daniellekurin

[daniellekurin]

A Beginner’s Guide to Making Pottery

Pottery offers a fulfilling blend of creativity and functionality, allowing you to shape objects from raw clay into something uniquely your own. As you begin exploring this craft, understanding the basic process, tools, and techniques is essential for making your experience enjoyable and productive. The journey into pottery does not demand expertise but benefits significantly from patience and curiosity.

Clay selection can help you familiarize yourself with the material. For beginners, air-dry or earthenware clay is a practical option due to its forgiving nature and easy handling. This clay requires minimal starting tools, making it ideal for practicing coiling, slab-building, and pinching techniques. Over time, you can experiment with stoneware or porcelain clay, which requires firing in a kiln for durability and a refined finish.

When working with pottery, shaping techniques form the foundation of your creative output. Hand-building introduces coiling and slab construction, which entails molding clay without a wheel. Slab building requires rolling flat clay sheets to cut and assemble components, whereas coiling creates hollow structures by stacking and smoothing clay coils. With these methods, you can make practical and ornamental things without using a pottery wheel.

The wheel offers another avenue for creation. In wheel-throwing, you center a ball of clay on a rotating wheel and use your hands to mold it into symmetrical forms. Beginners often find centering the clay challenging, but the process becomes easier with practice. Keeping the clay moist while working prevents cracks and uneven shapes, allowing better control over the final form.

Once your piece takes shape, drying and firing are the next steps. Clay needs to dry slowly and evenly to prevent cracks caused by uneven moisture loss. This stage, known as the leather-hard phase, allows you to add finishing details such as handles, textures, and carvings. Once thoroughly dried, the clay transforms into greenware, which can be bisque-fired in a kiln. This firing hardens the clay but keeps it porous, preparing it for glazing.

Glazing introduces color and protection. You apply a liquid mixture of minerals that forms a glass-like coating on the pottery when fired at high temperatures. This step enhances the visual appeal of your piece and makes it functional by sealing the surface. Glazes come in glossy, matte, and textured finishes, allowing you to experiment with styles and aesthetics. Understanding how glazes interact with different clay and firing temperatures will improve your results.

The tools you use play significant roles in shaping and refining pottery. Simple tools such as wooden modeling sticks, wire cutters, sponges, and rolling pins manipulate the clay. For refined detailing, trimming tools and ribs give precisely smooth edges, carve patterns, and shape surfaces.

Mistakes are a natural part of learning pottery. Cracks, collapsed pieces, and uneven forms are common when starting, but each mistake teaches you something about the materials and procedures. Learning to troubleshoot common issues, such as overly dry clay or improper centering on the wheel, ensures steady progress. Over time, you realize how small changes improve the result.

As you continue exploring pottery, the experience becomes more than a hobby. It offers a way to slow down, focus on the moment, and connect with something tangible.

[daniellekurin]

The Role of a Bioarchaeologist

A bioarchaeologist is a scientist who studies the bones of people who lived a long time ago. They examine these old artifacts to learn about the lives of people in the past. A close study of these bones provide insights into what these people ate, what diseases they suffered from, how old they were when they died, and even how hard their lives were.

Bioarchaeologists are history detectives who use bone clues to solve mysteries about the past. Their work helps us understand how people lived, what challenges they faced, and how they changed over time. For instance, they can tell us about the kinds of food people ate by studying their dentition. They might also discover how people moved around by examining their bones for signs of injuries.

Bioarchaeological information is important because it helps humankind appreciate its origins. Understanding the past can help solve many modern problems. For example, studying ancient diseases can help scientists develop new medicines. Bioarchaeologists also protect important historical information by carefully preserving the bones they study. They ensure these ancient remains are carefully looked after so that future scientists can learn from them.

[daniellekurin]

AAA Organizes Various Events to Commemorate Anthropology Day 2024

The American Anthropological Association (AAA) brings together a large team of anthropologists to help promote public awareness about the career and how it can help address various world challenges. As part of its mandate, AAA has an annual Anthropology Day, which is commemorated through various activities. The 2024 Anthropology Day, celebrated on February 17th, attracted various countries such as the U.S., Canada, Mexico, England, Australia, and India. A total of 197 registered groups took part in various events, and they included 148 departments/clubs from various universities and colleges, 28 businesses and groups, as well as 21K-12 schools/programs.

