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Palestine / Israel

Modern History and the Zionist Movement

Rise of Zionism (Late 19th Century):

Theodor Herzl and others promoted the idea of establishing a Jewish homeland in Palestine due to rising European anti-Semitism.

Waves of Jewish immigration began under Ottoman rule, with settlements expanding in Palestine.

World War I and British Mandate (1917–1948):

Britain issued the Balfour Declaration (1917), supporting a Jewish homeland in Palestine while also promising to respect Arab rights.

After WWI, Palestine became a British Mandate under the League of Nations, creating tensions between Jews and Arabs.

Growing Conflict:

Jewish immigration increased, especially during the Holocaust.

Arab revolts (1936–1939) and clashes with Jews escalated, with both sides resisting British rule.

The Creation of Israel and War (1948)

UN Partition Plan (1947):

The UN proposed dividing Palestine into Jewish and Arab states, with Jerusalem as an international city.

Jews accepted the plan; Arabs rejected it.

Declaration of Israel (1948):

On May 14, 1948, Israel declared independence. The next day, neighboring Arab states invaded, resulting in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War.

Israel won, expanding its territory. Over 700,000 Palestinians fled or were expelled, an event known as the Nakba ("Catastrophe").

Post-1948 Conflicts

Six-Day War (1967):

Israel captured the West Bank, Gaza Strip, East Jerusalem, Golan Heights, and Sinai Peninsula. These areas remain central to the conflict.

The occupation of the West Bank and Gaza intensified tensions with Palestinians.

Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO):

Founded in 1964, the PLO, led by Yasser Arafat, aimed to establish a Palestinian state. It used both diplomacy and armed resistance.

Yom Kippur War (1973):

Egypt and Syria launched a surprise attack on Israel. The war ended with no significant territorial changes but led to the Camp David Accords (1978), where Egypt recognized Israel in exchange for Sinai.

Peace Efforts and Continuing Conflict

Oslo Accords (1993–1995):

Historic agreements between Israel and the PLO established limited Palestinian self-rule in parts of the West Bank and Gaza.

Hopes for peace faded due to ongoing violence and failed final-status talks.

Second Intifada (2000–2005):

A Palestinian uprising erupted, marked by violence, Israeli military crackdowns, and continued expansion of Israeli settlements.

Gaza and Hamas:

In 2007, Hamas took control of Gaza, leading to frequent conflicts with Israel. Israel maintains a blockade on Gaza, citing security concerns.

Key Issues Today

Jerusalem:

Both Israelis and Palestinians claim Jerusalem as their capital. Its status remains highly contentious.

Settlements:

Israeli settlements in the West Bank are considered illegal under international law by most nations but continue to expand.

Two-State Solution:

A proposed resolution involves creating a Palestinian state alongside Israel. Efforts have repeatedly failed due to mistrust and unresolved issues.

Humanitarian Crisis:

Palestinians in Gaza and the West Bank face economic hardship, restricted movement, and lack of basic resources.

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Ronald Reagan / Reaganomics

Ronald Reagan was the 40th President of the United States, serving from 1981 to 1989. He was a Republican and a former Hollywood actor and Governor of California (1967–1975 [elected and re-elected]). *Reagan was elected President in 1980, defeating Jimmy Carter.* ◘ Economic Policies: Advocated for "Reaganomics," emphasizing tax cuts (he promised it in 1980), reduced government spending, deregulation to stimulate economic growth and monetary control to combat inflation. ◘ Cold War Leadership: Took a hardline stance against the Soviet Union, famously calling it the "evil empire." His negotiations with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev helped ease tensions and contributed to the Cold War's end. ◘ Reagan is remembered for his charismatic communication style, earning him the nickname "The Great Communicator." His presidency is often associated with conservative policies and a strong stance against communism.

