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[ethn119groupd]

Culture - Summary

My analysis on Bolivia and Peru revealed that in both countries, ethnicity and class are linked in a racial societal dynamic in both the Bolivian highlands and Peru. Since the 1990s, political, social, and cultural movements have moved towards a multicultural view that has begun to reaffirm indigenous identity and culture, the protection of indigenous rights, and the enhanced participation of indigenous peoples. But even with these policies in place and although Aymara and Quechua indigenous makeup from 50 to 60% of the population in Peru and Bolivia, they are still heavily discriminated against.

As a result, assimilationist policies, social hierarchies, and ethnic wars have also arisen within both of these regions.

I also found that Peru and Bolivia covered similar racial and cultural realities of discrimination and assimilation such as banning indigenous clothing in professional and public settings, not being allowed to use public transportation, and not allowed into public spaces.

At the historical levels, the functioning of authority, status, and representation are similar, with the exception of modern Bolivia. Although, according to journalist and researcher Eduardo Leal, native Aymara and Quechua women’s rights have been “socially ostracised and systematically marginalised” within the past 10 years, indigenous voices have also been invigorated by the election of Aymaran indigenous president, Evo Morales (2018).

[ethn119groupd]

Culture - Outline

BOLIVIA-- Named after Simon Bolivar – proponent for independence – Broke away from Spanish rule in 1825

Cultural Identity

One of the few Latin American nations with a majority poor and indigenous population

Languages (CIA World Factbook 2020) : 60.7% Spanish, 21.2% Quechua, 14.6% Aymara

Unlike other sections of Latin America that have a large and sometimes even dominating portion of European populations, this region has “remained dominantly indigenous since the Spanish invasion of the Andes almost 500 years earlier” (Himpele pp. xiii).

Evo Morales Ayma = first indigenous president and leader of the Movimiento al Socialismo (MAS) (Gotkowitz) -> Promised to empower the poor indigenous majority

Indigenous populations are still discriminated against in all areas of life

Previously assimilationsist educational policies

Assimilationist cultural ideology linked to nationhood

Now moving towards multiculturalism

Circuits of Culture: Media, Politics, and Indigenous Ident7890ity in the Andes -> Like many parts of Latin America, social hierarchies based on race and cultural differences exist

Class, cultural identity, urban space factor into your hierarchy/social status

Identity in Bolivia expressed or described by its conduct-> Clothing, neighborhood, topographic space (Himepele pp. 35)

“Rather than verbally self-identify as Indian or indigenous, most people represent their social status and cultural identity through clothing” (Himepele pp. 34)

Ethnicity & Class

San Pedro - “Gente del pueblo” (Himpele pp.34)

“The highly… slippery meanings of urban identity were evident to me in La Paz, especially in the neighborhood of San Pedro.

Clothing = showcase for cultural identity and status

Urban vs. Countryside Indigenous Culture

Urban = upper class

Mestizos: urban-born generation

Usually the sons/daughters of those born in the countryside, most often wear western clothes

Higher on social hierarchy

Countryside = lower class

Cholos, cholitas, polleros: Indigenous born in the countryside . Recognisable by their wide skirts, braided hair and bowler hats.

“banned from using public transport and entering certain public spaces. Their career opportunities were severely limited. While these women have been organising and advocating their civil rights since at least the 1960s, their movement was invigorated by Evo Morales’ election as Bolivia’s first indigenous president in 2006.” (Leal 2018)

Al Jazeera - “Indigenous Bolivians fear renewed racism after Morales removed” (Sanchez 2019)

PERU – Peru declared independence from Spain in 1821

People and Society (CIA World Factbook 2020)

Official languages 82.9% Spanish 13.6% Quechua 1.6% Aymara

Cultural Identity → Ethnicity & Class

Cultural dynamics have historically characterized racial and ethnic relations in Peru (Gotkowitz pp. 280)

Examples: The use of leftist labels in forging rural “peasant” identities. The appropriation of Inca histories and mythologies by elites

Peruvian racial mixture and migration produced a wide array of indigenous identities that did not easily fit into the “Indigenous” classification. → Mestizaje

Moving from assimilationist policies to more multicultural policies → Indigenous language = culturally important -> Indigenous language rights

Why the history of race and racism in Bolivia & Peru is related to but also differs widely from either the region that we think of as “Latin America” or the “Caribbean.”

