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Racial Gaps in College Education Part 1: Family Background

Receiving a higher education is an essential tool when reaching adulthood. Many decide to attend colleges and universities to obtain the education and degrees they need to secure different job positions and opportunities. However, a quality educational opportunity is not as simple nor easy to obtain for everyone. According to the U.S. Department of Education, in 2013, 42 percent of white students ages 18-24 were enrolled in a college versus the 34 percent of African Americans and Hispanics around the same ages. As well as that, enrollment in hundreds of well-funded, selective, and quality four-year institutions are 77 percent white while institutions and community colleges that are not as well funded nor selective are 43 percent Hispanic and African American. Finally, 72 percent of white students finish a four- year degree and 56 percent go into debt while 46 percent of African Americans and 56 Hispanics finish a four-year degree and 72 percent of them go into debt according to the National Student Clearinghouse Research Center. This article will show the different reasonings in the gap in educational obtainment and achievement based on various factors revolving an individual’s racial status as minorities are less likely to obtain an adequate and equal educational opportunity and experience as opposed to white people based on family background. As previously mentioned, in many universities, there are a disproportionate ratios of minority students versus white students. Different literatures and studies show that race plays a significant role in college attendance though family background. For example, there is a variation in socioeconomic statuses, family sizes, and structures of minority families versus white families which can pose vastly different implications in their child’s ability to attend and stay in college. African American and Hispanic households are shown to be more disadvantaged and of lower socioeconomic status than whites “Nearly 40% of black, foreign-born Hispanic children, and about 30% of native-born Hispanic are poor or very poor, compared to about 10% of whites and native-born Asians (Farley, 1996; U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1995).” The income level of the family is parallel to the ability of the parent to financially and emotionally invest in their child’s education, such as tuition and fees, the quality of the high school, tutors, books, technology, and even time spent with their own children to enhance their test-taking skills, time-management, and to be independent and critical thinkers. Family sizes serve as a risk factor if there are multiple siblings present. “Black and Hispanic children also tend to come from larger families than either whites or Asians (Farley, 1996; U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1995) and are, therefore, more likely to experience resource dilution (Charles, Torres, & Roscigno, 332).” The negative impacts are more likely to occur within a larger family as supervision, attention, and financial investment must be spread across all children. As well as larger families, single-parent or step-parent household can also pose a negative impact. “Nearly 60% of African-American children reside in non-traditional (usually single-parent) families, compared to roughly 20% of non-Hispanic white and native-born Asian children (Farley, 1996; U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1995).” This can pose as disruptive as these families may receive fewer resources and an inconsistent socializing environment (Charles, Torres, & Roscigno, 2007). College provides the next critical step into obtaining economic and social well-being. But when one is from a family background that is unstructured and of low socioeconomic status, it becomes more difficult and the likelihood of need for attendance and completion of a higher education decreases and the possibility of delinquency increases within the children which can then be transferred to their future children, causing a cycle. Therefore, it is essential for different policy changes and an addition of resources for minority families of lower socioeconomic status to lessen the gap of college attendance and completion between minority and white students and offer affordability and equal opportunity. Discussion Question: What ideas or policies do you think can be implemented within families to close the gap for minorities and provide equal access and opportunity to education?

References- U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1995. The Black Population in the United States: March 1994 and 1993. Current Population Reports. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing OYce. – Farley, R., (1996). The New American Reality: Who We Are, How We Got Here, Where We Are Going. Russell Sage, New York, NY – Charles, Camille & Roscigno, V. & Torres, Kimberly. (2007). Racial Inequality and College Attendance: The Mediating Role of Parental Investments. Social Science Research. 36. 329-352. 10.1016/j.ssresearch.2006.02.004. U.S. Department of Education. (2016) Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic. Retrieved October 29, 2019, from https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2016/2016007.pdf. National Student Clearinghouse Research Center. (2011) Completing College: A National View of Student Completion Rates. Retrieved October 29, 2019, from https://nscresearchcenter.org/wp-content/uploads/SignatureReport14_Final.pdf#classroom#equalopportunity#racegapincollegeeducation

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Racial Gaps in College Education Part 2: Institutionalized Racism

One aspect that can have a lasting impact on the racial gaps of educational enrollment and achievement in higher education is the prevalence of institutionalized racism on college campuses. Minorities fall within a marginalized group and from this, are automatically faced with systematic oppressions within their schools every day and more aware of the concept of white privilege. Racism can take on multiple forms on college campuses such as discrimination and bias, segregation, lack of diversity, stereotyping, micro aggressions, hate crimes and more. All of these forms have multiple detrimental effects on the student’s academic achievement and opportunity, thus, it is important to address these issues as a way of stepping in the right directing of closing that racial gap.