Among the major events associated with Anthropology Day is a matchmaking program where K-12 schools partner with both anthropologists and anthropology clubs to deliver interactive and age-relevant presentations within their classrooms. A total of 33 volunteers participated in the 2024 Anthropology Day Matchmaking Program. Other events included AAA sponsored webinars which featured AAA Executive Director’s Anthropology journey. There were also episodes with podcast partners on or around Anthropology Day, which covered multiple areas such as mergers and acquisitions and Anthropotamus – Anthropology Podcast.

On the global platform, Anthropology Day 2024 was marked with events such as AnthroDay Milano which was a three-day program that featured over 80 events organized in Italy in both Milan as well as debut in Turin. In addition, The Lens of Anthropology, Shahjalal University of Science and Technology in Bangladesh organized a Workshop on Environmental Anthropology and Climate Action (SDG 13) as well as a session on Contemporary Anthropology.

[daniellekurin]

Coastal Wari Culture and Paleodiet in Ancient Peru

The Wari Empire flourished from around 600 to 1000 AD, with much of present day Peru integrated into its sphere of influence, which centered on the capital Huari (now an archaeological site). One focus of bioarchaeologists studying the region has been understanding the paleodiet, both of elites and ordinary members of society.

Initially excavated by Julio C. Tello in 1925, the Paracas Necropolis of Wari Kayan is situated on Peru’s southern coast and has yielded exceptionally well preserved embroidered textiles, as well as geoglyphs and astronomical complexes. When it comes to remains of plants and animals within the mortuary complex, the picture presented is one of an agricultural society that maintained strong cultural and trade interactions with highland regions.

As part of a study published in the Journal of Archaeological Science in March 2015, researchers undertook nitrogen isotope and stable carbon analysis of human remains, which are persevered as fardos, or large mummy bundles. They utilized archaeological human hair samples from 14 people buried at the Wari Kayan site, as well as a pair of associated artifacts composed of human hair.

This analysis distinguished C4 plants, such as maize, from C3 plants, such as Peruvian peppertree, which utilize a different method of photosynthesis. The C4 plants use a Hatch-Slack photosynthetic pathway, while C3 plants use a Calvin photosynthetic pathway. (Cacti and succulents employ a crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) photosynthetic pathway and yield values between and overlapping both C4 and C3 plants.)

The paleodietary study examined carbon and nitrogen isotopes in the sample hair and was compared with contemporary control populations with known diets. The results from 90 samples across 14 burials suggest that elites of the time supplemented dietary nitrogen sources from marine sources with C4 and C3 foods, such as maize. The findings were consistent with a stable population of elites that likely did not travel seasonally between the coast and highland regions. (If they did, they brought marine products with them and consumed them while in the highlands.) This sedentary lifestyle came despite abundant evidence of coastal–highland exchanges and interactions, indicated by obsidian sourced from other Paracas sites, and artifacts such as camelid wool textiles.

A 2017 study, also published in the Journal of Archaeological Science, focused on paleodiet and paleomobility at the archaeological site of Castillo de Huarmey. Also located on the Peruvian coast, this was the first mausoleum for elite adult females found in an unlooted state. The researchers examined radiogenic and stable isotope data from 34 buried mummies, utilizing 68 bone and tooth enamel samples. Through analyzing stable nitrogen isotopes, they were able to distinguish between marine and terrestrial foodwebs. They also collected baseline water, soil, and faunal samples, including bone samples from contemporary guinea pigs and water from the likely site where past Castillo de Huarmey populations sourced their drinking water.

The paleomobility findings of the analysis were that none of the samples appeared to be from first-generation migrants from the highlands, which formed the center of the Wari empire. The high-status women were likely born and raised locally and subsisted on a coastal plant and animal diet. That said, there was paleodiet heterogeneity, with some predominately subsisting on marine items, and other consuming more terrestrial foods. Because all of those whose remains were sampled lived near the coast, this dietary variability was not explainable solely by physical access. The researchers surmise that some may have been second- or third-generation migrants who, while locally born, retained dietary customs passed on from their family inland.

[daniellekurin]

What Is Forensic Archeology?

Forensic archeology involves utilizing and adapting traditional archeological methods to locate, document, and recover human remains and related evidential material from various medicolegal scene contexts. Medicolegal is a term meaning “that which relates to both medicine and law.”

Forensic archeology applies archeological theory and techniques to medicolegal cases. These include searching, finding, surveying, sampling, recording, and interpreting evidence. They also include recovering and documenting human remains and related evidence.