REAGANOMICS ☛The Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 lowered income tax rates across all brackets, with the top marginal tax rate reduced from 70% to 50%. ☛Reagan removed regulations in industries such as energy, transportation, and banking to encourage competition and reduce government intervention. ☛While Reagan cut funding for many domestic programs, especially in social welfare. ☛Reagan worked closely with Federal Reserve Chairman Paul Volcker, who raised interest rates to combat inflation, leading to a sharp decline in inflation by the mid-1980s.

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ESTUDIOS CONTEMPORÁNEOS EN INGLÉS p.2

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Watergate Scandal (1972)

1. Background The Watergate incident began with a break-in at the Democratic National Committee headquarters located in the Watergate office complex in Washington, D.C., on June 17, 1972. ●Five men were arrested for attempting to wiretap phones and steal documents as part of a larger effort to undermine Democratic opponents. 2. Nixon's Involvement Although initially denied, it was revealed that members of President Richard Nixon's administration were involved in the break-in and subsequent cover-up. ●The Nixon administration attempted to obstruct the investigation through hush money, false testimony, and the firing of officials who pursued the truth, notably during the "Saturday Night Massacre (October 20,1973)." 3. Investigative Reporting Journalists Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein of The Washington Post played crucial roles in uncovering the scandal, leading to increased public scrutiny. 4.Senate Investigation A Senate committee began televised hearings in 1973, exposing details of the cover-up and drawing significant public attention. 5. White House Tapes The revelation of audio tapes recorded by Nixon in the Oval Office became central to the investigation, particularly one that revealed his involvement in the cover-up. 6. Impeachment Proceedings The House Judiciary Committee approved articles of impeachment against Nixon in 1974, charging him with obstruction of justice, abuse of power, and contempt of Congress. -Nixon's Resignation: Facing imminent impeachment and removal from office, Nixon resigned on August 8, 1974, becoming the first U.S. president to do so.

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Vietnam War (1955-1975)

The Vietnam War lasted from November 1, 1955, to April 30, 1975, involving North Vietnam and its communist allies against South Vietnam and the United States. -The conflict arose from the struggle between communist and non-communist forces in Vietnam, influenced by the broader context of the Cold War and decolonization. -The U.S. became heavily involved in the early 1960s, escalating military support to South Vietnam to combat the spread of communism. 2. Public Opposition The war faced significant opposition in the U.S., with widespread protests, particularly among college students, and growing disillusionment with government narratives. The war officially ended with the fall of Saigon on April 30, 1975, leading to the reunification of Vietnam under communist control.

EXTRAS...

-A conflict between communist North Vietnam (supported by the Soviet Union and China) and non-communist South Vietnam (supported by the U.S.). -It became a symbol of Cold War tensions and was highly controversial in the U.S. -North Vietnamese victory, fall of Saigon in 1975. -Vietnam unified under communist rule.

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The Summer of Love (1967)

The Summer of Love occurred in 1967, primarily centered in San Francisco's Haight-Ashbury district. It was a pivotal moment for the counterculture movement, characterized by a rejection of mainstream values and the embrace of peace, love, and communal living. 2. Youth Population An estimated 100,000 young people, known as "hippies," flocked to San Francisco, seeking alternative lifestyles and spiritual experiences. 3. Political Context The movement was partly a reaction against the Vietnam War, civil rights issues, and the conservative social norms of the 1950s. 4. Psychedelic Experience ◦The use of psychedelics, particularly LSD, became popular during this time, often associated with spiritual exploration and creative expression. ◦The mantra of "Make Love, Not War" symbolized the movement's emphasis on peace, love, and non-violence. ◦Embraced alternative lifestyles and rejected mainstream materialism. 5. Historical Significance The Summer of Love is seen as a defining moment in the 1960s cultural revolution, influencing future generations' views on community, identity, and social change.