Indigenous populations in Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Mexico, and Guatemala account for 90% of the indigenous population in the Americas (Gotkowitz pp. 3)

Positive correlation between ethnic conflics and social status, power, and wealth (Albo pp.17).

Bolivia and Peru share similar histories as they were both part of the Incan empire in the pre-Columbian period

[ethn119groupd]

Demographics

 Summary

Although indigenous populations in the highlands of Peru and Bolivia make up a significant amount of the population, they have been historically subjected to a lower status since colonization and suppressed from being represented and having access to basic needs.  The communities are inaccurately represented and associated with derogatory words such a “peasant” as seen in the Bolivia’s 2012 census and also in general in society. A majority live in rural areas and are living in poverty, making them more vulnerable because of their lack of access to healthcare and other important resources. Many have adopted Christianity as their religion, a main goal from their colonizers (Spaniards) in deviating them away from their traditional beliefs. Education is also another struggle being faced by these communities not only due to the shortage of staff in schools and low-quality education but also the schools push in teaching them in Spanish and not their native languages. Overall, indigenous populations in the highlands of Peru and Bolivia have long been repressed into living a lower quality of life that leaves them struggling not only in having necessities but also being able to hold on their traditional beliefs/values and way of life. 

This is not the only case for indigenous people in Bolivia and Peru, unfortunately this is reflected throughout Abya Yala’s history since colonization, as they are almost always categorized as the lesser race and kept this way by being associated with belittling terms, shunned by society, and neglected by their government. Indigenous people and their traditions are thus completely ignored or forced to adapt to modern society in order to survive. By doing so they also lose touch with their culture and become part of the lost history of indigenous people in Abya Yala.

[ethn119groupd]

Politics

Bolivia 

General Assessment of Politics in Bolivia 

The Modern Political climate of Bolivia speaks volumes of the effects that happen as a result of Colonization/ Us Imperialism, and embodies the neglectment of the Indigenous people and the continual suppression of their voices.  

Key figures

Evo Morales (First Indigenous President for Bolivia, Advocated for Socialist policies, looked down upon by other world leaders, speaks of the Indigenous people’s  plight, allegations of voter suppression and rigged elections smeared his reelection, Military Coup and a right wing government took over) 

Janine Anez Chavez (Majority leader in Bolivian congress, took power after military coup, disputed Evo Morales’ election, right winged, First action taken in office was to take down Wiphala Flag) 

Luis Fernando Camacho (Spoke in opposition to Evo Morales, Right Winged, Backed by Racist Elite) 

Luis Arce (Socialist, won Presidency in a land slide victory, Signaled a return to a Evo Morales Government ) 

Summary 

Its apparent that there’s still a battle in Bolivia for Indigenous rights. Even in the case of securing presidency Indigenous people still have to fight against Far right disruptors like Luis Fernando Camacho. The story of Evo Morales tells this.  

Peru 

General Assessment of Politics in Peru 

The History of Peru’s government takes a tale of many Military Coups along with many unpopular political figureheads People Vote in multiple rounds for their candidate, many people don’t align themselves with particular political party, Political issues align with the reduction of poverty, diversification of GDP away from China and US, and Mining laws. Many Indigenous groups are largely ignored, despite making up most of the population No particular Indigenous political party, little representation Different political leaders in the last ~30 years

Key Figures

Alan Garcia (Very Corrupt, Right wing, “Garcia said he could not let indigenous communities stop development that would benefit all Peruvians, and neglected indigenous people over the Peru’s economy 