While the two terms may appear to have the same meaning, forensic archeology and forensic anthropology are two distinct fields. Forensic archeology uses archeological methods to locate and recover human remains and forensic evidence. Forensic anthropology, on the other hand, analyzes human remains for humanitarian and medicolegal purposes.

Despite developing within the forensic anthropology discipline, forensic archeology’s field application methods have lagged behind. This is because forensic anthropology laboratory techniques for identifying skeletal remains weren’t invented at the time forensic archeology developed.

A murder investigation in the UK in 1988 brought forensic archeology into the picture. In 1962, Stephen Jennings, a three-year-old from Yorkshire, was reported missing. Despite extensive efforts, the police couldn’t find him, and the case went cold.

Twenty-six years later, a sniffer dog detected the boy’s remains, which were buried near his home. In a court trial, a forensic archaeologist gave the jury information on the body’s position, concealment, and deposition season, leading to the conviction of the boy’s father for the murder.

However, today, forensic archeologists regularly apply modern field methods across diverse human remains recovery scenarios. Forensic archaeologists continually enhance these techniques through research, offering training to law enforcement and death investigators.

Aside from human remains, forensic archeologists excavate and recover personal items, clothing, and weapons, among other items. They also recover evidential elements such as footwear marks and eliminate non-related objects.

Forensic archeologists follow a process similar to that traditional archeologists use to recover ancient remains and artifacts. A forensic science branch popularly used in crime scene investigations, forensic archeology also helps reconstruct crime scenes, particularly for murder cases.

In addition to assisting in human remains discovery and excavation and identifying case-relevant objects, forensic archaeologists can help establish a crime scene’s age. This is similar to what mainstream archaeologists do while uncovering ancient civilization relics.

Notably, there are misconceptions about forensic archeology. The most common one is that anyone can dig and find human remains. Another one is that forensic archeology only involves excavation. While this is a large part of its work, forensic archeologists also use reconnaissance, reconstruction, and interpretation.

Forensic archeology aids investigations in various scenarios. Apart from murder, forensic archeologists assist in buried remains, cold case reviews, exhumations, fatal fires, international deployments, missing persons, scattered depositions, suicide, and suspicious deaths cases.

The methods forensic archeologists use - reconnaissance, search, location, digging, reconstruction, and interpretation - depend on the stage of the investigation. During the planning stage, reconnaissance reports guide the process, while the active phase involves employing search, location, excavation, and evidence-gathering methods. The recording and reporting phase preceding court proceedings involves reconstruction and interpretation.

Forensic archeology offers advantages over traditional investigation methods. To begin, archaeological findings play a crucial role in establishing a relative events chronology within distinct human activity layers and episodes, representing valuable context in archaeological records. Beyond this, these findings contribute to forensic and search strategy development, providing essential targeted search and excavation area intelligence.

Conversely, they can exclude certain areas as relevant to an investigation, effectively narrowing its parameters. Through forensic archaeological techniques, evidence identified during deposition area examinations can link suspects or tools to specific scenes, such as identifying footwear marks in grave bases and spade imprints from grave digging. Furthermore, archaeological methods yield significant information on a victim’s position, aiding in challenging a suspect’s statements regarding the burial process.

Forensic archaeology blends with various ecological disciplines like anthropology, botany, diatoms, entomology, geoforensics, radiocarbon dating, and stable isotopes. By combining these disciplines, forensic archeologists and investigators can conduct thorough and comprehensive examinations.

[daniellekurin]

Unraveling Centuries of History and Culture of the Andean Odyssey

A rich tapestry woven through millennia, the history of the Andean region of South America took place from the Preceramic period to the Spanish conquest in 1534. Archaeologists such as John H. Rowe and Edward Lanning have meticulously mapped the cultural development of Peruvian civilizations, dividing them into periods and horizons based on ceramic styles and radiocarbon dates.

The journey began in the Preceramic Period (before 9500 BC), pronounced by the earliest evidence of human occupation in Peru, and this period, marked by the absence of pottery, witnessed the gradual evolution of stone-based technologies among hunter-gatherers in the highlands and coastal regions. The transition to ceramic use began in subsequent periods, each characterized by unique cultural traditions and technological advancements.