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Cold War (1947-1991)

1. Overview It was a period of intense geopolitical tension between the United States and its Western allies (NATO) and the Soviet Union and its Eastern Bloc allies (Warsaw Pact). It was characterized by political, ideological, military, and economic rivalry between the capitalist West, led by the U.S., and the communist East, led by the Soviet Union. 2. Causes ✦Post-WWII Tensions. ✦Soviet Expansion in Eastern Europe: After the war, the Soviet Union established communist governments in Eastern Europe, creating a buffer zone against the West. This was seen by the U.S. and its allies as aggressive expansionism. ✦Nuclear Arms Race: The U.S. development of the atomic bomb in 1945 and the Soviet Union’s successful test of its own bomb in 1949 fueled a global nuclear arms race. 3. Key Characteristics -Ideological Conflict: Capitalism and Communism. -Space Race: A competition for dominance in space exploration, starting with the Soviet launch of Sputnik in 1957 and culminating in the U.S. landing Apollo 11 on the Moon in 1969. 4. Major Events ✧Truman Doctrine (1947): The U.S. declared its policy of containment, pledging to support countries resisting communism, marking the beginning of active U.S. involvement in Cold War conflicts. ✧Marshall Plan (1948): A U.S. initiative to provide economic aid to Western Europe to rebuild after WWII and prevent the spread of communism. ✧Berlin Blockade and Airlift (1948–1949): The Soviet Union blockaded West Berlin in an attempt to force the Allies out of the city. In response, the Allies organized the Berlin Airlift to supply the city. ✧Fall of the Berlin Wall (1989): The fall of the wall symbolized the collapse of communist regimes in Eastern Europe and was a key event leading to the end of the Cold War. 5. Key Players United States: Harry S. Truman (1945–1953): Initiated the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan. Dwight D. Eisenhower (1953–1961): Continued containment policies and saw the early Cold War crises. John F. Kennedy (1961–1963): Managed the Cuban Missile Crisis. Lyndon B. Johnson (1963–1969): Deepened U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War. Ronald Reagan (1981–1989): Aggressively opposed communism, leading to Cold War escalation and ultimately, a push toward the end of the conflict. 6. End of the Cold War Fall of Communism in Eastern Europe (1989): Popular uprisings and reforms led to the collapse of communist regimes across Eastern Europe, most famously marked by the fall of the Berlin Wall. Dissolution of the Soviet Union (1991): In December 1991, the Soviet Union officially dissolved, marking the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Eastern Bloc.

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The Truman Doctrine (March 12, 1947)

1. Overview

The Truman Doctrine was a U.S. foreign policy initiative announced by President Harry S. Truman on March 12, 1947. It aimed to provide economic and military aid to countries threatened by communism, marking a major shift in U.S. foreign policy toward containment of Soviet influence during the Cold War.

The doctrine is often considered the starting point of the Cold War, as it represented America's commitment to stopping the spread of communism globally.

2. Main Goals

-Containment of Communism.

-Support Free Peoples.

-Aid to Greece and Turkey.

3. Key Principles of the Truman Doctrine

-Containment.

-Bipolar World.

-Global Responsibility.

4. Impact on U.S. Foreign Policy

▹Marshall Plan (1947): The doctrine was followed by the Marshall Plan, which provided massive economic aid to help rebuild Europe and prevent the spread of communism through economic instability.

▹NATO Creation (1949): The Truman Doctrine also paved the way for the creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a military alliance of Western nations to counter the Soviet Union.

▹Warsaw Pact (1955): Treaty of friendship, cooperation and mutual assistance. A reaction of the integration of Germany in NATO. Heightened tensions during the Cold War, contributing to the division of Europe into Eastern(SU) and Western blocs(US).

-***Members: Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland and Romania.

5. Long-Term Consequences

➣Escalation of the Cold War: The Truman Doctrine signaled the start of a more aggressive stance against Soviet expansion, intensifying tensions between the U.S. and the Soviet Union.

➣U.S. Global Leadership: It marked the United States’ transition into a global superpower and a leader in promoting democracy and capitalism, shaping its foreign policy for decades to come.