Alberto Fujimori (Focused on the recovering Peru economy, Forced sterilization of indigenous people, arrested for crimes against leftist guerrillas, and participated in embezzlement) 

Alejandro Toledo (First Indigenous President, smeared by drug use and corruption, “President of all Peruvians and of all races” advocated for the end of human rights abuses and increase tourism) 

Olanna Humana (Reduce Poverty, took hold of the free market and imposed government restrictions, lead a military coup) 

Pedro Pablo Kaczynski (Center right, Roots in England and Poland, Corruption, rigged election accusations, Denied Indigenous people’s want for the end of oil pollution and mining) 

Summary 

Peru appears to be plagued with corrupt leaders who have little regard for their indigenous people. Even after finding a indigenous president, Alejandro Toledo followed the general trend of corruption. Having his presidency riddled with scandals. 

Work Cited

AFP News Agency. “Bolivia: How the Crisis Unfolded | AFP.” YouTube, uploaded by AFP News Agency, 27 Nov. 2019, www.youtube.com/watch?v=gXh9USJdp_0.

Al Jazeera English. “Peru Swears in President Manuel Merino amid Political Turmoil.” YouTube, uploaded by Al Jazeera English, 11 Nov. 2020, www.youtube.com/watch?v=4RuZn7zLJRk.

FRANCE 24 English. “Who’s Who in Bolivia’s Political Crisis.” YouTube, uploaded by FRANCE 24 English, 14 Nov. 2019, www.youtube.com/watch?v=_klon5YNwqs&t=582s.

Jabzy. “Peru | Basic Politics.” YouTube, uploaded by Jabzy, 9 Feb. 2017, www.youtube.com/watch?v=K9i1X8b9CZs.

Washington Post. “Coup or No Coup: Why the Loaded Term Is Dividing Bolivia.” YouTube, uploaded by Washington Post, 15 Nov. 2019, www.youtube.com/watch?v=IfyitiMQagE.

7zLJRk.

[ethn119groupd]

Economics - Bolivia

Bolivia is ranked the 30th out of 32 countries in Abya Yala, making its overall score far below the regional and world averages. Under Spanish rule, the country of Bolivia became extremely wealthy after discovering silver deposits. Potosi soon became a silver mining city which was worked primarily by the indigenous population of Bolivia. This trade market demonstrated a faulty distribution of wealth because Bolivia soon became a wealthy country, yet the wealth was not  issued to the indigenous population who often were forced to provide labor for the mines.  Bolivia’s common exports today are natural gas, silver, zinc, lead, tin, gold, quinoa, and soybeans. 

Wealthy upper-class elites tend to be of Spanish ancestry. They have traditionally dominated political and economic life, whereas most Bolivians are indigenous, low-income miners and farmers. The mining industry creates unhealthy living conditions along with high-risk, low paying jobs.

Notice the concentrated colors in similar regions on both maps? The map on the left shows the geographical location of indigenous people in Bolivia. The map on the right is a geographical image that illustrates where the most impoverished families are.

Bolivia’s economic system can be defined as a mixed economic system which includes a variety of private freedom, combined with centralized economic planning and government regulation. 

Currency: Bolivian boliviano (BOB)

Economics - Peru

Peru is ranked the 8th out of 32 countries in Abya Yala, making its overall score way above the regional and world averages. In colonial economy, the country of Peru became extremely wealthy under the Spanish after discovering gold. Yanacocha is the largest gold mining site in Abya Yala which was worked primarily by indigenous and Black slaves.  Peru remained under Spanish control for almost 300 years, leaving all the wealth produced from the trade of gold to the Spaniards.  Peru’s common exports today are copper, gold, petroleum oils, and zinc ores. Not commonly mentioned is the production of coca (cocaine) in Peru. It is the second largest coca producer after Colombia. 

Peru is classified as a social market economy that includes a  high level of foreign trade and exports. A social market economy common indicators are: a free market capitalist economy and social policies that establish fair competition within the market.

