hardtostudy

[hardtostudy]

fonett22

The presence or     absence of aspiration is a non-functional difference in English. It does     not change the meaning of an utterance.

When the substitution     of one sound for another sound in the same environment results in a change     of meaning, we say that the difference between two sounds is functional.

If the difference     between two speech sounds is functional, we say that they contrast in the     same environment.

Is the environment for “p” the same as     environment for “b” in PIN- BIN?  - yes

If a difference     between two speech sounds is functional, they will contrast in the     same environment.

/p/ and /b/ are     phonemically different.

[p] and [ph]     are phonetically different sounds.

[p] and [ph]     are not two different phonemes because they do not contrast in the     same environment.

DAN and TAD are     not minimal pairs.

Utterances which     differs by only one element - minimal     pair.

Every language has a     sound structure which can be divided into two levels: phonemic level and     the phonetic level.

The inventory of all     the perceptibly different sounds of a language is a phonetic     inventory.

The inventory of all     contrasting sounds of a language is a phonemic     inventory.

Only the phonemic     difference can cause a difference in meaning.

The environment in     which [th] and [t] occur are mutually exclusive. That is to say     where [th] occurs, [t]     does not occur.

When the environments     of two sounds are mutually exclusive, we say, that they are in complementary distribution.

Sounds which are in     complementary distribution can never contrast in the same environment,     because they never occur in the same environment.

Sounds which belong     to the same phoneme and are in complementary distribution are called     combinatory variants/bound allophones (aspirated and non-aspirated p; dark and normal l)

Sounds which belong     to the same phoneme and are in free variation are called facultative     variants/ free allophones (released     and unreleased t; in Slovak v vyslovíme ako v alebo u)

The difference     between /s/ and /z/ is that of voicing: In English, it is a phonemic     difference.

Members of the same     phonemic class are always phonetically similar.

If two sounds are     phonetically similar and in complementary distribution, they can be     considered the members of the same phoneme.

Sounds which are     phonetically similar and in free variation can also be considered to be     members of the same phoneme. (free allophones/facultative variants)

A phoneme is not a     sound but a family/class of sounds.

Members of the same phonemic     class are called allophones.

Allophones of the     same phoneme do not contrast     in the same environment. (bcs. they can’t occur)

Phoneme is a minimal contrastive sound unit of a language.

Mutual relations     between phonemes established according to their similarities and     differences are called phonological oppositions.

Distinctive features     based on binary principle have only two values, the presence and     the absence of a given feature.

Marked members of a     given phonological opposition is presence.

Phoneme is a minimal     contrastive unit of a language.

Mutual relations     between phonemes established according to their similarities and     differences, are called phonological     oppositions.

Distinctive features     based on a binary principle have only two values: the presence and the absence     of a given feature.

Marked member of a     given phonological opposition is characterized by the presence of the feature.

Unidimensional oppositions- the base common for both phonemes in     oppositions does not occur in other pairs of phonemes.

Multidimensional opposition- the common base occurs in more than two     phonemes

Proportional oppositions- the relation between two phonemes occurs in     several phonemes

Isolated oppositions- the given relation between two phonemes does     not occur elsewhere.

The difference     between the phonemes in private oppositions is based on the presence vs absence of a     particular feature.

The members of gradual opposition differ by a     different degree of a feature.

The members of the     pair in equipollent opposition differ in several features.

Continuant- a     sound during whose production the air stream is not blocked in the oral     cavity.

Consonantal- a     sound produced with a radical obstruction in the vocalic tract.

Sonorant- a sound whose     phonetic content is predominantly made up by the sound waves associated     with voicing.

Sonorant, Continuant,     Consonantal are called major class     features

  - sonorant        - continuant     + consonantal  = oral stops/ plosives

+ sonorant       + continuant    - consonantal = vowels,  semi- vowels

+ sonorant       - continuant     + consonantal  = nasals

+ sonorant       + continuant    + consonantal = liquids

- sonorant        + continuant    + consonantal = fricatives

  Name the feature     which characterizes:

Sounds produced by retracting the body of the tongue from neutral position-  backed +

Sound produced without the narrowing of a lip orifice-  round –

Sound produced by lowering of the body of the tongue below the level that it occupies in the neutral position- low +

Sounds produced without a rising of the tongue body above the level it occupies in the neutral position- high –

Long vowels are + tense, that is they are produced     with considerable muscular     effort.

Name the feature     which characterizes:

Sound produced with an obstruction located in the front of the palate- alveolar region of the mouth- + anterior

Sounds produced by lowering the mid section of the tongue at one or both sides thus allowing the air flow out of the mouth- + lateral

Sounds produced with the blade of the tongue raised above its neutral position- + coronal

Sounds produced without vocal cords vibration-  - voice

Sounds marked acoustically by a great amount of noisiness- + strident

Sounds produced with a lowered velum (air escapes through the nose)- + nasal

Voiceless consonants     are fortis, that is + tense.

