web. 10 Nov. 2014.

Uehling, Greta. "Humanitarian Action." University of Michigan. Angell Hall Auditorium, Ann Arbor, MI. 28 October 2014.

[bpbarnes-blog1]

Spotify - Regulation

In the midst of a rapidly evolving media environment, Spotify strives to dominate the digital music industry.  However along with the digitization of the music industry comes a rising discourse in the realm of rights and regulations.  While the way listeners are able to access music has transformed, the way content creators get paid has not (Seabrook, 1993).  The struggle to adjust to online streaming has sparked controversy regarding the regulation of illegal piracy and the way music artists get paid. Nonetheless, through government and self-regulation Spotify has found ways to fight off piracy and turn a profit.

Spotify’s press release titled, “$2 Billion and Counting” addresses growing regulatory concerns in the changing music industry, including the payment of royalties to music artists as well as illegal piracy.  The debate surrounding the fair payment of royalties to music artists has resulted in major names such as Taylor Swift withdrawing her catalogue from the platform and refusing to license her music over to Spotify.  In turn, this affects the relationships listeners have with these artists, as fans are forced to absorb their music on a different platform or to let go of their relationship with these artists all together.  In his November 2014 press release, Spotify CEO Daniel Ek argues, “You can’t look at Spotify in isolation – even though Taylor can pull her music off Spotify (where we license and pay for every song we’ve ever played), her songs are all over services and sites like YouTube and Soundcloud, where people can listen all they want for free.”  His point is that piracy is very much alive and active in the world of online streaming, and this mode of distribution offers no regulation while paying artists zero royalties.  By dispelling common myths about how Spotify operates, he further aims to drive home Spotify’s chief goal: “We’re getting fans to pay for music again. We’re connecting artists to fans they would never have otherwise found, and we’re paying them for every single listen” (Ek, 2014).  Spotify argues that their company is compelling listeners to take a step in the right direction.  They suggest that by offering a legally regulated, high quality, affordable service to artists and listeners alike, Spotify is able to combat piracy, in hopes that it will decrease in the future.

But how exactly is Spotify regulating the way artists get paid?  Spotify operates on a subscription basis, in which “freemium” is employed as a strategic payment model (Ek, 2014).  This means the company features a dual revenue stream, in which it is necessary to satisfy paying subscribers as well as funding advertisers.  Ek (2014) explains, “unlike other free music options – from piracy to YouTube to SoundCloud – we pay artists and rights holders every time a song is played on our free service.  But it’s not as flexible or uninterrupted as Premium.”  The “interruptions” Ek references are advertisements that are streamed to the users who listen for free.  Therefore even if a user isn’t paying to listen, Spotify still makes money from advertisers.  Spotify then takes the revenue they make from subscribers and advertisers and pays labels and publishers that distribute royalties to songwriters and recording artists. Spotify has paid over two billion dollars to rights holders, compared to zero dollars the content creators have received as a result of piracy (Ek, 2014).  According to Seabrook (1993), 70% of the company’s revenue goes to paying music artists for the cost of licensing. Nonetheless, artists feel stiffed by the labels that distribute the profits based on their own royalty deals.

Although distribution of digital content is protected by governmental regulation such as copyright laws, competing with piracy proves to be very difficult. To ensure profitability, Spotify enacts Digital Rights Management, or DRM, which prevents redistribution of digital media by embedding codes that restrict the way content is made available (Rose).  In other words, Spotify blocks any use of their music files outside of the Spotify platform, so that users do not download their songs and then unsubscribe from their service.  Furthermore, Spotify’s “Terms and Conditions of Use” outline regulations regarding copyright infringement, brand protection, and user guidelines related to respecting intellectual property.  By delineating governmental regulation preventing copyright infringement as well as enacting formal self-regulation, such as DRM, Spotify attempts to protect their content in the midst of a digital transformation.

The development of online streaming is the biggest shift in the music industry since the beginning of recorded music, so it’s not surprising that regulatory challenges accompany this transition. However, the future of the music industry is only headed further in the direction of digital streaming. According to statistics, the United States is the most profitable market for online music streaming, and the growth of streaming users is projected to leap from 42 million to 119 million from 2015 to 2021 (cite).  Daniel Ek claims that the ultimate goal is “to increase the entire pool of music.” It has been rumored that Spotify is in the works to buyout Soundcloud, one of its biggest streaming competitors (McIntyre, 2016).  If the two companies consolidate, this would further transform the way listeners create relationships with music artists and could lead to another overhaul in regulations. Ultimately, the rapidly changing music industry poses unique challenges in the realm of regulation that motivate companies like Spotify to become innovative in their efforts to keep up.

References

Irvine, V. (2016). Topic: Digital Music Industry. Retrieved October 26, 2016, from https://www.statista.com/topics/1386/digital-music/

McIntyre, H. (16, September 28). Is Spotify Buying Soundcloud?

Rouse, M. (n.d.). Digital Rights Management (DRM).

Seabrook, John. "Revenue Streams." The New Yorker. 2014. Accessed October 26, 2016. http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/11/24/revenue-streams.

Spotify, Executive. (2014, November 11). 2 Billion and Counting [Press release]. Spotify.com. Retrieved from https://press.spotify.com/us/2014/11/11/2-billion-and-counting/

[bpbarnes-blog1]

On Having a Brother with Asperger’s Syndrome

After being away from home for the longest period of my life, I returned from college in November of 2014 for Thanksgiving break. Walking into my room felt like entering a life-size time capsule. I had only been gone three months, but the all-too-familiar trinkets that occupied vacant space on my shelves seemed eerily untouched, having accumulated a noticeable layer of dust. Overwhelmed by nostalgia, I began to finger through neglected drawers that contain a slew of miscellaneous items that I never know where to put when I clean my room. I came across a diary I kept in sixth grade and absent mindedly flipped to a page on which I had described “the worst night of my whole entire life.” As I read the passage, I cried. I was only eleven years old when I wrote that entry, but even after seven years I could still attest to that night being “the worst night of my whole entire life.” It was the night my brother found out he was cut from his high school’s freshman baseball team.

Asperger’s syndrome is defined as a developmental disorder characterized by autistic social dysfunctions. I found out Chris had Asperger’s Syndrome the same day he did—the week after he had been cut from his freshman baseball team. As a result of Chris’s horrific response to the news, my parents had taken him to a psychologist who informed us of his condition. After I learned about his diagnosis, I saw my life through a new lens. The countless times I had been pushed to my wits end as Chris repeatedly asked me the same question. All the times I had been ridiculously fed up when Chris only wanted to talk to me about school or baseball. Even silly things, like when my mom used to joke about how Chris got along better with adults than kids his own age. All of these experiences and interactions with my brother that shaped my everyday life were now pinned to textbook definitions. “Children with Asperger’s Syndrome have very restrictive repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, and activities.” “ It is a proven symptom that children with Asperger’s Syndrome have trouble developing age appropriate behaviors.” In my mind, these “symptoms” had always just been the characteristics that make my brother who he is.

The night Chris was cut from the freshman baseball team was a turning point of significant change in his life—and in mine. My family always knew Chris was quirky, and we loved him for it. His social naiveté paired with his relentless determination gave Chris a one-of-a-kind charm that most kids seemed to lose over time. Of course there were times his hyperactive repetitive habits irked us, but more often than not, his unique charisma made us smile. Upon meeting a cute girl from Ohio, Chris’s first thought was to blurt out that “the Ohio Turnpike rest stops have the most amazing bathrooms!” When Chris informed my family and I of his conversation with Ohio-girl, we burst out laughing. Chris always found his silly behavior just as hilarious as we did, which only enhanced his charming personality. However, these Asperger’s induced quirks seemed a little less pleasant the night Chris was cut from the baseball team. The news sent Chris into a tizzy—in a matter of hours, it was as if some wildly depressed maniac had infiltrated our home and left my family with nothing but a shell of the charming boy I call my big brother. Children with Asperger’s Syndrome tend to have socially or emotionally inappropriate responses, which in this case meant months of Chris’s hysterical screaming, crying, and attempts at self-destruction. My brother’s intense depression evoked chaos within my home that eventually took a toll not only on his own personality, but also ravaged the happiness of my parents, my sister, and myself. My dad was traveling the weekend Chris found out he was cut, and in my diary I had written, “It is really really really scary and there is nothing I can do. My mom just walks around the house sobbing and it’s scary because mom doesn’t usually cry. Why couldn’t he just make the team? He deserved it. Now everyone is crying and I wish dad was home really bad.”

The reason Chris was so devastated by something as minor as being cut from a freshman sports team was partly a result of his condition.  People with Asperger’s syndrome tend to obsess over certain things to the point where it’s all they want to think or talk about. For my brother, baseball was one of these “things.” My childhood memories are dominated by endless hours spent in the backyard watching Chris repeatedly hurl a baseball at our rusty old pitch-back, countless bike rides to the neighborhood batting cage where we eagerly sacrificed all of our quarters to a metal machine, and innumerable summer nights spent watching Chris play little league under the lights. Baseball was ingrained in our lives; when Chris found out he could no longer play, it was as if a part of his life was being taken from him. In the following months, the misery that seeped through my home and individually absorbed each of my family members made it feel as if a part of my life was being taken from me too.