Summary

The economic policies and history cannot be ignored when analyzing how indigenous people are living in present day. Although in Bolivia indigenous folks are considered the majority, they are still marginalized and are isolated from the socioeconomic upward mobility. We cannot ignore that the economic policy of a country affects the people. The situation is no different in Peru. It is a common trend within both countries including greater Abya Yala that colonizers exhaust the land and people native to the land.

[ethn119groupd]

Peru’s early colonial landscapes were experienced and portrayed by the Spanish. Peru has stepped pyramids, squares and temples (Norte Chico Civilization 3700 BC- 1800 BC). Peru landscape change when technology was introduced because of technology Peru moved into agricultural technology. This meaning it effective grew a rapid growth of region’s population that made it more prone to war.  

Colonial~ Peru

Peru has borders North of Ecuador and Colombia and East of Republic of Brazil and Bolivia. 

Peru has become a democracy, the battle against terrorism has been won, and inflation is under control. Peruvian War of Independence from Spain started 1811 and ended 1826. Peru fought nine wars. The Republic of Peru started in 1821 and lasted to present day.

[ethn119groupd]

Colonial~ Bolivia

The flag of Bolivia represents historical overview over their land colonialization. For over 500 years Bolivia has suffered from the struggle with white Europeans. Bolivians suffered from the oppression of Europeans whom asserted their dominance on the native people by taking land and creating multiple industries. The majority of Bolivians are made of poor, indigenous people.  After the revolution in 1952, social change was created within the indigenous people and the lower class. Before the 1952 revolution, the neoliberal reforms took over with the dominant classes and multiple industries. Neoliberal reforms racialized inequalities. In December of 2005, Evo Morales was elected to be the first Indigenous president in Bolivia. His campaign was extremely vital to the Bolivian revolution because it fought against the neoliberal economic model. Morales promised to empower indigenous and lower class which created the movement towards socialism. The movement had goals to reduced poverty by using funds from state-run industries. Other goals of this movement included improving hospitals, schools, and public projects.  

[ethn119groupd]

1952 popular revolution/ Bolivian revolution

One of the earliest instances of social organization in bolivia can be traced to the 1952 popular revolution also known as the bolivian revolution. Due to the nations dependence on exporting raw materials much of the Bolivian population worked in mines and farms. In 1952 these people and parts of the middle class rose up to bring change to the nation. The main accomplishments of their revolution included the nationalization of mines, land reform, and voting rights for peasant farmers and women in Bolivia. Much of their changes were based off of indigenous values and practices. This included the community being very close knit including helping one another with harvests, clearing roads, bringing water, and more. The decisions made were always based on the needs and wants of the people as they made them collectively. They did this through the unions established as they represented the miners, but always spoke and worked with teachers, transportation workers, students, and all other groups that were advocating for workers rights.

Bolivia “Water War”

After the 1952 popular revolution Bolivia faced a decline in social organizations and activity as a result of many things changing within the country. The year 2000 was when it began to pick up again with the people's response to attempted privatization of water in Cohabamba. The company was hiking their prices as well as making water less accessible to people by raising the price of connections. This prompted many people from different working backgrounds to come together in protesting these changes. These were huge demonstrations that halted business as usual in the city and ended up being successful. The company was asked to leave and the local government regained control of the water supply.

Peruvian Protests against mining

Throughout the late 2000’s and early 2010’s Peru has had many conflicts surrounding mining and land disputes. One of the largest disputes has been in Cajamarca where the people were fighting against a $4.8 billion gold mining project by American company Newmont. The main concern of peruvians in the area was the pollution of their water sources. The company proposes replacing these water sources with reservoirs, known as the Conga project, but the people know that would not be sustainable and would significantly impact their livelihood. The people protested in order to try and stop the project including sabotaging machinery and clashing with police. This movement was not solely in Cajamarca as people around the country held actions in support of not continuing with this construction. The Peruvian government showed support for this project and others really showed people that they might not have their interests as a priority as they tried to portray.