There is an overwhelming trend of students that face institutionalized racism within their universities. For example, the graph below conducted in 2016 by the Pew Research shows that there is a higher percentage of black students in college that have and currently do experience some form of discrimination and/or have had assumptions made about them.

Another study conducted by the national College Health Assessment Team in 2015 showed a trend in other minority students at a university facing some sort of racist and discriminatory action against them from their peers or faculty and the percentages of people that it affected academically using almost 70,000 undergraduate students in their sample. Whites experienced the least amount (4.5%), while other minority groups such as Hispanic, Asian, and Alaskan Native / Native Hawaiian students faced a range of 7.6-8.8% and Black and multiracial students, reported experiencing the most discrimination, faced 15.6% and 11.6%, respectively. Out of those people, 15-25% reported it affecting with their academics which were higher with racial/ ethnic minority students as opposed to whites whether it was a lower GPA or the student eventually dropping the course. Although trends may differ slightly from other schools, the conclusion to this study showed that racial minorities are more prone to facing discrimination within their campus and which can subsequently lead to negative effects on the student (Liu & Chen, 2015).

Racism and oppression can have negative impacts on students in multiple ways. For example, micro aggressions can take a hit on a student’s self-esteem. Micro aggressions refer to subtle communication or behaviors that unconsciously convey demeaning messages to people of color. Victims of micro aggressions from other students, faculty, administration, and staff can feel a varying amount of things, such as feeling invisible and not acknowledged, unsafe, and some type of emotional distress leading them to feel a sense of isolation on campus, inferiority, and may lead to negative academic performance. Furthermore, “experiencing invisibility and feeling invalidated may have deleterious effects on self-esteem (Franklin et al., 2006). Furthermore, according to concept of the “looking glass self” (Cooley, 1902), the development of a person’s self-concept is not merely an individual process, but it is also a social process where a person internalizes a self-concept that reflects the view that important others have of the person (Yeung & Martin, 2003)”

Another example lies within the faculty member’s (e.g. professor, advisor) feelings and attitude bias towards the student. A faculty member’s perception on a student’s capability can be reflected off of race, and with minority students, it is likely that they will underestimate their student and not give as much consideration to them as far as making sure they are placed in the  most appropriate programs, avoiding patronization, and not underscoring their abilities as a student and an individual. Such negative attitudes towards the student can lead to the student losing motivation and trust, which can lead to a breakdown of interpersonal relationships and a disengagement of interest in the particular field of study thus affecting their academic achievement (Jackson & Merolla, 2019).

One finally example discusses the role of school segregation. Segregation can independently effects minority students through the role of their own economic status and environmental background. Segregation works against minority and poor students by cosigning them to schools and experiences that have less educational opportunity and achievement outcomes while privileged groups are able to take full advantage of the opportunity and resources because they have the means to and the status.  It is more difficult for minority and poor groups to monopolize off of vast resources and information regarding school quality, scholarship and financial aid, access to academic achievement resources, thus can have an impact on the student’s success and achievement (Hanselman & Fiel, 2017).  

Different aspects of institutionalized racism have served detrimental too many capable minority student’s success numerous times. Segregation, discrimination, racial bias, and micro aggressions all contribute to the marginalization of minority students and it is necessary to understand these barriers in order to dismantle them. Policy changes and newly established resources should be highly encouraged as a means of assistance to combat these barriers for students of color as they are immediately at a disadvantage as opposed to white students. This will take us a step towards equal opportunity and minimizing the disproportions of academic success.

Discussion Question: In the context of MSU’S campus, what do you think administration can do to counteract the barriers discussed?

References

Hanselman, P., & Fiel, J.E. (2017). School Opportunity Hoarding?: Racial Segregation and Access to High Growth Schools. Social Forces95(3), 1077-1104. https://www.muse.jhu.edu/article/648371.

Nadal, K.L., Wong, Y., Griffin, K.E., Davidoff, K., & Sriken, J. (2014). The Adverse Impact of Racial Microaggressions on College Students’ Self-Esteem. Journal of College Student Development 55(5), 461-474. doi:10.1353/csd.2014.0051.

Merolla, DM, Jackson, O. Structural racism as the fundamental cause of the academic achievement gap. Sociology Compass. 2019; 13:e12696. https://doi-org.proxy1.cl.msu.edu/10.1111/soc4.12696

Stevens, C., Liu, C. H., & Chen, J. A. (2018). Racial/ethnic disparities in US college students’ experience: Discrimination as an impediment to academic performance. Journal of American College Health, 66(7), 665–673. doi: 10.1080/07448481.2018.1452745

Among blacks, those who’ve attended college are more likely to say they’ve experienced racial discrimination. (2016, July 26). Retrieved November 12, 2019, from https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/07/27/blacks-with-college-experience-more-likely-to-say-they-faced-discrimination/ft_16-7-27-raceeducation/.