However as time went on, Chris learned to cope with his condition. He saw a therapist weekly and ended up finding something he loved just as much as baseball: academics. Learning was something Chris truly enjoyed and excelled at, and throughout the next year he passionately pursued academic goals such as perfecting his report card. In laborious hours spent working on homework, researching college scholarships, and completing applications, Chris found that focusing on school helped him cope and release his energy in a positive way. Through his research, Chris realized that the University of Notre Dame was his dream school, and decided that he would do everything in his power to be accepted there. But Chris also decided he was not going to give up on baseball. He continued hurling baseballs at the pitch-back, riding his bike to the batting cage, and playing summer league; shortly after he had been cut, Chris announced that he was going to try out for the JV baseball team the following year.

By the time his sophomore year rolled around, Chris was an incredibly more stable, happier person. I no longer laid in my bed listening to screams and moans coming from my brother’s bedroom next door. I did not have to sit outside Chris’s door begging for him to open up when my mother wasn’t around, so that I could keep an eye on him. He stopped trying to scratch and hit himself. Instead of letting Asperger’s Syndrome and depression blow out his flame, Chris had spent the last year igniting his spark by means of disciplined work and motivation. But the paralyzing fear that Chris wouldn’t make the baseball team for the second time lingered ominously in the darkest corners of my mind. Despite my overwhelming pride in the tangible progress I could see in his demeanor and work ethic, the painful memories from the previous year tied knots in my stomach and poked holes in my heart.

Chris made the JV baseball team. Now, seven years later, he expects to graduate from the University of Notre Dame in May. His junior year of high school he had decided not to continue playing baseball, but to spend more time focusing on academics instead. Chris’s work paid off. He received a $38,000 scholarship to attend the University of Notre Dame, making it possible for him to achieve his dream. A week ago Chris announced he would be accompanying me at the University of Michigan graduate school next fall, pursuing his Ph.D. in physics—the field he loves.

Since my brother’s diagnosis, I have always been fascinated with the imperceptible aspect of Asperger’s Syndrome, the idea that one would not know Chris has Asperger’s Syndrome without prior knowledge of the subject. Asperger’s Syndrome is not the type of disorder that shows any physical symptoms such as losing hair or developing scars. Similar to people afflicted by depression or anxiety, one cannot simply look at someone with Asperger’s Syndrome and know definitively that he or she has been clinically diagnosed. To other kids in high school, Chris was just “that annoying weird kid” who never picked up on social cues; he sat by himself, raised his hand to answer every question in class, and talked too much about the same thing. He was noticeably different, but not the type of different that yielded pity or compassion. While Chris simply brushed off his classmates’ ridicule with an indifferent shrug, the scornful remarks and heartless exclusion directed at my innocent brother evoked an unspeakable sadness within me, which I kept bottled deep in my heart.

When my father received a job teaching at the all boys’ private high school in our town, it was understood that my sister and I would attend Marian High School, the neighboring all girls’ private school, on the basis that tuition was free. I am embarrassed to admit that throughout Oakland County, many people generally regard Marian students as—quite frankly—beautiful, wealthy, and rather bitchy. I will never forget Bonnie, a unique girl in our relatively small class of 112 students. Unlike most girls at Marian, Bonnie was overweight and rarely brushed the tangle of thick short bangs that ran straight across her forehead (a style that most girls deemed outdated). Bonnie was clearly different; she laughed too loud at the wrong times, bolted through the hallway during class exchange, displayed a sticker collection of medieval cartoons on most of her belongings, and often raised her hand to contribute peculiar or unnecessary facts during class. For four years, I listened to girls ruthlessly target Bonnie, whispering insulting slurs about her appearance or her strange personality. I found that even the classmates I considered “nice girls”—people who I knew were morally conscious and didn’t mean any harm—often joked about Bonnie’s interruptions during class. However, I promised myself that I would never be a bystander to these insults. Every time I overheard a classmate bashing Bonnie, I was sure to interject with my own contradictory comment in Bonnie’s defense. For my brother’s sake, I refused to tolerate my classmates’ cold hearted and close-minded scorn.

Chris’s senior year of high school, I had a long discussion with my brother I’ll never forget. Four years had passed since his diagnosis, and I asked him how he felt about living with Asperger’s Syndrome. He told me he felt empowered by being different, and proud that he possessed an attribute that set him apart from the mainstream. He revealed that after he found out he had Asperger’s Syndrome, he felt more in touch with himself than ever before. He said he was actually relieved when he found out why he was different. Chris went on to admit that the downside of Asperger’s syndrome was lacking social skills and never really experiencing a normal teenage life or having a lot of friends. But on the other hand, he said that the condition helped him memorize things well, which made his academic experience more pleasant. At the end of the conversation, I asked my brother if he would rather live a life without Asperger’s Syndrome. Without hesitation, he responded, “No, Asperger’s Syndrome has helped me discover who I am, and I have found that the benefits greatly outweigh the costs.”

I was a freshman in high school at the time of that conversation, and I often worried about Chris going away to college. I feared that growing up meant growing apart, and I was deeply saddened by the thought that I might no longer be as close with the lifelong friend with whom I had shared my childhood. I feared the void that would exist as result of my brother’s absence, and I feared that Chris would have a rough transition to college.

I sit here writing this essay as a freshman in college. Watching Chris harness his unique personality over the past four years has been one of the most rewarding experiences of my life. Upon entering college, he became increasingly social and found his niche of friends. My once antisocial brother is now his dorm’s social coordinator. He calls me every week, updating me whenever he has a crush on a girl or asking me how I’m liking college–if anything our bond has grown stronger. I can genuinely say Chris is one of the happiest, most successful people I know; his resting face is a smile from ear to ear and his default mood is authentic optimism. In the seven years that have passed since “the worst night of my whole entire life,” I have developed an intangible sense of pride and an everlasting appreciation for my brother who has taught me to embrace my unique qualities and to allow my differences to push me confidently in the direction of my dreams.

[bpbarnes-blog1]

Letter to a Dead Writer

Dear Shel Silverstein:

 I’d like to start this letter by letting you know that I’m a huge fan. When I was a little kid, my grandma had this giant hard cover book of your poems that I used to read every time I went to her house. I loved the whimsical tone of your writing, and I always admired the illustrations that went along with each poem. That book was my first introduction to the world of poetry, and I think your work has served as a model for my own writing as a result.

Just a couple weeks ago, I stumbled upon your poem “Magic” online. As I was reading it, I got pretty nostalgic and emotional. In just a few short stanzas the poem took me back to my childhood, which is something I find extremely impressive. I’ve always been fascinated with writing that sheds light on things that aren’t usually discussed face to face, and I also love writing that can relate to everyone while simultaneously evoking personal memories. “Magic” addresses the voices we hear in our mind, and it accomplishes both of these goals. Most importantly, the poem made me think. I was left dwelling on the fact that I can have a dialogue with myself inside my own brain and was reminded how incredible and confusing this concept really is. Overall, I was inspired. The mysterious way you capture abstract concepts combined with the profound effect that your poems can have on people has always been something that I’ve wanted to emulate in my writing. So on that note, thank you for the inspiration.

The real reason I am writing to you is because this is an assignment for my creative writing class. I originally signed up for this class because I figured it would balance out my harder less creative classes, and since I loved writing fictional short stories when I was younger I figured I would probably still enjoy it. I was right! Last year as a freshman I only took boring intro-level lectures with routine assignments, and it sucked. I wanted to get away from monotonous homework on topics that I didn’t enjoy anyway, and this class served as the perfect outlet.

Over the course of this semester, I was actually fascinated by the things we were assigned to read, and I really didn’t mind coming to class. However, I found it difficult to embrace the intermingling of creativity and academic work, because the two have been so separate in my schooling before this. Did you ever struggle with this concept? Being creative was your career, which must have been pretty interesting. I feel as though a lot of people think growing up and getting a job in the real world means abandoning all of the weird and creative things that run around in our imaginations, but for you (and me?) this was not the case, and I’ve learned it doesn’t have to be. I ‘ve never taken a liking to mature corporate things, and after this semester I’m proud to say I’ve come to terms with the fact that that’s okay.

If there’s one takeaway I’ve gotten from this semester, it’s that being creative is just as challenging as doing quantitative work—just in a different way. I’m a firm believer that you have to study what you enjoy, because one day you’re going to do it as a job everyday, and you don’t want to be miserable for the rest of your life, now do you? Creativity is a part of who I am as a person, and this class has served as a launching point on my journey of where it’s going to take me. Thank you Shel Silverstein and thank you Jenny for providing me with inspiration and support that has gotten me to where I am today.

Best,

Bridget Barnes

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Media Watch: Victoria’s Secret

Victoria's Secret is known across the globe as a leading manufacturer and marketer of women’s lingerie. To endorse their brand in a glamorous setting, Victoria's Secret sponsors an annual fashion show featuring some of the world's most well known fashion models such as current “Victoria’s Secret Angels” Lily Aldridge, Adriana Lima, and Candice Swanepoel. Viewed by upwards of six million spectators, this year’s show was broadcasted on December 8, 2015 on CBS primetime television (Maglio, 2015). In 2013, the hour-long program received a rating of 3.4 among 18-to-49 year olds, landing it the title of “the top-rated telecast among young adults on the major networks.” (Faughnder, 2013). In more recent years the show’s ratings have dropped, but it has still proven to amass a significant amount of publicity. Widely publicized media spectacles that showcase highly sexualized females, such as the Victoria’s Secret Fashion Show, shape the way individuals construct social ideals regarding female beauty and women’s gender roles. Moreover, empirical evidence regarding the objectification of women in the media suggests that The Victoria’s Secret Fashion Show plays a role in establishing unrealistic expectations and negative sentiments regarding females’ body image.