Red- Areas under mining concessions meaning they are areas allocated by the government for mining

White- Majority jungle region which 70% is under concession for oil and gas exploration

[ethn119groupd]

Economics - Bolivia

Bolivia is ranked the 30th out of 32 countries in Abya Yala, making its overall score far below the regional and world averages. Under Spanish rule, the country of Bolivia became extremely wealthy after discovering silver deposits. Potosi soon became a silver mining city which was worked primarily by the indigenous population of Bolivia. This trade market demonstrated a faulty distribution of wealth because Bolivia soon became a wealthy country, yet the wealth was not  issued to the indigenous population who often were forced to provide labor for the mines.  Bolivia’s common exports today are natural gas, silver, zinc, lead, tin, gold, quinoa, and soybeans. 

Wealthy upper-class elites tend to be of Spanish ancestry. They have traditionally dominated political and economic life, whereas most Bolivians are indigenous, low-income miners and farmers. The mining industry creates unhealthy living conditions along with high-risk, low paying jobs.

Notice the concentrated colors in similar regions on both maps? The map on the left shows the geographical location of indigenous people in Bolivia. The map on the right is a geographical image that illustrates where the most impoverished families are.

Bolivia’s economic system can be defined as a mixed economic system which includes a variety of private freedom, combined with centralized economic planning and government regulation. 

Currency: Bolivian boliviano (BOB)

Economics - Peru

Peru is ranked the 8th out of 32 countries in Abya Yala, making its overall score way above the regional and world averages. In colonial economy, the country of Peru became extremely wealthy under the Spanish after discovering gold. Yanacocha is the largest gold mining site in Abya Yala which was worked primarily by indigenous and Black slaves.  Peru remained under Spanish control for almost 300 years, leaving all the wealth produced from the trade of gold to the Spaniards.  Peru’s common exports today are copper, gold, petroleum oils, and zinc ores. Not commonly mentioned is the production of coca (cocaine) in Peru. It is the second largest coca producer after Colombia. 

Peru is classified as a social market economy that includes a  high level of foreign trade and exports. A social market economy common indicators are: a free market capitalist economy and social policies that establish fair competition within the market.

Summary

The economic policies and history cannot be ignored when analyzing how indigenous people are living in present day. Although in Bolivia indigenous folks are considered the majority, they are still marginalized and are isolated from the socioeconomic upward mobility. We cannot ignore that the economic policy of a country affects the people. The situation is no different in Peru. It is a common trend within both countries including greater Abya Yala that colonizers exhaust the land and people native to the land.

[ethn119groupd]

Politics

Bolivia 

General Assessment of Politics in Bolivia 

The Modern Political climate of Bolivia speaks volumes of the effects that happen as a result of Colonization/ Us Imperialism, and embodies the neglectment of the Indigenous people and the continual suppression of their voices.  

Key figures

Evo Morales (First Indigenous President for Bolivia, Advocated for Socialist policies, looked down upon by other world leaders, speaks of the Indigenous people's  plight, allegations of voter suppression and rigged elections smeared his reelection, Military Coup and a right wing government took over) 

Janine Anez Chavez (Majority leader in Bolivian congress, took power after military coup, disputed Evo Morales’ election, right winged, First action taken in office was to take down Wiphala Flag) 

Luis Fernando Camacho (Spoke in opposition to Evo Morales, Right Winged, Backed by Racist Elite) 

Luis Arce (Socialist, won Presidency in a land slide victory, Signaled a return to a Evo Morales Government ) 

Summary 

Its apparent that there's still a battle in Bolivia for Indigenous rights. Even in the case of securing presidency Indigenous people still have to fight against Far right disruptors like Luis Fernando Camacho. The story of Evo Morales tells this.  