➣Proxy Wars: The U.S. adopted a strategy of engaging in proxy wars and providing support to allies threatened by communist forces, as seen in the Korean War (1950-1953) and Vietnam War (1955-1975).

EXTRAS...

-Russia wanted the control of satellite states, while the other nations thought they should be free.

-The Soviet Union was destroyed in 1942 due to an economic crisis. X

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WW2 (1939-1945)

1. Overview It was a global conflict that involved most of the world’s nations, divided into two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis Powers. 2. Key Causes ➱Treaty of Versailles (1919): The harsh terms of the treaty that ended World War I, including heavy reparations imposed on Germany, contributed to economic instability and resentment, fueling the rise of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. ➱Rise of Fascism and Militarism: Aggressive expansion by Nazi Germany, Imperial Japan, and Fascist Italy destabilized international peace. These regimes sought territorial expansion and promoted authoritarianism. ➱Failure of Appeasement: This strategy failed when Germany invaded Poland in 1939. 3. Key Players Allied Powers: -United States (Franklin D. Roosevelt and later Harry S. Truman) -Soviet Union (Joseph Stalin) -United Kingdom (Winston Churchill) -China (Chiang Kai-shek) -France (Charles de Gaulle, after 1940 Nazi occupation) Axis Powers: -Germany (Adolf Hitler) -Japan (Emperor Hirohito and Prime Minister Hideki Tojo) -Italy (Benito Mussolini) 4. Major Events ■Germany’s invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939. ■Fall of France (1940): The fall of France was a significant early Axis victory. ■Battle of Britain (1940): Britain successfully defended itself against German air attacks. ■Operation Barbarossa (1941): Germany’s invasion of the Soviet Union, one of the largest military operations in history. ■Pearl Harbor (1941): On December 7, 1941, Japan attacked the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, leading to the United States’ entry into the war. ■D-Day (1944): On 6 June 1944, Allied forces launched a combined naval, air and land assault on Nazi-occupied France. ■Hiroshima and Nagasaki (1945). 5. End of the War ➧Germany’s Surrender: On May 7, 1945, Germany officially surrendered after the Allies captured Berlin, leading to Victory in Europe Day (V-E Day) on May 8, 1945. ➧Japan’s Surrender: After the atomic bombings and the Soviet Union’s declaration of war on Japan, Japan surrendered on August 15, 1945 (V-J Day), with formal surrender signed on September 2, 1945, ending WWII. 6. Key Consequences ●The United Nations (UN): In 1945, the UN was established to prevent future conflicts and promote international cooperation, replacing the ineffective League of Nations. ●Cold War: The geopolitical tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union, which emerged as the two superpowers after the war, led to the Cold War (1947–1991). ●The Marshall Plan (April 3, 1948): A U.S. initiative to help rebuild Western European economies after the war to prevent the spread of communism and ensure stability. 7. Technological and Military Innovations Radar, jet engines, ballistic missiles, and the atomic bomb. Naval warfare. Codebreaking.