Because media in modern-day Western culture is so heavily dominated by the objectification of women, research has been conducted to examine the effects this has on females’ body image. The Victoria’s Secret Fashion Show is a prime example of a highly publicized media event that showcases the idealized and sexualized female body. Additionally, the “Victoria’s Secret Angels” are widely recognized as stereotypically attractive women and wear particularly sexy outfits throughout the show, making them probable targets for social comparison. (Chrisler et al., 2013). In 2011, Joan C. Chrisler et al. conducted a study in which they aimed to investigate social comparisons, hypothesizing that viewers of the 2011 Victoria’s Secret Fashion Show who made upward comparisons to the models (praising the models’ idealized bodies whilst comparing them to their own bodies) would ultimately feel negatively about themselves. In order to gather data, the team evaluated 977 public tweets that were sent out during or directly before the 2011 Victoria’s Secret Fashion Show. The tweets were coded in terms of content, and separated into categories related to “body image, eating disorders, weight, desires for food or alcohol, and thoughts about self-harm.” (Chrisler et al., 2013). The tweets were then evaluated and assessed in order to draw conclusions about viewers’ general sentiments related to body image.

Ultimately, Chrisler’s findings were consistent with social comparison theory. Social comparison theory indicates that assessing the self in comparison with others (e.g., fashion models, celebrities, peers) can affect body image. Experimental research has examined the consequences of observing flawless, unrealistic images in the media, and findings typically reveal that women feel more negatively about themselves after viewing images that represent the female beauty ideal. (Chrisler et al., 2013). In the end, Chrisler’s team confirmed that, “participants who make upward comparisons to the [Victoria’s Secret] models (i.e., based on appearance dimensions) tend to feel worse about themselves.” (Chrisler et al., 2013). Furthermore, Chrisler et al. (2013) realized that as a result of negative effect, susceptible viewers were at higher risk to engage in destructive behaviors, during or after watching the fashion show or other similar media. Thus, as outlined by social comparison theory, female self-esteem suffers as women are objectified in the media by means of widespread attention towards the sexualized body ideal.

In addition to social comparison theory, cultivation theory contributes to the phenomena surrounding the objectification of women in the media and how it relates to idealized expectations of the female body in real life. According to cultivation theory, “television exposure ‘cultivates’ beliefs, attitudes, and ideals about the real world that match the media-depicted world.” (Harrison, 2003). Furthermore, the theory suggests that, “media exposure will be positively correlated with perceptions of the world and its components, such that these perceptions match the way the world is portrayed in the media.” (Harrison, 2003). While watching the Victoria’s Secret Fashion show, viewers observe a celebration of extremely thin women with nearly unattainable body proportions. Therefore, in line with cultivation theory, viewers are likely to believe that women should appear this way in real life. In 2003, Kristen Harrison conducted a study analyzing the effect television has on viewers’ perception of ideal body proportions. Ultimately, she found that “exposure to ideal-body television images predicted women’s idealization of a smaller waist, smaller hips, and a medium-sized bust.” (Harrison, 2003). Her findings were consistent with the cultivation theory, confirming that women internalize the representations they see throughout the media and subsequently expect to find these stereotypes modeled in the real world. Therefore, it comes as no surprise that as a result of viewing the Victoria’s Secret Fashion Show, women are conditioned to believe the ideal body type consists of unnaturally thin body proportions.

Negative body image has become a rising problem due to the increase of women developing eating disorders. Consequently, the need to investigate the objectification of women in the media and the effect it has on females’ body image is of utmost importance. According to the National Association of Anorexia Nervosa and Associated Disorders (2016), “only 5% of American females naturally possess the ideal body type that is portrayed in advertising.” Living in a society that is dependent on the media, individuals are constantly exposed to idealized representations and stereotypes of the female body. If media consumers continue to observe unrealistic depictions of the female body, such as in the Victoria’s Secret Fashion Show, the consequences could be detrimental and even fatal. Statistics show that, “anorexia is the third most common chronic illness among adolescents, and over one-half of teenage girls use unhealthy weight control behaviors such as skipping meals, fasting, smoking cigarettes, vomiting, and taking laxatives.” (National Association of Anorexia Nervosa and Associated Disorders, 2016). As outlined by cultivation theory, the messages that the media sends out to viewers have a significant effect on real life beliefs. Furthermore, social comparison theory suggests that individuals are likely to measure themselves up against what they observe in the media. In conclusion, it is necessary to educate individuals about media misconceptions and to combat unhealthy messages the mass media sends regarding unrealistic body ideals.

 References

 ANAD. (n.d.). Retrieved February 18, 2016, from http://www.anad.org/get-information/about-eating-disorders/eating-disorders-statistics/

Chrisler, J. C., Fung, K. T., Lopez, A. M., & Gorman, J. A. (2013). Suffering by comparison: Twitter users’ reactions to the Victoria's Secret Fashion Show. Body Image, 10(4), 648-652.

Faughnder, R. (2013). TV ratings: 'Victoria's Secret Fashion Show' wins; 'SHIELD' hits low.

Harrison, K. (2003). Television Viewers’ Ideal Body Proportions: The Case of the Curvaceously Thin Woman. Sex Roles, 48(5/6), 255-264.

Maglio, T. (2015, December 9). Ratings: Victoria’s Secret Fashion Show Drops 32 Percent From Last Year

Victoria's Secret Fashion Show [Mp4]. (2016). Victoria's Secret. https://www.victoriassecret.com/fashion-show/videos

[bpbarnes-blog1]

Transformation of a Typeface

Adobe Garamond is the modern-day digital interpretation of typefaces created by Claude Garamond, a renowned 16th century punch-cutter. Garamond was born in 1510 and lived in Paris during the French Renaissance (“The Biography of Claude Garamond”). This time period is also referred to as the letterpress era, which means Garamond produced traditional typography by cutting letter punches in steel from which matrices were made out of copper (“Font Designer—Claude Garamond”). During the pinnacle of his career in 1548, Garamond was employed to design a typeface for the King of France. He based his typeface on the handwriting of the King’s librarian, which featured a structured lettering that was meant to resemble organic penmanship (“The Biography of Claude Garamond”). Ultimately, Garamond’s typeface was recognized as a typographic turning point of the 16th century in which readability was harmoniously matched with beautiful form. Garamond’s name lives on as one of the most prominent type designers of all time, and he is particularly remembered for the elegance of his typeface which has been widely replicated and is still currently in use today.

Based on Claude Garamond’s original work, Adobe Garamond is an old style serif typeface. It features moderately sized bracketed serifs that are slightly tapered and rounded on the ends for an organic look. The type is structured using Roman proportions, which means the characters are consistently based on circles, squares, triangles, or rectangles. It is considered an old style typeface, a category that is defined by little variation between thick and thins, as well as curved strokes whose axis inclines to the left. Adobe Garamond was released in 1989 as a digitally perfected compromise between the upright style of Claude Garamond’s Latin typefaces and the slant of his Greek designs (“Just What Makes “Garamond” a Garamond?). The modernized Adobe Garamond typeface intentionally aims to retain a direct link to the origin of script. Robert Slimbach, an award-winning principal type designer at Adobe Systems is credited for the design of the Adobe Garamond, which he attributes roman weight to true Garamond and italics to Robert Granjon—another punch cutter who lived in Paris during the French Renaissance (“Adobe Garamond”). The Adobe Garamond font family features six variations including regular, italic, bold, bold italic, semi bold, and semi bold italic (Phillppov & Herasymenko).

Furthermore, the type has been expanded to include a variety of features that are characteristic of sixteenth century style such as small caps, tilting caps, expert fonts, and swash caps ("What Is Garamond? Comparing Typefaces").

Adobe Garamond features many characteristics that distinguish it as a uniquely elegant typeface. Some points of interest include the interesting bowl of the lowercase “a”, which features a sharp hook at the upper left, the disconnected bowl of the “p”, the small eye of the lowercase “e”, the spur of the capital “G”, and the apex of the capital “A” that slightly resembles a spur (Gabor). Similar idiosyncrasies translate to Garamond numerals, as seen in the disconnected bowl of the 6 and 9, and the disconnected stem to the arm of the 4. Furthermore, Adobe Garamond is known for its low x height, which functions to make the capitals appear large relative to the lower case letters (Phillippov & Herasymenko).  Additionally, ascenders on lowercase letters such as “d, b, and l” have downward sloping tapered serifs. The rounded serif edges appear as if they were designed to mimic the look of a stamp on paper—a traditional link to old style typeface that echoes Claude Garamond’s original form and incorporates the influence of the French Renaissance.