Peru 

General Assessment of Politics in Peru 

The History of Peru’s government takes a tale of many Military Coups along with many unpopular political figureheads People Vote in multiple rounds for their candidate, many people don't align themselves with particular political party, Political issues align with the reduction of poverty, diversification of GDP away from China and US, and Mining laws. Many Indigenous groups are largely ignored, despite making up most of the population No particular Indigenous political party, little representation Different political leaders in the last ~30 years

Key Figures

Alan Garcia (Very Corrupt, Right wing, “Garcia said he could not let indigenous communities stop development that would benefit all Peruvians, and neglected indigenous people over the Peru’s economy 

Alberto Fujimori (Focused on the recovering Peru economy, Forced sterilization of indigenous people, arrested for crimes against leftist guerrillas, and participated in embezzlement) 

Alejandro Toledo (First Indigenous President, smeared by drug use and corruption, "President of all Peruvians and of all races” advocated for the end of human rights abuses and increase tourism) 

Olanna Humana (Reduce Poverty, took hold of the free market and imposed government restrictions, lead a military coup) 

Pedro Pablo Kaczynski (Center right, Roots in England and Poland, Corruption, rigged election accusations, Denied Indigenous people’s want for the end of oil pollution and mining) 

Summary 

Peru appears to be plagued with corrupt leaders who have little regard for their indigenous people. Even after finding a indigenous president, Alejandro Toledo followed the general trend of corruption. Having his presidency riddled with scandals. 

Work Cited

AFP News Agency. “Bolivia: How the Crisis Unfolded | AFP.” YouTube, uploaded by AFP News Agency, 27 Nov. 2019, www.youtube.com/watch?v=gXh9USJdp_0.

Al Jazeera English. “Peru Swears in President Manuel Merino amid Political Turmoil.” YouTube, uploaded by Al Jazeera English, 11 Nov. 2020, www.youtube.com/watch?v=4RuZn7zLJRk.

FRANCE 24 English. “Who’s Who in Bolivia’s Political Crisis.” YouTube, uploaded by FRANCE 24 English, 14 Nov. 2019, www.youtube.com/watch?v=_klon5YNwqs&t=582s.

Jabzy. “Peru | Basic Politics.” YouTube, uploaded by Jabzy, 9 Feb. 2017, www.youtube.com/watch?v=K9i1X8b9CZs.

Washington Post. “Coup or No Coup: Why the Loaded Term Is Dividing Bolivia.” YouTube, uploaded by Washington Post, 15 Nov. 2019, www.youtube.com/watch?v=IfyitiMQagE.

7zLJRk.

[ethn119groupd]

1952 popular revolution/ Bolivian revolution

One of the earliest instances of social organization in bolivia can be traced to the 1952 popular revolution also known as the bolivian revolution. Due to the nations dependence on exporting raw materials much of the Bolivian population worked in mines and farms. In 1952 these people and parts of the middle class rose up to bring change to the nation. The main accomplishments of their revolution included the nationalization of mines, land reform, and voting rights for peasant farmers and women in Bolivia. Much of their changes were based off of indigenous values and practices. This included the community being very close knit including helping one another with harvests, clearing roads, bringing water, and more. The decisions made were always based on the needs and wants of the people as they made them collectively. They did this through the unions established as they represented the miners, but always spoke and worked with teachers, transportation workers, students, and all other groups that were advocating for workers rights.

Bolivia “Water War”

After the 1952 popular revolution Bolivia faced a decline in social organizations and activity as a result of many things changing within the country. The year 2000 was when it began to pick up again with the people's response to attempted privatization of water in Cohabamba. The company was hiking their prices as well as making water less accessible to people by raising the price of connections. This prompted many people from different working backgrounds to come together in protesting these changes. These were huge demonstrations that halted business as usual in the city and ended up being successful. The company was asked to leave and the local government regained control of the water supply.