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The Beat Generation

1. Definition of the Beat Generation It was a literary and cultural movement. The movement was characterized by a rejection of traditional values, a critique of materialism, and a deep search for meaning through spiritual exploration, artistic expression, and personal freedom. 2. Key Themes and Beliefs ‣Rejection of Conformity. ‣Spiritual Quest: Eastern religions (particularly Buddhism). ‣Experimentation: The Beat Generation embraced experimentation in writing, art, sexuality, and drugs as a way of achieving greater self-awareness and breaking free from societal restrictions. 3. Key Figures Jack Kerouac: Often considered the leader and most famous voice of the Beat Generation, Kerouac’s novel "On the Road" (1957) became the defining work of the movement. It describes the spontaneous cross-country travels of Kerouac and his friends in search of freedom, adventure, and meaning. Allen Ginsberg: A major poet of the movement, Ginsberg’s poem "Howl" (1956) was a landmark Beat work. It criticized capitalism, materialism, and conformity, and it explored taboo subjects like homosexuality and mental illness. William S. Burroughs: Known for his experimental writing style and dark subject matter, Burroughs’ novel "Naked Lunch" (1959) challenged conventional narrative structures and explored addiction, sexuality, and the subconscious. 4. Cultural Impact The Beat Generation had a significant influence on American culture, particularly in the realms of literature, music (jazz), and counterculture. The movement helped to lay the groundwork for the broader countercultural movements of the 1960s, including the hippie movement and the anti-Vietnam War protests. 5. Six Gallery Reading (1955) A key event in the Beat movement was the Six Gallery Reading in San Francisco, where Allen Ginsberg first read "Howl" to an audience. This reading marked the public debut of the Beat Generation and brought them into the national spotlight. 6. Legacy The Beat Generation’s focus on personal freedom, artistic experimentation, and social critique continues to resonate in modern culture. Its influence can be seen in everything from punk rock to spoken word poetry and even today’s discussions of spiritual awakening and anti-materialism. Kerouac, Ginsberg, Burroughs, and other Beats are now regarded as literary icons whose works remain widely read and studied for their contributions to American literature and culture.

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Civil Rights (50's n 60's)

1. Definition of Civil Rights Movement

A movement that sought to end racial segregation and discrimination against African Americans and secure equal rights under the law.

2. Historical Background

After the Civil War, African Americans gained rights through the 13th (abolition of slavery), 14th (equal protection under the law), and 15th (voting rights) Amendments, but Jim Crow laws in the South enforced racial segregation and disenfranchised Black Americans.

3. Key Events

○ Brown v. Board of Education (1954): A landmark Supreme Court ruling that declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional.

○ Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-1956): Sparked by Rosa Parks' arrest for refusing to give up her seat to a white person.

○ Little Rock Nine (1957): Nine African American students integrated Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas, amidst violent opposition, requiring federal troops to escort them.

○ March on Washington (1963): A massive rally in Washington, D.C., where Martin Luther King Jr. delivered his famous "I Have a Dream" speech, advocating for civil and economic rights.

4. Key Legislation

◇Civil Rights Act of 1964: This landmark law ended segregation in public places and banned employment discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin.

◇Voting Rights Act of 1965: Prohibited racial discrimination in voting, including the use of literacy tests and other methods used to disenfranchise African Americans.

5. Key Figures

-Martin Luther King Jr.:He was instrumental in leading many significant campaigns, including the Birmingham Campaign and the March on Washington.

-John Lewis: A prominent leader in the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC).

6. Strategies and Tactics

Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), SNCC, and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP).

7. Legacy

The movement served as a model for other social justice movements in the U.S. and around the world, including the women's rights, LGBTQ rights, and Black Lives Matter movements.

Selma, Alabama, is a city that played a pivotal role in the American Civil Rights Movement. It was the site of several significant events that highlighted the struggle for racial equality and voting rights.

Lincoln's issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863 declared the freedom of slaves in Confederate territories, a significant step towards ending slavery in the United States.

***When the event of Rosa Parks happened? December 1, 1955.

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American Dream

1. Definition of the American Dream

The faith that anyone who lives in this country has the potential to prosper and become wealthy.

It encompasses ideals such as freedom, equality, opportunity, and prosperity.

2. Origins and Evolution

➢The concept has roots in the founding principles of the United States, particularly in the Declaration of Independence, which states that "all men are created equal" with the right to "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness."

➢James Truslow Adams popularized the term "American Dream" in his 1931 book, The Epic of America. He defined it as a dream where “life should be better and richer and fuller for everyone, with opportunity for each according to ability or achievement.”

3. Historical Phases

-Early 20th Century: The American Dream was associated with immigration, where people sought freedom from oppression and economic hardship in Europe.

-The Great Depression (1929–1939): The American Dream became more focused on economic security and survival rather than wealth.