In the Preceramic Periods I to VI, distinct cultural traditions, monumental architectural structures, population growth, and widespread textile production developed. The development of agriculture and domestication of plants during this time laid the foundation for more complex societies in the Andes. Notable sites such as Quebrada Jaguay, Chivateros, Lauricocha, and Caral Supe/Norte Chico exemplify the diversity and sophistication of Andean cultures in these preceramic phases. While the Quebrada Jaguay illustrates the use of marine and plant resources, the Chivateros showcases the use of stone tools. Lauricocha represents early agricultural activities in the region, whereas the Caral Supe/Norte Chico demonstrates social organization and urban planning.

Subsequent historical periods, from the Initial Period to the Late Horizon, further illustrate the dynamic evolution of Andean societies. The introduction of pottery in the Initial Period (1800-900 BCE) marks a turning point, leading to new settlements along coastal valleys. The Early Horizon saw the rise of Chavín de Huantar, a site in the northern highlands that influenced the spread of the Chavín culture and its artistic motifs. Some consider the Chavín culture the earliest complex culture with intricate art, iconography, and religious rituals.

As time progressed into the Early Intermediate Period (200 BCE-600 CE), more cultures such as the Moche, Gallinazo, Lima, and Nazca emerged, each contributing to the cultural mosaic of the Andean landscape. The Middle Horizon (600-1000 CE) witnessed environmental changes that shaped the region's cultural and political dynamics. Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns influenced agricultural practices, affecting crop yields and food production.

The Late Intermediate Period (1000-1476 CE) featured the fragmentation of political entities, with independent polities governing different areas. Notable cultures during this period included the Chimú society on the north coast and the Chachapoya culture in the highlands. The Chimú utilized the rich coastal resources for sustenance as skilled agriculturalists and fishermen. They developed an extensive irrigation system for agriculture, allowing them to support a large population. The Chachapoya cultivated coca plants, which held ritual and medicinal significance. The exchange of coca leaves with other regional societies contributed to cultural connections.

The Late Horizon (1476-1534 CE) witnessed the rise of the Inca Empire, with sites such as Cuzco, Machu Picchu, and Ollantaytambo becoming symbols of Incan power and influence. The arrival of the Spanish in 1532 brought a seismic shift to Andean history. The conquest led to the region's colonization, with the imposition of new social, religious, and economic systems. The once-mighty Inca Empire crumbled, and the intricate stone structures of pre-Inca and Inca sites became the foundations for new colonial constructions.

Finally, the post-conquest era saw the integration of indigenous elites into the colonial administration, the introduction of a racialized caste system, and the devastating impact of new diseases. The modern era witnessed the rise of movements such as Indigenismo, which sought to valorize indigenous peoples and celebrate the achievements of ancient Andean civilizations. The rediscovery of Machu Picchu in 1911 and the efforts of Andean intellectuals such as José Carlos Mariátegui contributed to a renewed appreciation for Andean culture.

[daniellekurin]

Importance of Studying Anthropology

Anthropology explores the complete examination of human evolution, societal dynamics, and transformations globally, encompassing both historical and contemporary contexts. Anthropology also enables us to envision and create future scenarios that address the intricacies of both human and environmental factors. Anthropology's extensive nature arises from its focus on context, demonstrated through the viewpoints provided by the four branches within the discipline: sociocultural anthropology, biological anthropology, linguistic anthropology, and archaeology.

A key reason for studying anthropology is its vast international opportunities. Anthropology explores the aspects of human existence within a global framework. This provides opportunities for international travel. After completing your studies, you have the option to reside and work with diverse communities globally, exploring and studying their lifestyles. To gain a deeper grasp of the potential responsibilities of such a profession, consider acquiring international work exposure and participating in field trips during your academic journey.

The field of anthropology provides access to a diverse array of employment opportunities. Anthropology students acquire a diverse set of skills crucial in the contemporary landscape. Critical thinking, sophisticated research abilities, and an understanding of different cultures stand out as particularly crucial. Certainly, Anthropology graduates possess additional skills and expertise that make them excellent candidates for employment.

Another important aspect of studying anthropology is its flexibility. Anthropology consists of various subfields, which gives you the autonomy to focus on the particular aspect that intrigues you. Archaeology, linguistic anthropology, physical anthropology, and sociocultural anthropology make up the primary domains within the field of anthropology. You can explore various disciplines like archaeology, English, history, geography, politics, and international relations in addition to anthropology. The flexibility of this field ensures that you'll discover the niche that suits you best.