Name the phonemes     with the feature + nasal: /m/, /n/,     /ŋ/

Name phonemes with     the feature + lateral: /l/

Feature + anterior is     a cover term for: bilabial,     labiodental, dental, alveolar places of articulation.

[hardtostudy]

fonet. test2

1.     The presence or absence of aspiration is a non-functional difference in English. It ...does not.........(changes/ does not change) the meaning of an utterance. 

2.     When the substitution of one sound for another sound in the same environment results in a change of meaning, we say that the difference between two sounds is .....functional................

3.     If the difference between two speech sounds is functional, we say that they contrast in the same .......environment................

4.     The term contrast is used only when the substitution of sound X for sound Y, in the same environment, results in a change of .....meaning......................

5.     /p/ and /b/ are phonemically .....different........(the same/different). Explain.

 6.     [p] and [ph] are…..phonetically......(phonetically/phonemically) different sounds. Explain.

7.     The utterances PIN and BIN differ by one ....phoneme.........

8.     DAN and TAD ...are not.....(are/are not) a minimal pair. Why?

 9.     Different sounds are phonemically different only if they ....occur/contrast........... in the same environment.

 10.  If two sounds contrast in the same environment, substitution of one for the other ......makes....... (makes/does not make) a difference in meaning.

 11.  Words which differ from each other by only one …..phoneme........ are minimal pairs.

 12.  Every language has a sound structure which can be divided into two levels: the phonetic level and the ….phonology..... level.

 13.  The inventory of all the perceptibly different sounds of a language is a …phonetic..... (phonetic/phonemic) inventory.

 14.  The inventory of all the contrasting sounds of a language is a ......phoneme.................... inventory.

 15.  Only the ....phonemic.... (phonemic/phonetic) differences can cause a difference in meaning.

 16.  The difference between released [t] and unreleased [t-] in English is ...phonetic..... (phonetic/phonemic). Explain.

 17.  The environments in which [th] and [t] occur are mutually exclusive. That is to say, where  [th] occurs, ..... [t]....... does not occur.

 18.  When the environments of two sounds are mutually ….exclusive......, we say that they are in complementary distribution.

 19.  We call sounds which occur in the same environment, but do not …contrast………… in the same environment, non-functional variants.

 20.  Sounds which belong to the same phoneme do not contrast in the same environment: they may be in ........complementary.............. distribution or in ......non-functional.............. variation.

 21.   Sounds which belong to the same phoneme and are in complementary distribution are called .....combinatory variants....... or .…bound allophones……….

 22.  Sounds which belong to the same phoneme and are in free (non-functional) variation are called …....facultative variants.............. or ……free allophones……….

 23.  The difference between /s/ and /z/ is that of voicing. In English this is a ....phonemic........ (phonemic/non-phonemic) difference.

 24.  Members of the same phoneme class are always phonetically .......similar.....................

 25.  If two sound are (1) phonetically ….similar......... and (2) in complementary distribution, they can be considered to be the members of the same phoneme.

 26.  Sounds which are (1) phonetically similar and (2) in free variation can also be considered to be members of the same ......phoneme.................

 27.  A phoneme is not a sound, but a ….family/class.......... of sounds.

 28.  Members of the same .....phonemic............ class are called allophones.

 29.  Allophones of the same phoneme …...do not contrast........ (contrast/do not contrast) in the same environment.

 30.  Separate phonemes are in ....parallel...... (complementary/parallel) distribution.

Distinctive features

 1. Matching (Put the appropriate number in the space on the left):

(1) Proportional oppositions                        (2) Unidimensional oppositions

(3) Isolated oppositions                                (4) Multidimensional oppositions

 •       ......2........... the base common for both phonemes in opposition does not occur in other pairs of phonemes;

•       ......4......... the common base occurs in more than two phonemes;

•       ......1..........the relation between two phonemes occurs in several phonemes;

•       .......3.........the given relation between two phonemes does not occur elsewhere.

2. The difference between the phonemes in privative opposition is based on the ....presence..............  vs. ....absence................. of a particular distinctive feature.

3. The members of ......gradual......... opposition differ by a different degree of a feature.

4. The members of the pair in equipollent opposition differ in ....several............. features.

 5. Matching (Put the appropriate number in the space on the left):

           1   [Sonorant]               2 [Continuant]                       3   [Consonantal]

 •       ......2...... a sound during whose production the air stream is not blocked in the oral cavity.