Peruvian Protests against mining

Throughout the late 2000’s and early 2010’s Peru has had many conflicts surrounding mining and land disputes. One of the largest disputes has been in Cajamarca where the people were fighting against a $4.8 billion gold mining project by American company Newmont. The main concern of peruvians in the area was the pollution of their water sources. The company proposes replacing these water sources with reservoirs, known as the Conga project, but the people know that would not be sustainable and would significantly impact their livelihood. The people protested in order to try and stop the project including sabotaging machinery and clashing with police. This movement was not solely in Cajamarca as people around the country held actions in support of not continuing with this construction. The Peruvian government showed support for this project and others really showed people that they might not have their interests as a priority as they tried to portray.

Red- Areas under mining concessions meaning they are areas allocated by the government for mining

White- Majority jungle region which 70% is under concession for oil and gas exploration

[ethn119groupd]

Colonial~ Bolivia

The flag of Bolivia represents historical overview over their land colonialization. For over 500 years Bolivia has suffered from the struggle with white Europeans. Bolivians suffered from the oppression of Europeans whom asserted their dominance on the native people by taking land and creating multiple industries. The majority of Bolivians are made of poor, indigenous people.  After the revolution in 1952, social change was created within the indigenous people and the lower class. Before the 1952 revolution, the neoliberal reforms took over with the dominant classes and multiple industries. Neoliberal reforms racialized inequalities. In December of 2005, Evo Morales was elected to be the first Indigenous president in Bolivia. His campaign was extremely vital to the Bolivian revolution because it fought against the neoliberal economic model. Morales promised to empower indigenous and lower class which created the movement towards socialism. The movement had goals to reduced poverty by using funds from state-run industries. Other goals of this movement included improving hospitals, schools, and public projects.  

[ethn119groupd]

Colonial~ Peru

Peru has borders North of Ecuador and Colombia and East of Republic of Brazil and Bolivia. 

Peru has become a democracy, the battle against terrorism has been won, and inflation is under control. Peruvian War of Independence from Spain started 1811 and ended 1826. Peru fought nine wars. The Republic of Peru started in 1821 and lasted to present day.

[ethn119groupd]

Demographics

 Summary

Although indigenous populations in the highlands of Peru and Bolivia make up a significant amount of the population, they have been historically subjected to a lower status since colonization and suppressed from being represented and having access to basic needs.  The communities are inaccurately represented and associated with derogatory words such a “peasant” as seen in the Bolivia’s 2012 census and also in general in society. A majority live in rural areas and are living in poverty, making them more vulnerable because of their lack of access to healthcare and other important resources. Many have adopted Christianity as their religion, a main goal from their colonizers (Spaniards) in deviating them away from their traditional beliefs. Education is also another struggle being faced by these communities not only due to the shortage of staff in schools and low-quality education but also the schools push in teaching them in Spanish and not their native languages. Overall, indigenous populations in the highlands of Peru and Bolivia have long been repressed into living a lower quality of life that leaves them struggling not only in having necessities but also being able to hold on their traditional beliefs/values and way of life. 

This is not the only case for indigenous people in Bolivia and Peru, unfortunately this is reflected throughout Abya Yala’s history since colonization, as they are almost always categorized as the lesser race and kept this way by being associated with belittling terms, shunned by society, and neglected by their government. Indigenous people and their traditions are thus completely ignored or forced to adapt to modern society in order to survive. By doing so they also lose touch with their culture and become part of the lost history of indigenous people in Abya Yala.

[ethn119groupd]

Culture - Outline

BOLIVIA-- Named after Simon Bolivar -- proponent for independence -- Broke away from Spanish rule in 1825

Cultural Identity

One of the few Latin American nations with a majority poor and indigenous population

Languages (CIA World Factbook 2020) : 60.7% Spanish, 21.2% Quechua, 14.6% Aymara

Unlike other sections of Latin America that have a large and sometimes even dominating portion of European populations, this region has “remained dominantly indigenous since the Spanish invasion of the Andes almost 500 years earlier” (Himpele pp. xiii).