In terms of how the typeface interacts with negative space, Adobe Garamond features full letterforms with ample-sized oval counters. Likewise, the spacing between each letter is narrower than the full-bodied negative space that is occupied by the characters’ counters. Other unique qualities of Adobe Garamond include heavily rounded teardrop-shaped terminals on letters such as the lowercase “r, f, and y,” the double story g that features a rounded linear ear, and a generally low stroke weight contrast. Compared to a transitional style typeface such as Times New Roman, Garamond is notably less mechanical and sharp. The steep angled serifs on ascenders play a part in distinguishing the resemblance to organic handwriting, as a brush would have been held a specific angle relative to the paper in order to create this reoccurring mark. Another indicator of traditional Renaissance influence found in Adobe Garamond is the presence of oblique stress on rounded letters such as “O and Q.” Compared to other old style typefaces such as Goudy Old Style, the bracketed serifs, terminals, and tails featured in Adobe Garamond prove to be less curvy and more linearly angled—yet the typeface simultaneously retains the organic style of chunky rounded strokes. Furthermore, Garamond’s serifs are tapered to a flattened round end as opposed to being pointed or curved.

Widely distinguished for optimal readability, Adobe Garamond is commonly used in books, for printing body texts, and as a desktop design staple in fine printing—particularly ideal for small format works ("What Is Garamond? Comparing Typefaces."). The typeface is so common in digital and print literature that it is likely most readers have come across it whether they have noticed or not. The widespread popularity of Adobe Garamond is exemplified in the fact that it was chosen as the typeface featured throughout the entire Harry Potter series as well as in all of the Hunger Games books (Crum). The balance between the elegant, organic form inspired by the French Renaissance and the smooth, even structure that allows for ideal readability creates a rhythmic aesthetic that heeds timeless celebration and use.

[bpbarnes-blog1]

Beyonce’s Industrial Secrets to Success

Dear Blue,

Growing up, my father taught me everything he knew about the music industry[i]—and so I plan to do the same for you. I have compiled an autobiography of my industrial secrets to success, in the case that you might one day aspire to break into the music industry. In the following chapters, I aim to provide you with my understanding of how the music industry has evolved over time, and what it takes to thrive in an era of digital revolution and global exchange.

All my love,

B

Part I

Chapter 1: Build Your Name

As a result of globalization and digitization, record labels have shifted away from creating art for arts sake and have gradually placed more emphasis on commercial branding. Getting your big break in entertainment has a lot to do with being in the right place at the right time. Throughout the 1970s, star groups such as The Jackson 5 were less fixated on reaching a worldwide fan base but rather first appealed to a domestic audience by singing about issues that resonated with the American listener. The Jackson 5 recorded their first big hit, “I Want You Back,” in 1969 with Berry Gordy’s Motown Records, a Detroit-based company that quickly became a nationally renowned studio after being built from a meager $800 family loan[ii]. Dubbed the “Sound of Young America,” Motown Records was built on a vision to transform domestic culture by breaking down racial prejudice in America[iii]. Today small, soulful record labels such as Motown Records have lost their influence as a majority of home-owned names have been bought by one of the “Big Five” global conglomerates that dominate the music industry[iv].

Following the 70s, compact discs were introduced as the first form of digital media, but still required manufacturing and distribution practices, which continued the norms of the music industry[v]. Throughout the CD Boom of the 90s, commercialization began to pick up as media convergence became more salient with continued popularity of programs implemented in the 80s’, such as Music Television[vi]; a trend that continued until the early 2000s. Brandy, one of my childhood inspirations[vii], highlights the growing effect that digitization and globalization began to have on the music industry in the 90s. Brandy started her journey singing in a church choir and at school talent shows where she was recognized for the purity of her vocal skills[viii]. After signing to Atlantic Records in 1993, she became known as “America’s Sweetheart” and gained recognition for breaking down color barriers[ix]. Despite Brandy’s emphasis on domestic values and vocal talent, the influence of commercial branding became present as she gained international fame, starring in sitcoms and releasing her own line of Barbie dolls[x].

Circulation of music increased to an unprecedented extent with the introduction of the digital audio file, which eliminated the need for a physical medium such as CDs and cassettes[xi]. The ability to captivate a global audience became astonishingly more accessible and necessary in order to make it big. Today, entertainment corporations trying to monetize economies of scale will pressure you to build your name by forming commercial partnerships that allow you to connect with a global fan base. I had my first major label breakthrough in 1999, when Destiny’s Child signed to Columbia Records[xii]. In the following years, I gained worldwide traction in geocultural markets as I was featured on soundtracks of popular films, such as The Fighting Temptations in 2003, Dreamgirls in 2006, and most recently the Great Gatsby in 2013[xiii]. Shortly after, I sealed a lucrative multi-year sponsorship deal with Pepsi, in which I agreed to appear in print ads and commercials all over the world[xiv]. Since then, I have brought in revenue with my partnerships in the transnational retail industry, launching my perfume scent with Tommy Hilfiger and fashion line, Ivy Park.[xv]. But be careful—while commercial success may keep your name in lights, be sure to ask yourself if this is enough to make you happy.

Chapter 2: Set A Goal

In the midst of my early commercial success, I was pressured to conform to aspects of popular genre and format[xvi]. Globalization has only increased risk in the entertainment industry–nobody knows what a worldwide market of consumers will dub a hit[xvii]. However, in becoming a known talent, I developed power in the industry and was able to make riskier, more independent decisions. By 2007, I had gained enough rapport in the industry to become President and Chief Executive Officer of my own entertainment and management company, Parkwood Entertainment[xviii]. I didn’t want to sing about the same thing for ten years. This suppresses freedom of expression, and you can’t grow[xix]. So I set a goal for myself—artistic independence[xx]. My first piece of advice is that if you want to be happy, do not compromise your art. In this chapter, I will describe how digitization and globalization have altered genre, creative content, format, and the culture of consumption over time. Further, I will explain how I’ve reacted to these changes in order to stay true to myself.

Within each decade, musical genre and creative content shift to reflect the times. Moreover, technological revolutions in each era have contributed to changes in musical format and the culture of consumption. In the 70s, artists used music as a medium to connect with communities and address social and political landscapes. During this time, musicians explored their identities and experimented with early forms of music-technology such as electronic synthesizers, wah-wah pedals, and Mellotrons[xxi]. As a result, Disco, Hard Rock, and Punk, emerged as a few unique genres. Before the Internet existed, consumers indulged in music listening without many of the distractions we are exposed to today. Experiencing music seemed to be more personal—listening to a cassette tape in your basement with the lights off and the volume up, or jamming to an 8-track tape in your car to calm your anxieties[xxii]. However, Sony’s release of the Walkman in 1979 revolutionized the concept of portable music, proving that the intimacy of the 8-track tape was short lived, and solidifying a massive shift in the music industry[xxiii].

By the 90s, music merged into six primary genres: Rock, Classical, Jazz, Blues, Country, and R&B[xxiv].  Record labels dominated the industry, bringing in revenue by selling compact discs as loss leaders in the big box market, at stores such as Wal-Mart and Target[xxv]. Operating within the norms of these Big 6 genres, musicians were able to form deep connections with their niche audience by channeling extraordinary passion into their sector of art[xxvi]. Soulful R&B albums such as Boyz II Men live on today, as they are continuously celebrated for the emotional impact they had on their fans[xxvii]. However, when music went digital with Napster in the late 90s, the big boxes undercut record labels contributing to the departure of the CD as a physical medium and the demise of the album as an art form.[xxviii]

The music market hit the Internet for good with the launch of iTunes in 2003, a transition that permanently altered the way fans interact with music[xxix]. Consumers gained the ability to cherry pick songs off an album by purchasing individual tracks[xxx]. This destruction of bundling transformed the culture of consumption—no one listens to albums as full bodies of work the way they used to[xxxi]. Today, consumers engage in music as part of a multitasking process with distractions from social media platforms and advertisements[xxxii]. Contemporary media outlets such as YouTube and Soundcloud allow anyone across the world to produce and publish their own music, flooding the market with a diverse assortment of musical tastes. As a result of digitization and mass customization, the contemporary music industry has become cluttered with a surplus of sub-genres. Globalization further drives fragmentation, as international influence has created new genres such as K-Pop, Dance Band, and Australian blues, which have built a following of niche audiences across the world[xxxiii].  In order to keep up with the pace of technology, mainstream artists sacrifice creative content in attempts to release a series of catchy singles that burn out within a matter of months[xxxiv].

However, in staying true to my goal I was determined to bring back the integrity of 90s R&B—to forget what the commercial industry decides is marketable or trendy and instead to stay generous to my fans and soulful in my craft[xxxv]. Yet in the midst of a digital revolution, it became apparent that I would have to utilize technology in order to propel my career forward. This leads to my second piece of advice: exploit technology—it’s not going anywhere. The convergence of film, music, television, and social media platforms has led me to strategically craft my work in ways that allow me to stay current.

With the release of my fifth solo album, Beyoncé, in 2013, I devised a plan to utilize technological advancements to retain authenticity and bring back the creative potential of an album. How? I created my first visual album. Each song on the album was accompanied by a unique video component. The finished product served as an artistic statement. Unlike most digital releases, I required that the album be purchased as a complete work of art as opposed to selling out with cheap singles[xxxvi]. The album sold more than 600,000 copies in its first three days, hitting multi-platinum by the following week[xxxvii]. In 2016, I debuted my sixth studio album, Lemonade, as an HBO documentary special. This is another example in which I utilized a unique digital technique, transforming my album into an audiovisual narrative. My release was met with overwhelming success as Lemonade helped me break the record as the artist with the most consecutive albums to debut at No.1 on the charts[xxxviii]. Let this be a testament, Blue. Record labels will press conventional aspects of commercial genre and format to mold you into a worldwide star, but remember to stay true to your goals and genuine in your craft—my success is living proof that it’s possible.