•       ......3...... a sound produced with a radical obstruction in the vocal tract.

•       ......1...... a sound whose phonetic content is predominantly made up by the sound waves associated with voicing.

6. [Sonorant], [Continuant] and [Consonantal] are called .....major class features............. features.

 7. Name the classes characterised by the following bundles of distinctive features:

 [-sonorant, -continuant, +consonantal] ...oral stops/plosives......

[+sonorant, +continuant, -consonantal] ...vowels, semi-vowels....

[+sonorant, -continuant, +consonantal] ...nasals................

[+sonorant, +continuant, +consonantal] ....liquids.............

[-sonorant, +continuant, +consonantal] .....fricatives…........

 8. Voiceless consonants are ....fortis........... (fortis/lenis), that is ...+tense.......([+tense]/[-tense]).

 9. Name the phonemes with the feature [+nasal]: ....m, n, ŋ.............

 10. Name the phonemes with the feature [+lateral]: ....l..........

 11. Feature [+anterior] is a cover term for …bilabial....., .....labiodental......, ...dental....... and …..alveolar............ places of articulation.

[hardtostudy]

2term.prava

I.              Find synonyms of the following terms or definition. (20pts)

1.     a case without precedent = a case of first impression

2.     realty = property, real estate, land

3.     trustor = settlor, presenter, trust

4.     attorney for the defendant = counsel, prosecutor, lawyer

5.     higher courts = superior courts

6.     property of a married couple = matrimonial property, community property

7.     personalty = chattels, personal property, movable

8.     dissolution of companies = winding-up, detachment, separation

9.     damages = cost for problem, financial compensation

10.  to perform = carry out, accomplish, execute

 II.            Write antonyms to the following terms. (5pts)

1.     Plaintiff, petitioner – respondent

2.     superior – inferior, subordinate, lower

3.     tangible – conceptional, intangible

4.     real action – personal action

5.     personalty – real property

 III.         Write a taxonomic tree of PERSONAL PROPERTY. (10pts)

PERSONAL PROPERTY = personalty/chattels

o   CHATTELS REAL

leasehold – držba (lessor-lessie – prenajímateľ, nájomca/ land lord = tenant)

o   CHATTELS PERSONAL = pure personalty

Choses in possession

Choses in action

IV.          Translate into Slovak or English. (15pts)

1.     ownership (1) vlastníctvo

2.     odvolať sa (1) to appeal

3.     to remit a case (3) vrátiť prípad späť na nižšiu inštanciu

4.     dispossess (2) vyvlastniť, zbavený majetku

5.     statok (1) good

6.     right in rem (2) vecné právo

7.     vymáhať dlhy (3) to collect debts

8.     deceased persons (2) zomreté osoby

V.            Translate the following text into English. (10pts)

Udelenie ekvitných právnych prostriedkov závisí od voľného uváženia sudcov, účastníci sporov nemajú zákonné právo na nápravu škody podľa ekvity. Súdy rozhodnú o nariadení nápravy podľa ekvity po zvážení individuálnych okolností každého prípadu.

Granting equitable legal remedies depends on the discretion of the judges, parties to disputes do not have the statutory right to reparation for damages according to equity. The courts will decide on an equitable remedy after considering the individual circumstances of each case.

VI.          Here is the scheme of court system in England. Fill in the missing information. (10pts)

1. Supreme Court of the United Kingdom 2. Court of Appeal 3. Criminal division 4. Queen’s Bench Division 5. County courts

[hardtostudy]

colloc.

to subsidize - education to provide - services to reduce - side-effects to cut - expenditures to adopt - a policy to pollute - the air to play - a major role to eliminate - discrimination + side effects to levy - a tax to pass - a law

[hardtostudy]

I.              Find synonyms of the following terms or definition. (10pts)

1.     customs duty = Tariff

2.     National Council of the Slovak Republic (on the regional level) = Regional Council

3.     welfare payments (US) – (GB) = social security benefit

4.     a good that can be used in place of another = substitute

5.     to keep competition = maintain, sustain

6.     to impose taxes = levy on

7.     to support certain industries by the government non-returnable loans = transfer payment

8.     to enhance education = subsidize

9.     a good whose consumption decreases when income increases = an inferior good

10.  the number and value of goods/services that can be purchased with a unit of currency = supply

 II.            Make up collocations. (10pts)

income, prices, discrimination, commands, government expenditures, the hardware, problems, services, anti-dumping measures, a new law.