As someone who studies anthropology, you get to find satisfaction in practical involvement and on-site research. In the field of Anthropology, frequent interaction with the subject of your study is a common aspect for professionals.

For instance, as an archaeologist, your tasks involve excavating artifacts or human remains at various sites. Also, as an anthropologist specializing in evolution, your role involves global travel to study orangutans, gather samples, and comprehend their social arrangement. As a cultural anthropologist, you might choose to reside among secluded tribes or agricultural communities to gain a deeper understanding of their beliefs and lifestyles.

Anthropology also helps you uncover discoveries. Your lifestyle undergoes constant evolution, and scientific progress enables you to gain deeper insights into societies of the past. This dynamic nature renders anthropology an exhilarating field, brimming with chances to unveil novel findings.

It also helps you understand the world. Studying anthropology enhances your cultural awareness significantly. It enables you to connect with diverse cultures and learn how to engage with individuals from varying backgrounds. Having a deep grasp of social and cultural dynamics becomes extremely valuable when interacting with individuals in cross-cultural environments.

Lastly, acquiring a degree in anthropology equips you with a diverse skill set applicable to various job positions and sectors. Aside from enhancing your skills in anthropology, you'll also see improvements in communication, research, problem-solving, writing, both independent and collaborative work, and organizing information. Employers hold these skills in high regard. With a degree in anthropology, you'll also have the option to pursue a career in various fields, ranging from community development to journalism.

[daniellekurin]

A Beginner’s Guide to Making Beautiful Pottery

Pottery offers a diverse landscape of creative possibilities waiting for your exploration. As a novice potter, immersing yourself in manipulating clay presents an exhilarating avenue to express your artistic vision.

Creating your dedicated pottery area involves more than just finding a space; it's about curating an environment that nurtures creativity. Select a designated area with ample natural light, fostering a welcoming ambiance. Ensure it's well-ventilated and easily accessible, allowing you to comfortably maneuver around your work table or wheel. Organize your tools, from the necessities like clay, a potter's wheel, hand-building implements, and a kiln for firing to an array of glazes, brushes, and other embellishments to adorn your creations.

Dive into the rich diversity of clay, such as earthenware, stoneware, or porcelain. Earthenware offers a malleable and forgiving nature, perfect for beginners. Stoneware presents durability and resilience, while porcelain embodies finesse and delicacy. Experimenting with these clay variants lets you intimately understand their textures, workability, and firing temperatures, guiding you to discover which aligns best with your creative aspirations.

Pinching, coiling, and slab-building methods form the foundation of creating pottery without relying on a wheel. Pinching allows you to mold clay solely with your fingers, sculpting it into various forms, while coiling involves stacking clay coils to construct vessels. Slab-building utilizes flattened clay sheets to craft objects, enabling the creation of diverse shapes and textures within your pottery pieces.

Mastering wheel-throwing techniques commences with the fundamental skill of centering the clay. Centering involves aligning the clay on the wheel to spin uniformly, setting the stage for skillfully shaping clay into bowls, cups, or vases through deliberate movements and controlled pressure.

Pottery makers often employ a method involving molds and a fluid, watery mix of clay known as slip. This liquid, termed a 'clay slurry,' primarily fuses two clay pieces, though it also finds use in decorative applications. Typically, it's utilized alongside the 'slip and score' technique: you carve or 'score' textural marks into the clay surfaces you wish to connect, followed by applying the slip onto these scored areas. As the slip is liquid, it seeps and fills the grooves and scratches, creating a more robust bond as the clay and slip dry together.

Every setback, crack, or misshapen form is a valuable learning opportunity, guiding you toward refining your skills and nurturing artistic growth. Embrace mistakes as stepping stones towards mastery, valuing the iterative continuous improvement process.

Pottery comprises stages: drying, decorating, biscuit firing, glazing, and glaze firing. The drying process occurs in two phases: the "leather-hard" stage for refining, then the "bone dry" stage for complete moisture loss. Glazing, before or after biscuit firing at 900-1000°C, enriches pottery with a diverse color palette. Glazing involves chemical reactions, altering colors post-firing. Meanwhile, Firing temperatures for earthenware, stoneware, or porcelain clays require specific temperatures to avoid melting or under-maturation.

Numerous potters are self-taught, and several hand-building techniques are easily learnable at home through books or online tutorials. However, mastering the potter's wheel can be quite challenging initially. Attending a class or lesson is advisable if you're keen on wheel-throwing. A teacher's guidance expedites problem-solving and explanations, making the learning process smoother than navigating it alone.