And so, this leads to my final piece of advice: be mindful when selecting the members of your team. In Part II, Jim Sabey, my Worldwide Marketing Manager, will explain some of the decisions I have made to overcome challenges in the industry. To whom much is given, much is required, good luck my Baby Blue!

 Part II

Dear Blue,

Relentless challenges accompany competing in the music industry—luckily, you have the privilege of being raised by two of the most successful contenders in the game. In the following chapters, I aim to explain the strategic decisions I have made as Parkwood Entertainment’s Worldwide Marketing Manager in order to overcome threats related to digitization and globalization. Furthermore, I will share my predictions of the challenges that you may face in the future of the music industry.

All my best,

Jim

Chapter 3: Go All In

Technological advancements have widely increased the global circulation of music, which has resulted in a highly oversaturated market. In the midst of such stiff competition, it can be riskier to invest money in various low budget works as opposed to taking a large scale, high budget risk that will make you stand out[xxxix]. Some of your mother’s most successful blockbuster albums, such as Beyoncé and Lemonade are a result of high risk, high budget, strategic releases[xl]. The decision to release Beyoncé without any promotion in the crucial pre-release window was an enormous risk, but it paid off when the album went multi-platinum within the next week[xli]. Usually, artists maximize their chances of success by doing their marketing activities—including launching singles and staging big promotional events—before the album is available. However, your mother wrote, produced, and released her fifth album without so much as a Tweet[xlii]. Behind the scenes, the production costs were expensive, as we had to invest in the expenses that accompany creating video content for each track[xliii]. However, we took precautionary steps in the midst of executing such a monetary risk; by synchronizing worldwide distribution windows, the simultaneous release of Beyoncé flawlessly surprised fans across the world[xliv]. Immediately, an international buzz surrounded the work as fans, industry employees, and business scholars tried to demystify the album’s groundbreaking marketing approach.

Chapter 4: Compete with Technology

The development of online streaming is the biggest shift in the music industry since the beginning of recorded music, so it’s not surprising that regulatory challenges accompany this transition. However, the future of the music industry is only headed further in the direction of digital streaming. The United States is currently the most profitable market for online music streaming, and the growth of streaming users is projected to leap from 42 million to 119 million from 2015 to 2021.[xlv] Furthermore, global digital music revenue has been on a steady incline over the past decade and has multiplied in value since 2004 by approximately 17 times.[xlvi] Following the rise and fall of Napster in the late 90s and early 2000’s, artists have been forced to address growing regulatory concerns in the changing music industry, including the lack of royalty payment to music artists as well as illegal piracy.

Reaching a global audience is easier than ever before—Tidal is available at the click of a button in over 50 countries[xlix]. However, rival streaming platforms such as Spotify, Soundcloud and Apple Music have virtually identical catalogues and services, creating an issue of differentiation[l]. Tidal strives to differentiate itself from competitors by gaining access to exclusive content and offering a higher quality of audio. However, low subscription rates prove that consumers haven’t been keen to pick up on these features[li]. Despite the fact that Beyoncé’s Lemonade, Kanye’s The Life of Pablo, and Prince’s 300-song digital catalogue[lii] have all debuted exclusively on Tidal, the oversaturation of music outlets and overwhelming issue of illegal downloading dilute the industry’s attempts at artificial scarcity[liii]. Furthermore, rumor has it that Apple is out to buy Tidal in attempts to bridge the gap in subscription rates with their main competitor, Spotify[liv]. Apple Music has been around for only a quarter of the time that Spotify has existed, and it has already caught up with 15 million subscribers to Spotify’s 30 million[lv]. Nonetheless, other sources claim that Spotify is in the works to buy Soundcloud,[lvi] further complicating the rivalry. Rumors aside, one thing is clear: within the next ten years, it is likely that major consolidation will occur within the streaming industry[lvii]. If streaming platforms consolidate, this would further transform the way listeners create relationships with music artists. By providing consumers with artist-owned, legally regulated, high quality content, Tidal is another attempt to revolutionize digital music consumption and combat piracy, in hopes that it will decrease in the future.

Chapter 5: Expand Your Horizons

Beyoncé’s unparalleled success would not be possible without her worldwide fan base. However, part of this success must be attributed to the recent developments in digital technology that have provided means for strategically attaining such widespread reach. Don’t get me wrong; appealing to a range of cultures worldwide doesn’t come without its breadth of challenges. To survive in the contemporary music industry, artists must expand globally but must also attach to a niche audience in order to survive long term[lviii]. Perfecting techniques to attain universal recognition requires expertise logistical planning, cultural consideration, and tireless performing. Even musicians signed by global conglomerates, such as Beyoncé who is signed to SONY, have to vie for attention within local markets[lix].

Following the demise of the CD Boom, the almighty record labels experienced a shift in power dynamics[lx]. As digital media eliminated the need for physical product, moneymaking steps in distribution and manufacturing were cut out all together. However, by no means did digitization place monetary control back into the hands of artists. The deep-seated disaster of illegal downloading combined with unfair royalty payments in the streaming industry leaves music artists wondering how they will ever make a living. The answer lies in the concert industry[lxi]. Worldwide tours and merchandise now serve an absolutely essential role in revenue building, which explains the inflated price of concert tickets[lxii]. However in the midst of touring worldwide, it is necessary to localize your product to appeal to a range of diverse cultures.[lxiii] In 2009, Beyoncé utilized localization by releasing “Si Yo Fuera Un Chico”, a Spanish version of her hit single “If I Were A Boy,” on her YouTube VEVO account.

Furthermore, I find it necessary to reiterate the importance of capitalizing on the strategic release of blockbusters to generate international buzz. It was no coincidence when Parkwood Entertainment released the Worldwide Formation Tour dates in a commercial immediately following Beyoncé’s 2016 Super Bowl halftime performance, the most watched television event in the United States[lxiv]. Throughout the course of the broadcast, 147,000 Beyoncé related Tweets were sent out on the worldwide web, proving the success of such strategic release[lxv]. However, taking risks does not come without some backlash. Following her Super Bowl performance, news sources claim that Media Firm Global refused to air any international coverage of Beyoncé, potentially due to a conflict of negotiations regarding her upcoming performance at Capital FM[lxvi].

At the end of the day, these must be risks you are willing to take if you want to survive in the music industry. That’s show biz, Blue! Despite the many challenges music artists are forced to confront, I am confident that under the guidance of your mother, you too will one day thrive in the industry. Who runs the world? Girls.

 [i] (Knowles, B., 2013)

[ii] (Hamilton, J., 2012)

[iii] (Motown Museum, 2016)

[iv] (Havens, T., & Lotz, A. D., 2012)

[v] (Havens, T., & Lotz, A. D., 2012)

[vi] (Marks, C., & Tannenbaum, R., 2011)

[vii] (Knowles, B., 2013)

[viii] (Brandy Billboard Biography)

[ix] (Brandy: Behind the Music, 2012)

[x] (Brandy Billboard Biography)

[xi] (Knopper, S., 2009)

[xii] (Davies, C., 2013)

[xiii] (Davies, C., 2013)

[xiv] (Davies, C., 2013)

[xv] (Davies, C., 2013)

[xvi] (Knowles, B., 2013)

[xvii] (Havens, T., & Lotz, A. D., 2012)

[xviii] (Sabey, J., 2014)

[xix] (Knowles, B., 2013)

[xx] (Knowles, B., 2013)

[xxi] (Albright, D., 2015)

[xxii] (Kalikow, L. E., & Olkowski, R. F)

[xxiii] (Albright, D., 2015)

[xxiv] (Frascogna, M., 2013)

[xxv] (Knopper, S., 2009)

[xxvi] (Ramierz, E., 2014)

[xxvii] (Ramierz, E., 2014)

[xxviii] (Knopper, S., 2009)

[xxix] (Taintor, C., 2004)

[xxx] (Knopper, S., 2009)

[xxxi] (Knowles, B., 2013)

[xxxii] (Kalikow, L. E., & Olkowski, R. F)

[xxxiii] (Frascogna, M., 2013)

[xxxiv] (Knowles, B., 2013)

[xxxv] (Knowles, B., 2013)

[xxxvi] (Pazzanese, C., 2014)

[xxxvii] (Pazzanese, C., 2014)

[xxxviii] (Coscarelli, J., 2016)

[xxxix] (Havens, T., & Lotz, A. D., 2012)

[xl] (Sabey, J., 2014)

[xli] (Elberse, A., 2015)

[xlii] (Elberse, A., 2015)

[xliii] (Sabey, J., 2014)

[xliv] (Michaels, S. 2014)

[xlv] (Irvine, 2016)

[xlvi] (Irvine, 2016)

[xlvii] (Tidal, 2015)

[xlviii] (Tidal, 2015)

[xlix] (Tidal, 2015)

[l] (Bradvold, M. & Jones, S., 2015)

[li] (Bradvold, M. & Jones, S., 2015)

[lii] (Rys, 2016)

[liii] (Bradvold, M. & Glibert, J., 2016)