-Post-World War II Era: The American Dream flourished, with suburbanization, mass homeownership, and consumerism representing success.

-Civil Rights Movement (1950s-60s): The movement challenged the idea that the American Dream was equally accessible to all, particularly for African Americans and other marginalized groups.

4. Key Figures

■James Truslow Adams.

■F. Scott Fitzgerald: In The Great Gatsby (1925), he critiqued the American Dream, suggesting that the pursuit of wealth and materialism could lead to moral decay.

■Martin Luther King Jr.: In his "I Have a Dream" speech (1963), King linked the American Dream to racial equality and justice, expanding the idea beyond just economic opportunity.

***When was the concept of American Dream used for first time? By John Winthrop in 1630.

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WW1 (1914-1918)

1. Causes of WW1 ★Militarism: European powers built up large militaries and were prepared for war. ★Alliances: The two main alliances were: Triple Entente: France, Britain, Russia Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy (Italy switched sides in 1915). ★Imperialism: Competition for colonies fueled tensions among European powers. ★Nationalism: Intense national pride and desires for independence in multi-ethnic empires (especially in the Balkans) heightened tensions. ★Immediate Cause: The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary by Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian nationalist, in June 1914.

2. Key Events and Phases ✧1914: War begins after Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia. Soon, Germany declares war on Russia and France. Britain enters the war after Germany invades Belgium (a neutral country). ✧1915: Italy joins the Allies, while the Ottoman Empire joins the Central Powers. ✧1917: U.S. enters the war after Germany's unrestricted submarine warfare and the Zimmermann Telegram / Russia exits the war following the Bolshevik Revolution and the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany. ✧1918: Germany launches a last offensive in the spring, but it fails. By November, the Central Powers collapse, leading to an armistice on November 11, 1918.

3. Key Leaders: ◆Kaiser Wilhelm II: Emperor of Germany, whose aggressive foreign policy contributed to the war. ◆Woodrow Wilson: U.S. president during the war; proposed the Fourteen Points for peace.

4. Technological and Strategic Changes ·Trench Warfare. ·Poison gas. ·Trench Warfare. ·Tanks. ·Air warfare: Planes were used for reconnaissance and eventually combat. ·Submarines.

5. End of the War •Armistice Day: The fighting ended on November 11, 1918, with the signing of an armistice between the Allies and Germany. The war did not officially end until the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. •Treaty of Versailles (1919): - Blamed Germany for the war and imposed heavy reparations. - Germany was forced to disarm, give up territory, and accept responsibility for the war. The treaty also redrew national boundaries, creating new nations in Europe, such as Poland and Czechoslovakia.

7. Consequences and Aftermath Consequences: -The Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, Russian, and German empires collapsed. -The League of Nations was formed to prevent future conflicts. Economic Impact: The war devastated economies, particularly in Europe, and set the stage for global economic instability, contributing to the Great Depression.

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ESTUDIOS CONTEMPORÁNEOS EN INGLÉS p.1

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Semántica de las palabras

La semántica busca explicar la relación entre el signo lingüístico y el objeto real al que se refiere. Dos ramas de la semántica de las palabras = 1ra semántica de referencia o referencial. 2da se ocupa del sentido y a menudo se la denomina semántica léxica. Necesitamos una visión más sofisticada que relacione palabras y objetos a través de un mediador, al que se denomina concepto. La iconicidad se refiere a la propiedad de algunos símbolos lingüísticos cuya forma física corresponde estrechamente a las características del objeto al que se dirigen (ej. WHALE). Mientras que la referencia se ocupa de la relación entre los elementos lingüísticos y el mundo no lingüístico de la experiencia, el sentido se ocupa de las relaciones complejas que existen entre los elementos lingüísticos mismos, sin considerar el mundo no lingüístico; es decir, se ocupa únicamente de las relaciones intralingüísticas.