Evo Morales Ayma = first indigenous president and leader of the Movimiento al Socialismo (MAS) (Gotkowitz) -> Promised to empower the poor indigenous majority

Indigenous populations are still discriminated against in all areas of life

Previously assimilationsist educational policies

Assimilationist cultural ideology linked to nationhood

Now moving towards multiculturalism

Circuits of Culture: Media, Politics, and Indigenous Ident7890ity in the Andes -> Like many parts of Latin America, social hierarchies based on race and cultural differences exist

Class, cultural identity, urban space factor into your hierarchy/social status

Identity in Bolivia expressed or described by its conduct-> Clothing, neighborhood, topographic space (Himepele pp. 35)

“Rather than verbally self-identify as Indian or indigenous, most people represent their social status and cultural identity through clothing” (Himepele pp. 34)

Ethnicity & Class

San Pedro - “Gente del pueblo” (Himpele pp.34)

“The highly... slippery meanings of urban identity were evident to me in La Paz, especially in the neighborhood of San Pedro.

Clothing = showcase for cultural identity and status

Urban vs. Countryside Indigenous Culture

Urban = upper class

Mestizos: urban-born generation

Usually the sons/daughters of those born in the countryside, most often wear western clothes

Higher on social hierarchy

Countryside = lower class

Cholos, cholitas, polleros: Indigenous born in the countryside . Recognisable by their wide skirts, braided hair and bowler hats.

“banned from using public transport and entering certain public spaces. Their career opportunities were severely limited. While these women have been organising and advocating their civil rights since at least the 1960s, their movement was invigorated by Evo Morales’ election as Bolivia’s first indigenous president in 2006.” (Leal 2018)

Al Jazeera - “Indigenous Bolivians fear renewed racism after Morales removed” (Sanchez 2019)

PERU -- Peru declared independence from Spain in 1821

People and Society (CIA World Factbook 2020)

Official languages 82.9% Spanish 13.6% Quechua 1.6% Aymara

Cultural Identity → Ethnicity & Class

Cultural dynamics have historically characterized racial and ethnic relations in Peru (Gotkowitz pp. 280)

Examples: The use of leftist labels in forging rural “peasant” identities. The appropriation of Inca histories and mythologies by elites

Peruvian racial mixture and migration produced a wide array of indigenous identities that did not easily fit into the “Indigenous” classification. → Mestizaje

Moving from assimilationist policies to more multicultural policies → Indigenous language = culturally important -> Indigenous language rights

Why the history of race and racism in Bolivia & Peru is related to but also differs widely from either the region that we think of as "Latin America" or the "Caribbean."

Indigenous populations in Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Mexico, and Guatemala account for 90% of the indigenous population in the Americas (Gotkowitz pp. 3)

Positive correlation between ethnic conflics and social status, power, and wealth (Albo pp.17).

Bolivia and Peru share similar histories as they were both part of the Incan empire in the pre-Columbian period

[ethn119groupd]

Culture - Summary

My analysis on Bolivia and Peru revealed that in both countries, ethnicity and class are linked in a racial societal dynamic in both the Bolivian highlands and Peru. Since the 1990s, political, social, and cultural movements have moved towards a multicultural view that has begun to reaffirm indigenous identity and culture, the protection of indigenous rights, and the enhanced participation of indigenous peoples. But even with these policies in place and although Aymara and Quechua indigenous makeup from 50 to 60% of the population in Peru and Bolivia, they are still heavily discriminated against.

As a result, assimilationist policies, social hierarchies, and ethnic wars have also arisen within both of these regions.

I also found that Peru and Bolivia covered similar racial and cultural realities of discrimination and assimilation such as banning indigenous clothing in professional and public settings, not being allowed to use public transportation, and not allowed into public spaces.

At the historical levels, the functioning of authority, status, and representation are similar, with the exception of modern Bolivia. Although, according to journalist and researcher Eduardo Leal, native Aymara and Quechua women’s rights have been “socially ostracised and systematically marginalised” within the past 10 years, indigenous voices have also been invigorated by the election of Aymaran indigenous president, Evo Morales (2018).