[liv] (Bradvold, M. & Glibert, J., 2016)

[lv](Bradvold, M. & Glibert, J., 2016)

[lvi] (McIntyre, 2016)

[lvii] (Bradvold, M. & Glibert, J., 2016)

[lviii] (Frascogna, M., 2013)

[lix] (Havens, T., & Lotz, A. D., 2012)

[lx] (Knopper, S., 2009)

[lxi] (Sabey, J.,2014)

[lxii] (Sabey, J., 2014)

[lxiii] (Havens, T., & Lotz, A. D., 2012)

[lxiv] (Johnson, Z., 2016)

[lxv] (McCarthy, J., 2016)

[lxvi] (Hope, H., 2016)

  References

Albright, D. (30 April, 2015) The Evolution of Music Consumption: How We Got Here. Retrieved from http://www.makeuseof.com/tag/the-evolution-of-music-consumption-how-we-got-here/

Brandy: Behind The Music. (2012, April 25). VH1. [Video file]. Retrieved from http://thebrandyblog.com/brandy-behind-the-music/

Brandy Billboard Biography. Retrieved from http://www.billboard.com/artist/297075/brandy/biography

Bradvold, M. & Glibert, J. (July, 2016). Why Would Apple Consider Buying Tidal. [Audio blog post] Retrieved from http://musicbizweeklypodcast.com/wp/

Bradvold, M. & Jones, S. (December, 2015). Branding and Passion & How To Stay Ahead of Those Who Want to Find Your Fault. Retrieved from http://musicbizweeklypodcast.com/wp/

Coscarelli, J. (2016, May 2). Beyonce’s ‘Lemonade’ Debuts at No.1 With Huge Streaming Numbers. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/03/arts/music/beyonce-lemonade-chart-sales.html?_r=1

Davies, C. (2013, May 8). Inside Beyoncé’s Business Empire: How She Became a Global Brand.  Retrieved from http://edition.cnn.com/2013/05/02/business/beyonce-business-global-brand/

Elberse, A. (2015, February 3). The Curious Case of 'Beyoncé' The Album [Interview by C. Camerota]. In Harvard Business School. Retrieved from http://www.hbs.edu/news/articles/Pages/anita-elberse-beyonce.aspx

Frascogna, M. (2013, November 16). Why Your Band Should Think Globally, Not Locally. Retrieved December 06, 2016, from http://musicglobalization.com/2013/11/16/why-your-band-should-think-globally-no-locally/

Hamilton, J. (2012, September 11). My American Dream Sounds Like The Jackson 5. [Audio blog post]. Retrieved from http://www.npr.org/sections/therecord/2012/09/11/157673079/my-american-dream-sounds-like-the-jackson-5

Havens, T., & Lotz, A. D. (2012). Understanding Media Industries. New York: Oxford University Press.

Hope, H. (2016, February 9). Beyoncé’s Super Bowl Performance is Ditched by Global Radio Stations. Retrieved from http://www.mirror.co.uk/3am/celebrity-news/beyonces-super-bowl-performance-ditched-7341411

Irvine, V. (2016). Topic: Digital Music Industry. Retrieved from

https://www.statista.com/topics/1386/digital-music/

Johnson, Z. (2016, February 8). How Beyoncé Kept Her “Formation” Music Video Release and Tour Announcements Secret In An Era of Spoilers. Retrieved from http://www.eonline.com/news/737951/how-beyonce-kept-her-formation-music-video-release-and-tour-announcement-secret-in-an-era-of-spoilers

Kalikow, L. E., & Olkowski, R. F. (2016, June 20). Music Industry Memoir of the 60s and 70s [Audio blog post]. Retrieved from https://us.ivoox.com/es/music-industry-memoir-of-the-60s-and-70s-audios-mp3_rf_11963438_1.html

Knopper, S. (2009, January 14). The Rise and Fall Of The Music Industry [Audio blog post]. Retrieved from http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=99312293

Knowles, B. (Director). (2013, February 16). Life Is But A Dream [Video file]. In Beyoncé: Life Is But A Dream | A Documentary Special. Retrieved from http://www.hbo.com/documentaries/beyonce/article/about.html

Marks, C., & Tannenbaum, R. (2011, November 6). Golden Age of MTV – And Yes There Was One [Audio blog post]. Retrieved from http://www.npr.org/2011/11/06/141991877/the-golden-age-of-mtv-and-yes-there-was-one

 McCarthy, J. (2016, 8 February). Beyoncé’s Political Super Bowl Performance Comes At Perfect Time. Retrieved From https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/beyonces-political-super-bowl-performance-comes-at/

McIntyre, H. (16, September 28). Is Spotify Buying Soundcloud? Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/sites/hughmcintyre/2016/09/28/report-spotify-is-in-talks-to-buy-soundcloud/#533f74d26a49

Michaels, S. (2014, August 13). Music Industry Considering Global Weekly Release Date. Retrieved From https://www.theguardian.com/music/2014/aug/13/music-industry-considering-global-weekly-release-date-friday-beyonce

Motown Museum (2016). Motown Music - The Sound that Changed America. Retrieved from https://www.motownmuseum.org/story/motown/

Pazzanese, C. (2014, September 24). The Business of Being Beyoncé. Harvard Gazette. Retrieved from http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2014/09/the-business-of-being-beyonce/

Ramierz, E. (2014, October 11). The Juice Podcast: R&B & Rap Music of the 90's [Audio blog post]. Retrieved from http://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/podcasts/6281600/the-juice-podcast-rb-rap-music-of-the-90s

Rys, D. (2016, April 28). How Beyoncé Shook Up The Music Industry (Again) With ‘Lemonade.’ Retrieved from http://www.billboard.com/articles/business/7348533/beyonce-lemonade-tidal-streaming-music-industry-jay-z

Sabey, J. (2014, September 25). How to Market Brand Beyoncé [Interview by E. Jacobs]. In The Financial Times. Retrieved from https://www.ft.com/content/9ebce5a6-43d0-11e4-8abd-00144feabdc0

Taintor, C. (2004, May 27). Chronology - Technology and The Music Industry. Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/music/inside/cron.html

Tidal Live Press Conference Ft. Jay Z, Madonna, Beyonce, and Kanye West [Video file]. (2015, March 30). Tidal. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SifNd8j3Zdc

[bpbarnes-blog1]

Time’s Relentless Melt

Susan Sontag’s renowned essay On Photography raises a range of ethical concerns about the practice of photography. She critiques Diane Arbus’ photography series that features mentally and physically disabled subjects arguing that, “To take a photograph is to participate in another person’s (or thing’s) mortality, vulnerability, mutability. Precisely by slicing out this moment and freezing it, all photographs testify to time’s relentless melt” (10). Similar to Arbus’ controversial work, The Globe and Mail’s article featuring a special photography series on hospital patients serves as an uncommon instance in which disabled individuals are brought to the forefront of public discourse, thus plausibly prompting ethical judgments. Kevin Van Paassen, the photojournalist behind the hospital series, was granted exclusive access to emergency rooms, surgical suites, and specialized units at the Sunnybrook Health Sciences Center in Canada. The purpose of the photo series was to “understand the challenges facing hospitals across the country –and how [health care reforms] might fix them.” However, the series revealed more than just logistical hardships that hospitals face—it produced powerful images of dementia patients throughout their last moments of life, testifying to photography’s ability to stir viewers’ emotions. Yet in addition to conjuring an emotional sentiment, the images generate a general representation of the elderly as a vulnerable social group. Sontag asserts that photography plays a role in determining the focus of public attention claiming, “Photographs alter and enlarge our notions of what is worth looking at” (1). This logic raises questions about the content that saturates contemporary media and the motivation behind what is considered newsworthy. According to research conducted by Kim Vickers, the elderly are so widely underrepresented in the media that their presence is practically invisible. This points to a central issue: not only do the elderly experience tremendous underrepresentation in the media, but also when they do appear in media texts, they are represented as members of a helpless community.

This calls to question American culture’s neglect for old age and what it is that christens the elderly unworthy of media coverage. Van Paasen’s photography series defies media norms by shedding light on old age and illness; however, in doing so, the images simultaneously present a variety of morally problematic representations. Thus, the photography series serves as a text which I use to examine how images of dementia patients can yield ethical judgments regarding issues of viewership privilege, consent, and emotional sensitivity related to change, and further propose why this might contribute to the mass media’s evasion of old age and illness. Viewership privilege, consent, and emotional sensitivity  work together to construct an ethical controversy. Dementia patients’ personalities and abilities change as the disease progresses, which conjures emotional sensitivity from family members and friends. Often times, the patients do not have the mental capacity to consent to the documentation of their experiences, which further contributes to ethical conflict. Consequently, this calls into question who has the right to view or document patients during this stage of their life. Collectively, these ethical concerns contribute to an overarching theme that steers mass media away from old age and illness. Using critical discourse analysis, I aim to contextualize the lack of media attention shown to the elderly. Subsequently, using Sontag’s arguments as an ethical lens, I employ semiotic analysis to scrutinize Van Paassen’s images featuring dementia patients. Ultimately, I propose that in an attempt to avoid ethical issues of viewership privilege, consent, and emotional sensitivity related to change, the media tends to neglect old age and illness.