Reynolds, A. L., Sneva, J. N., & Beehler, G. P. (2010). The Influence of Racism-Related Stress on the Academic Motivation of Black and Latino/a Students. Journal of College Student Development, 51(2), 135–149. doi: 10.1353/csd.0.0120

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Racial Gaps in College Education Part 3: Lack of Support and Resources

The final factor necessary for discussion contributing to the racial disparities in educational attainment and retention is the lack of support and resources for students of color. It is important to see that no matter the individual or their circumstances, all students should receive access to an adequate and diverse means of resources and support for successful retention and completion of college, but unfortunately this is not the case at many schools. This disadvantage can start as early as high school as it can affect the student’s preparation and completion for college. One example shows that students of color, especially if from an underprivileged background, are less likely to have the means for the preparation of ACT/SAT exams and the rigor of college coursework because of less access to adequate technological and interpersonal resources, tutoring, and the proper classes needed to prepare high school students. Below is a graph developed by The Center for Law and Social Policy (CLASP) that compares the access of courses and college preparatory coursework by race.

As shown from the graph, Black/ African American, and American Indian/ Alaska native had the lowest percentages while White and Asian individuals had the highest. A lack of the needed courses and high-level coursework can serve as a major contributor to failure on entrance exams and college drop-out rates.

The next contributor to the lack of support is the little diversity within college staff and professionals. Of all races and genders, there is a majority of white, male professors, advisors, and deans. While this may not pose as a problem in some cases, it is important to see that adding more diversity to college staff would help foster better relations with students of color as they can relate more to their experiences of being a part of a marginalized group on campus and have more of an ability to stray away from the biases placed on them to effectively assist and mentor them. “A diverse faculty can bring new kinds of scholarship to an institution, educate students on issues of growing importance to our society and offer links to communities not often connected to our campuses (Aguire & Martinez, 55).”  Diversity in the staff and faculty not only brings inclusion within the work and school setting, but it can also allow for them to bring in and educate students of color on different resources and knowledge they are unaware of that may assist them in order to overcome the social, mental, and financial challenges they may face while in college towards successfully obtaining their degrees.

           The third factor is lack of state funding for more open access colleges. Obtaining even a bachelor’s degree can open a wide variety of doors for careers, but this is difficult to obtain when the funding for these colleges are low thus causing tuition prices and spending on room and board, different resources, and technology to grow exponentially. “The latest annual survey of state spending by the State Higher Education Executive Officers found that, since 1992, spending per student—measured in inflation-adjusted dollars—has declined at public colleges and universities by about 8 percent (even after a recovery in spending after states’ low point in 2012). In turn, per-student tuition revenue has increased by 96 percent (Brownstein, 2018).” Unlike public colleges, selective colleges that are underrepresented by minorities tend to receive more state funding resulting in a higher education system that inherently favors white students. Funding must be shared between selective colleges and public, open access colleges in order to ease tuition rates and produce adequate resources to avoid loan debt and an increase in drop-out rates.

The final factor for discussion is lack of extracurriculars and safe spaces for students of color. As a college student, one will explore different opportunities and social groups to learn more about who they are and mold themselves, but many of these are established and run by white individuals while students of color have minimal organizations and safe spaces that are designed for them and run by other people of color. For example, organizations at Michigan State University such as Black Student Alliance, Minority Association for Pre-Medical Students, the National Pan Hellenic Council, and more are necessary in successful integration, retention building, and networking on its predominately white campus for students of color as it allows for more interaction and fellowship with people that look and have experiences similar to them, making issues of racism and inequality less difficult to overcome. A study done by the National Center for Educational Success shows that active involvement on campus and diversity in safe spaces correlates with better attendance, higher achievement, and aspirations to higher level education, so it is important to provide inclusive and diverse environments for students of color to be able to connect with others with similar backgrounds and aspirations in hopes of heightened motivation and achievement while promoting that diversity throughout the rest of their campus. (O’Brien & Rollefson, 1995)

References

O’Brien, E., Rollefson, M. (1995, June) Extracurricular Participation and Student Engagement. Retrieved December 2, 2019, from https://nces.ed.gov/pubs95/web/95741.asp.

Brownstein, R. (2018, June 6). American Higher Education Hits a Dangerous Milestone. Retrieved December 2, 2019, from https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2018/05/american-higher-education-hits-a-dangerous-milestone/559457/).

Aguirre, A., & Martinez, R. (2002). Leadership Practices and Diversity in Higher Education: Transitional and Transformational Frameworks. Journal of Leadership Studies, 8(3), 53–62. doi: 10.1177/107179190200800305

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