[daniellekurin]

Juanita Reconstruction Illustrates Importance of Bioarcheology

A November 2023 CNN article said scientists have reconstructed a teenage Incan girl who lived 500 years ago. Discovered in 1995 in ice, the girl had been sacrificed and buried near the dormant volcano at the Ampato summit in Peru. This discovery illustrates the wonder of bioarchaeology, which contributed to bringing the century-old story to life.

Bioarchaeology is a branch of archaeology that studies bones and biological materials found around human remains. Scientists can use the bones to gather information about how people lived.

Bioarchaeology has played a critical role in reconstructing histories, including that of the Incas, who lived in Peru and Chile for more than 300 years. Their known history began in around 1,200 and ended in 1533, but historians cite the defeat of the Chanca in 1438 as the onset of the rise of the Incan Empire. The Incas went on to organize institutions and build an extensive network of roads connecting towns and villages.

The Incan culture included sacrificial ceremonies to appease the gods and protect the community from natural disasters such as volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. The Incas sacrificed young women and children because of their purity and beauty.

Researchers believe that Juanita died as a sacrifice because of her ceremonial clothing. The teen's burial site also contained ceramic objects, gold and silver female figures, woven bags, pottery, and llama bones. The ceramic objects featured geometric shapes, which researchers believe may have been a part of the Incan communication system.

In 2018, 23 years after the discovery of Juanitain the Peruvian mountains, Dr. Dagmara Socha, a bioarcheologist at the Center for Andean Studies at the University of Warsaw in Cusco, Peru, began investigating Juanita and other remains and objects found at the Ampato, Pichu Pichu, and Misti volcanoes. They discovered that children and women chewed coca leaves and drank ayahuasca during the weeks leading up to their sacrifice. This finding suggests that the hallucinogenic and psychotropic drugs lessened their anxiety before the sacrifice, a fact consistent with Juanita’s ingestion of alcohol and coca before her sacrifice.

Further, after analyzing Juanita’s hair samples, researchers learned that she may have come from an elite family since her diet included meat. Juanita was between 13 and 15 when she died after being struck on the head, according to CT scans.

In March 2022, Swedish artist Oscar Nilsson used CT scans of Juanita to build a 3D model of her skull, which guided in reconstructing her face and body. The artist drew his reconstruction from tomography scans and information on her age and complexion. He relied on tissue depth markers based on skull measurements to understand her facial proportions. The reconstruction of Juanita took 400 hours, and her face alone took six months. Nilsson was methodical in his reconstruction, relying on forensic techniques to make the teen appear realistic. This reconstruction puts a face to the history of the teen and her people, which may not have been possible without bioarchaeology. Researchers and scientists have given Juanita the nicknames "Ice Maiden," since she was discovered in ice, and “the Lady of Ampato.”

[daniellekurin]

Fluorine Absorption Analysis in Forensic Anthropology

Danielle Kurin, with a PhD in anthropology from Vanderbilt University, possesses extensive field experience in the Andes region. Currently serving as an assistant professor at the University of California at Santa Barbara, Danielle Kurin teaches undergraduate and graduate courses in the Department of Anthropology. She specializes in osteology, human evolution, bioarchaeology, and forensics.

Fluorine analysis is one of the major techniques of forensic anthropology, a branch of physical anthropology that involves analyzing and identifying skeletal remains. Bone dating and specimen comparison are the two main applications of fluorine analysis in forensic anthropology.

In fluorine dating, the objective is to determine how long a specimen has been underground. Fluorine dating works because underground water contains fluorine, and a bone buried underground can absorb a large proportion of fluorine from groundwater over time. Therefore, forensic anthropologists can determine how long the bone has been buried by analyzing the quantity of fluorine in a specimen while factoring in the geographic underground water characteristics of the site.

Fluorine analysis, combined with nitrogen analysis and other analyses of trace minerals, is useful for mapping the chemical changes that occur in buried skeletal remains from a site. In the ground, bacterial decomposition depletes nitrogen in bones, and underground percolation results in the accumulation of uranium and fluorine isotopes in buried bones. If two bone specimens are present at a site, individual analysis of each specimen for these elements can help map the progressive chemical changes of decomposition. When two specimens have the same trace mineral composition, they are likely from the same era and buried at the same time.