Literature Review:

In order to gain a comprehensive understanding of ethical problems that may encourage the media’s misconception or utter neglect of old age, it is necessary to draw on a variety of scholarly research. Chapter 1 of Practices of Looking explains that media representations function to symbolize aspects of the real world. However, Vickers points out the incongruent relationship between the portion of the population that the elderly comprise and the frequency with which they are represented in the media. According to Vickers, “Even though in the 90s Americans over 60 comprised nearly 17% of the population, they made up only 5.4% of all network primetime characters and only 4% of the casts in daytime serials.” A study at Cambridge University examined negative stereotypes of older people in 40 print advertisements and likewise, found that older people were under represented in the media. This study also shows that the images portrayed older people as less favorable than young people. Furthermore, the research revealed that the negative portrayal of the elderly in the media not only affects how older people feel about themselves, but also how young people feel about the prospect of growing old. In narrowing my research to fit the context of my textual analysis, I found that Alzheimer’s and Dementia patients similarly experience neglect and stereotyping in the media. Alzheimer’s disease has been identified as the main cause of dementia, and is a pervasive health issue in society. According to the American Psychological Association, “An estimated 40 million people, mostly older than 60 years, have dementia worldwide, and this figure is projected to double every 20 years.” In her research on Alzheimer’s Disease and Media Representations, Megan Johnstone identifies the use of Alzheimer’s in contemporary media as a negative connotation referencing, “the loss of identity, the loss of control, and the loss of dignity.” Professor Johnstone calls for a new mode of communication that will enable a constructive representation of old age and illness in the media. According to Alzheimer’s statistics, one in nine people over the age of sixty-five suffer from dementia. Thus, it is likely that most viewers of Van Paasen’s photography series have some type of relationship with someone suffering from dementia, or are at least familiar with the illness. Yet for being the sixth leading cause of death, there is a lack of research and funding directed towards curing Alzheimer’s Disease. It seems as if dementia has been overlooked in society, not only due to the lack of research surrounding it, but also in terms of the general underrepresentation of old age in the media. Ultimately, scholars agree that the elderly are underrepresented throughout the media, and furthermore, that old age is commonly represented in a negative stereotypical manner. Thus, in order to dissect ethical issues that may lead to such misconception and neglect, I analyzed Van Paassen’s hospitals series.

Analysis:

Van Paassen’s photography series poses issues of viewership privilege related to public exposure and audience interference. The “behind-the-scenes” perspective of Van Paasen’s hospital series highlights the intrusive nature of photography; therefore, it is possible that media outlets rarely provide the public with viewership privilege on this topic in order to preserve privacy of the personal domain. Chapter 6 of Practices of Looking asserts that, despite continual debate-the public can be defined as “a place of discourse which involves relation among strangers”-whereas the private sphere remains distinctly seperate  (243). However it seems as if respect for privacy was disregarded throughout the hospital series, as Van Paassen had to enter an intimate realm in order to capture many of his photographs, whether this meant dropping in on family interactions or witnessing a patient’s last breath. This invasion of privacy is depicted in images featuring Ted Ramsdale, age 91, who suffers from dementia, being visited by his wife Dorothy, age 90. The lounge furniture and hanging decor, are signifiers that the image was likely shot in Ted’s home unit at Sunnybrook. Furthermore, the photographs display visual signifiers of Ted’s dementia related behavior, such as the depiction of Ted staring into the distance with his eyes glazed over as his wife gives him kiss. His unfamiliar gaze combined with his unresponsive body language signifies a lack of intimacy in the interaction. By publicly exposing the personal moments shared between Ted and Dorothy, Van Paasen’s photography series could be interpreted as an ethical violation.  Sontag would likely argue, “What good was served by seeing [the images]? They were only photographs—of an event I had scarcely heard of and could do nothing to affect, of suffering I could hardly imagine and could do nothing to relieve” (15). Here, Sontag raises a relevant point about audience interaction—she emphasizes her role as a viewer and the lack of agency she has in response to observing images. Therefore, not only does Van Paassen’s series publicly expose an invasion of privacy, but it also positions viewers as participants in the midst of a controversial context.

Old age and illness tend to serve as indexical icons for imminent death; thus, by documenting this experience, the photographer is situated as an interfering onlooker in the midst of a highly personal circumstance. It is possible that the media attempts to avoid invasion in the emotional context of this often stressful, sad, or agonizing experience, contributing to the rarity of end-of-life documentation. Sontag condemns taking pictures of others’ personal experiences, claiming that the photographer places himself in a position of power, and chooses to interfere with, invade, or ignore whatever is going on. However, Parsons claims that the moral distinction depends on 
the intention or the relationship of the photographer to the subject (298). In the case of the hospital series, Van Paassen likely had no prior relationship to the individuals he photographed, and thus his unwarranted viewership privilege could be interpreted as an appropriation of their experience. Similar to her critique on Arbus, Sontag would likely argue that Van Paassen had no intention to intervene within the horrific experience of grief-ridden family members coping with the looming death of their loved ones. Rather, she would claim that he aims to colonize their experiences from the sidelines (33). In fact, Sontag might even argue that by documenting the experience of death, Van Paassen is enabling the continuation of sorrow as opposed to appeasing it in some way. She argues, “[the act of photography] is a way of encouraging whatever is going on to keep happening” (9). Ultimately, taking pictures of dementia patients stirs up ethical controversy by offering the public viewership privilege of a private realm while also situating viewers in positions of active participation in one of the most personal experiences—death. Perhaps media outlets are hesitant to feature old age and illness for fear of coming in contact with these concerns related to viewership privilege. Not only does photography involve participation from the photographers and viewers, but it also raises questions about receiving consent from the subject.

Patient Donald Parr is comforted his sons Bob Parr, centre, and Steve Parr while the family gathered for a Christmas Day celebrations at Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre in Toronto, Ontario Toronto, Ontario, Wednesday December 25, 2013. It would be Parr’s last Christmas with his family. (Kevin Van Paassen/The Globe and Mail)

Patient Donald Parr is seen in the palliative care centre at Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre in Toronto, Ontario Toronto, Ontario, Wednesday December 25, 2013. (Kevin Van Paassen/The Globe and Mail)

Since dementia is associated with a loss of memory, it is possible that media outlets avoid coverage of old age and illness due to an inability to receive consent to photograph the affected subjects. Van Paassen’s series showcases images in which Kevin, a patient in palliative care, celebrates the holidays for the last time with his sons. In the first image above, Kevin displays a distressed expression, and avoids making eye contact with his family members by staring blankly at the ground. Similarly in the second image, his distraught expression and failure to make eye contact with his son signify a mental disconnect that likely stems from dementia-related symptoms. The images could be interpreted as exploiting Kevin’s disabled state, as Sontag argues “To photograph people is to violate them, by seeing them as they never see themselves, by having knowledge of them they can never have” (10). Therefore Van Paassen’s images could be interpreted as unethical, given that often times the elderly, especially those with dementia, do not always have the mental capacity to give their consent. Furthermore, the lack of consent poses ethical concerns regarding the subject’s inability to approve the unpredictable manner in which the photographer might compose an image. Sontag claims that photographers unconsciously manipulate reality based on personal aesthetic preferences. She claims that the camera “may presume, intrude, trespass, distort, [or] exploit” the manner in which a situation unfolds in reality (10). Not only does the photographer have the ability to frame the subject in a particular way, but also the mere act of taking a picture objectifies a moment in time simply by producing a physical artifact that one can keep and look at again (13). Thus, Sontag would argue that Van Paassen’s images provide the viewer with an unwarranted ability to possess someone else’s experiences. While the subject may be unaware of such exploitation, family members and friends can become particularly sensitive when faced with documentation depicting the deterioration of their loved ones.

Dorothy Ramsdale, 90, visits her husband Ted, 91, in his room at the Dorothy Macham Home at Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre in Toronto, Ontario, Tuesday January 14, 2014. The Dorothy Macham Home is a state-of-the-art facility for veterans with challenging behaviours related to dementia. All residents admitted to the home suffer from moderate to severe dementia. (Kevin Van Paassen/The Globe and Mail)