Relaciones intralingüísticas 🢛 ■Sinonimia - Dos palabras que tienen un núcleo semántico (ej. Mujer/femenino). ■Hiponimia - Relación semántica básica donde un léxico se incluye dentro de otro (ej. Hombre/humano). ■Antonimia - Todo tipo de oposición semántica (ej. Vivo/muerto).

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Sentences / Utterances / Propositions

Orden de secuencia: 1-Proposition. 2-Sentences. 3-Utterances.

PROPOSITION 🠿 ✦Es una idea de lo que se puede expresar. ✦Idea más profunda/inicial en la que algo se puede concebir. ✦Carece de orden gramatical. ✦Da pie a producir oraciones declarativas, imperativas o hipotéticas. ✦Lo que se concibe, no es verbal ni escrito. ✦Antes de lo lingüístico/Es una abstracción. ✦Visualización...

SENTENCES 🠿 ✧Codificación. ✧Escrito/Supuesto. ✧Postulado acerca de algo real o no real. ✧Supuesto en el cual se utiliza la competencia lingüística y tiene un significado. ✧Significado oracional. ✧Semántica. ✧Codificación... UTTERANCES 🠿 ⊛Emisión lingüística con varios significados según el contexto. ⊛Enunciación o pronunciación lingüística oral/articulación. ⊛Más objetivo o literal. ⊛Significado del hablante. ⊛Oral/Competencia comunicativa/Condiciones de pronunciación. ⊛No se puede repetir. ⊛Es propio de un lugar y momento en particular. ⊛Emisión...

Oración ➲ Es la formación de una idea completa y gramatical. Significado ➲ Unión de todos los significados de las palabras. -La ORACIÓN va en cursivas. -Las ENUNCIACIONES entre comillas.

¿La proposición es universal? Sí, ya que es la idea general de lo que se pretende comunicar y cada lengua ajusta esto a su propia estructura.

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Teoría de los signos

¿Qué es la semiótica?: Ciencia que estudia cosas o propiedades de ellas mientras funcionen como signos/instrumento de todas las ciencias. CIENCIA DEL ESTUDIO DE TODOS LOS SIGNOS. ¿Qué es la semiosis?: Proceso mediante el cual algo actúa como signo, se encuentran componentes como el "vehículo sígnico, designatum e intérprete". UN SIGNO ACTÚA COMO TAL. ➳Vehículo sígnico - Manifestación física o material de un signo. Es aquello que percibimos de manera directa, como una palabra escrita, una imagen, un gesto, un sonido, etc. Es la forma tangible que adopta el signo y que nos permite acceder a su significado. ➳Designatum - Es una clase o conjunto de objetos a los que un signo se refiere. Es como una categoría o tipo de cosas que el signo representa. REFERENTE. ➳ Intérprete - Efecto que produce el signo en la mente de quien lo recibe, es decir, la interpretación que hacemos de él. Es el significado que le atribuimos al signo en función de nuestro conocimiento, experiencias y contexto. El interpretante puede ser una idea, una emoción, una acción o cualquier otra respuesta que el signo provoque en nosotros. ➳ Denotatum - Son los miembros individuales de la clase designada. Son los objetos concretos que pertenecen al designatum. ¿Qué es la sintaxis?: Consideración de signos y de combinaciones sígnicas en medida que están sujetos a reglas sígnicas.

PRAGMÁTICA = La relación de los signos con los intérpretes. SINTÁXIS = Las combinaciones de los signos. SEMÁNTICA = Relación de los signos con los objetos que son aplicables. ◆Semiótica: Lenguaje para hablar de los signos / Signos para signos. ◆Semántica: Relación entre el signo y su referente / Competencia lingüística.

*Extras... ◦ Fonología = Ideal (Lengua) / Fonética = Concreto (Habla). ◦Significado = Descripción / Significante = "//" Registro de sonido e imagen acústica. ◦Ondas acústicas = La interpretación de los sonidos es lengua.