Visual depictions of old age and illness have the ability to conjure emotional sensitivity among viewers, as a result of acknowledging the changes that take place in the aging process. According to the Alzheimer’s Association, “dementia patients can experience fluctuating personality changes, becoming extremely confused, suspicious, fearful or dependent on a family member”. In the photo above, Dorothy leans over, tucking a napkin into Ted’s shirt to serve as a bib. While the visual denotation is simply a wife helping her husband with his napkin, the connotation of the image reveals that Ted may have lost his motor skills and independence, and is no longer able to recognize and respond to his wife in a way that he once could. This represents a change in the family dynamic that conjures pathos, and might surface feelings of grief and heartache for many viewers. Sontag asserts that photography naturally accompanies family life. She claims, “Through photographs, each family constructs a portrait-chronicle of itself — a portable kit of images that bears witness to its connectedness” (5). Moreover, she argues that a lack of photographic evidence of a child’s upbringing is seen as a sign of parental indifference. However, this leads me to question the underrepresentation of the elderly in media, particularly those suffering from dementia. Does this imply indifference towards the elderly? Why is it that childhood & adolescence are excessively photographed but yet we lose the motivation to document the final chapters of life? Perhaps the answer lies in that by photographing a subject, we are inherently acknowledging and memorializing it. Sontag claims that the camera serves as a device that affirms the reality of what one is experiencing. Perhaps old age and illness are neglected in the media as a way to avoid coming to terms with the emotions that accompany the process of aging. According to Psychology Today, the reality of growing old is hard to swallow in the midst of our contemporary, youth-obsessed culture. Dynamic changes, such as that in Ted and Dorothy’s marriage, relate to Sontag’s idea that breaking with the past can be particularly traumatic. She claims, “A beautiful subject can be the object of rueful feelings, because it has aged or decayed or no longer exists” (11). However, the media’s denial of old age only heightens the emotional impact that images such as Van Paassen’s have on viewers. As opposed to embracing the emotions that accompany coming to terms with growing old, the mass media seems to rely on saturating magazines, billboards, television and the Internet with promises of eternal youth and beauty. While the selfless nature of Dorothy’s assistance to her husband is a beautiful act, it is possible that this depiction simultaneously summons emotional anguish due to the visual connotation that her relationship with Ted as it was before dementia no longer exists. Thus, Viewers might feel that the depiction of this experience is too upsetting, which likely contributes to the media’s evasion of old age and illness.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the media’s skewed portrayal of the elderly contributes to an overarching ethical controversy encompassing issues of viewership privilege, consent, and emotional sensitivity related to change. Relying on inaccurate, media-rendered stereotypes can be problematic, as these depictions play an essential role in establishing how we view and interact with one another. Research has distinguished negative stereotyping of older individuals as a pervasive issue in society that yields realistic implications. Furthermore, research shows that the mass media are a potent source of socialization that shape outlooks, especially those of young people, toward the elderly. Thus, it is possible that the failure to recognize old age and illness in the media contributes to the correlating lack of attention that the elderly receive in the real world. Social isolation has been recognized as a rising problem for seniors, indicating that this issue might stem from the media’s failure to accurately represent old age.

Despite Sontag’s ethical arguments regarding photography, I can attest to the fact that I was moved by Van Paassen’s hospital series and feel that it could be beneficial to increase the presence of the elderly in the media to raise awareness for Alzheimer’s Disease and dementia. As Parsons notes, Sontag herself claimed, “ ‘only that which narrates can make us understand’…[highlighting] a logical discrepancy in [her own] essay” (290). This is not to say that the media should consistently portray the elderly as victims of social isolation and illness, but rather that this population’s stories—whether beautiful or painful—deserve to be shared.

References

Archer, D. (2013). Forever Young: America’s Obsession With Never Growing Old. Psychology Today.

Johnstone, M. (2013). Media Representations, Metaphors, and the Stigmatization of Alzheimer’s Disease. Routledge.

Laputz, S. (2016). Personality Changes in Dementia. Alzheimer’s Association.

Paassen, V. (2014, February). The Big Picture: The Best of The Hospital Series. Retrieved from http://www.theglobeandmail.com/life/health-and-fitness/health/the-hospital/the-big-picture-the-best-of-the-hospital-series/article17033901/

Parsons, S. (2015). Sontag’s Lament: Emotion, Ethics, and Photography. Photography and Culture.

Robinson, T., Gustafson, B., & Popovich, M. (2008). Perceptions of Negative Stereotypes of Older People in Magazine Advertisements: Comparing the Perceptions of Older Adults and College Students. Cambridge Core.

Scheltens, P., Blennow, K., Breteler, M. M. B., de Strooper, B., Frisoni, G. B., Salloway, S., & Van, d. F. (2016). Alzheimer’s disease.

Sontag, S. (1977). On Photography. Peguin Books Ltd.

Sturken, M. & Cartwright, L. (2009). Practices of Looking: An Introduction to Visual Culture. Second Edition.

Vasil, L., & Wass, H. (2009, July). Portrayal of the Elderly in the Media: A Literature Review and Implications for Educational Gerontologists. Educational Gerontology.

Vickers, K. (2007). Aging and the Media: Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow. Californian Journal of Health Promotion 2007.

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Visual Blog: Ask Her More

Link to visual blog: https://prezi.com/u26n4pfvky8t/ask-her-more/?utm_campaign=share&utm_medium=copy

References:

Coverage Screenshot [Digital Image]. (2016). Retrieved from: http://www.eonline.com/news/742205/watch-e-s-coverage-of-the-2016-oscars-on-live-from-the-red-carpet-livestream-on-facebook-this-sunday-details

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The Audio-Visual Design of Female Dehumanization in U.S. Prisons

According to recent statistics, the rate of female incarceration in the United States has increased by more than 700% between 1980 and 2014, primarily due to non-violent crimes. Investigative research and interviews with female inmates reveal that women are being systematically dehumanized in prisons throughout America due to a variety of problems including “humiliating and dangerous circumstances, including sexual abuse, reproductive abuse, healthcare abuse, and mental health abuse.” This increasing rate of incarceration has sparked cultural content targeted towards this issue, for instance, the Netflix original series Orange is The New Black.

Orange is the New Black is a comedy-drama series based on the true memoir of Piper Kerman’s experience in a women’s prison. The show reveals the nature of said dehumanization by following struggles in the fictional lives of females imprisoned at Litchfield Correctional Facility, a low-security federal prison in Connecticut. Designed by the Thomas Cobb Group, the famously powerful opening credits that accompany Orange is the New Black effectively conjure a truthful tone and sincere mood in regards to prison-life using moving music and visual design elements. Throughout the Orange is the New Black show opener, representations of female individuality are juxtaposed with symbols of confinement using strategic film cuts to powerfully capture the dehumanization of incarcerated females.

The female figures shown throughout the opening credits of Orange is the New Black provide viewers with a taste of individuality that typically tends to be overlooked in regards to incarceration. America is known for mass incarceration; however, behind the numbers are individual human lives. The females depicted during the Orange is the New Black show opener are not actresses, but rather are real, formerly incarcerated women. This is a unique feature given that figures displayed in show openers typically tend to be characters in the series. By portraying former female convicts as opposed to actresses, the show opener creates the expectation that the text will heed insight through a lens that reflects reality. As Soar states in The Bite at the Beginning, “the utility of an opening title sequence can extend to the provision of some back story,” in this case show draws on the reality of Piper Kerman’s lived experience in prison, and thus aims to retain truth. The camera shots of the women portray female individuality by giving viewers a sense of their personal identities via race, general demeanor, and the presence of makeup, piercings or tattoos. By presenting these female figures as the most prominent element in the show opener, the sequence sends the message that incarcerated women are more than just their sentence number but rather are each individuals who have their own background story, foreshadowing the premise of the text. However, the function of this display of individuality is further complicated by audio and visual elements that point towards restrained autonomy.

In contrast to the female individuality displayed in the Orange is the New Black opening credits, the design team uses symbols of confinement paired with strategic film cuts to create a visualization of the suppressed freedom and dehumanization of female prisoners. Soar explores stylistic choices such as repetitive snippets and frame orientation that are used in the opening credits of American Psycho and Se7en to conjure an overwhelmingly evil mood. Similarly, The Thomas Cobb Group who designed the opening credits for Orange is the New Black conjure a sense of confinement using visual and audio symbols. The camera shots of the women in the OITNB show opener are divided into two parts: eyes and mouths. This fragmented visual representation of the women breaks them into parts as opposed to presenting them as human beings in whole, thus playing on how the inmates are deprived of their full freedom and humanity. Furthermore the shots are aggressively cut to correspond with the unsettling pace of the music. The sequence portrays a wide range of individuals but the rapid filter of these images suggests a sentiment of mundane conformity. The figures do not speak but remain stoic for the most part, suggesting that their voices have been silenced. Other visual symbols the designers use to embody restriction and confinement include shots of handcuffs, barbed wire, fingerprints, and empty spaces in the correction facility. Additionally, the rugged orange title typography is framed with two bars on either side, a visual portrayal of literal confinement. The orange typography corresponds with the orange jumpsuits prisoners are given when they are stripped of their personal belongings in order to comply with prison standards, another dehumanizing element of prison life. Collectively, these visual depictions invoke a sense of confinement while simultaneously hinting at suppressed individuality.

Not only does the Thomas Cobb group use visual symbols and camera shots to invoke a feeling of confinement, but the sentiment of dehumanization is also brought to life using audio elements. Soar argues that it is only when listening to various audio tracks on the special DVD relating to the design of Codrington’s 2003 book Kyle Cooper that we are able to truly grasp the visceral emotions their team aimed to withdraw when bringing to life the sentiment of evil. Similarly, the OITNB show opener uses powerful instrumentals and lyrical symbolism to represent a message of confinement. The song “You’ve Got Time” by Regina Spektor was recorded exclusively for Orange is the New Black. The lyrics “Animals, Animals, Trapped, Trapped, Trapped ‘till the cage is full” serves as a metaphor for the imprisoned women who are treated like animals trapped in a cage, as opposed to human beings living in a government funded facility. The song begins with Spektor’s aggressive vocals and guitar but is softened during the bridge offering an aura of humanity and hope. Again, this plays on the humanity that is suppressed behind the sound of dehumanizing bars clamoring at the beginning and end of the show opener.

The incongruous relationship between individuality and dehumanization is brought to life through these various audio and visual design elements throughout the Orange is the New Black show opener. Ultimately, this provides a powerful representation of females’ reality living in confinement throughout prisons in America.