1.     To adopt = anti-dumping measures

2.     To quote = prices

3.     To issue = commands

4.     To deal with = problems

5.     To upgrade = the hardware

6.     To pass = a new law

7.     To redistribute = income

8.     To render = services

9.     To reduce = discrimination /prices/

10.  To cut = government expenditures

 III.         Fill in suitable prepositions. (6pts)

1.     Deductions ……of/from…… social security taxes.

2.     People …in……… need.

3.     We have benefited ……from……… administrative barriers.

4.     It will result in substantial decrease …in……… demand.

5.     As a last resort we can sell our products ……at a lower…… cost.

6.     The government has refused to agree ……to the…… doctor’s demands …for……… a 20% pay rise.

 IV.          Translate into English. (24pts)

1.     Mestské zastupiteľstvo (2) = municipal corporation / city council

2.     Všeobecne záväzné nariadenie (2) = Generally binding regulation/orders/rules

3.     Predseda samosprávneho kraja (3) = Head of self-governing region/ president CEO

4.     Príjem po odčítaní dane (2) = after-tax income

5.     Daň zo ziskov spoločnosti (2) = corporation tax

6.     Krivka dopytu (2) = demand curve

7.     VÚC (2) = higher territorial unit / region

8.     Daň z príjmu fyzickej osoby (2) = individual income tax

9.     Spotrebná daň (2) = excise tax

10.  Štátna moc sa deli na tri zložky, t.j. zákonodarnú, súdnu a výkonnú. (5) = State power/authority(The government) is divided into 3 parts / branches: legislative, judiciary and executive.

 V.            Translate into Slovak. (20pts)

Microeconomics is the study of particular markets, and segments of the economy. It looks at issues such as consumer behaviour, individual labour markets, and the theory of firms. = Mikroekonomia sa zaoberá konkrétnymi trhmi a segmentmi ekonomiky/hospodárstva. Pozerá sa na problémy ako správanie spotrebiteľov, individuálne pracovné trhy, a teoriu firiem.

Macroeconomics is the study of the whole economy. It looks at “aggregate” variables, such as aggregate demand, national output and inflation. = Makroekonomia sa zaoberá celou ekonomikou. Pozerá sa na ‘’agregátne (celkové)’’ premeny, ako napríklad agregátny dopyt, národnú produkciu a infláciu.

Microeconomics is concerned with:

·      Supply and demand in individual markets;

·      Individual consumer behaviour;

·      Individual labour markets – e.g. demand for labour, wage determination;

·      Externalities arising from the production and consumption. = Mikroekonomia sa zaoberá: 1. Ponukou a dopytom na jednotlivých trhoch, 2. Individuálne správanie spotrebiteľov, 3. Individuálne pracovné trhy – napr. Dopyt po práci (pracovný dopyt), určovanie miezd, 4. Externality vyplývajúce z výroby a spotreby.

Macroeconomics is concerned with:

·      Monetary / fiscal policy, e.g. what effect do the interest rates have on the whole economy?

·      Reasons for inflation, and unemployment

·      System of social contributions and benefits

·      Economic growth

·      International trade and globalisation

·      Reasons for differences in living standards and economic growth between countries

·      Government borrowing

·      Transfer payments (aimed to protect the most vulnerable strata of society – children, the elderly, the disabled persons, female-headed or single-parent families, etc.) = Makroekonomia sa zaoberá: 1. Menová / fiškálna politika, napr. Aký majú vplyv úrokové sadzby na celú ekonomiku/hospodárstvo?, 2. Dôvody pre infláciu, a nezamestnanosť, 3. Systém sociálnych príspevkov a dávok, 4. Hospodársky rast, 5. Medzinárodné obchodovanie a globalizácia, 6. Dôvody  rozdielov v životnej úrovni a hospodárskom raste medzi krajinami, 7. Štátne pôžičky, 8. Prevody platieb (zamerané na ochranu najzraniteľnejších vrstiev spoločnosti – detí, starších, osoby so zdravotným postihnutím, rodiny s hlavou rodiny matky alebo neúplné rodiny s jedným rodičom, a podobne.)

[hardtostudy]

.

TEST 1:   Terminology of the Theory of Law

I.              Find synonyms of the following terms or definition. (20pts)

1.     indictable offences = committal proceedings / more serious crime

2.     to hear a witness = testimony, to testify at the trial / to question

3.     binding case =

4.     punishment = penalty, sentence, fine

5.     financial compensation = repayment for damages, payment, fee

6.     a sum of money that an arrested person pays as a guarantee they will attend their trial = bail, warranty

7.     case law = judge-made law

8.     to release due to the lack of evidence = discharge

9.     law-maker = legislator, congressman, congresswoman, councilman,..

10.  the case was stopped for a time = adjournment, put on hold, rescheduled

 II.            Write opposites to the following terms. (5pts)

1.      Claimant/plaintiff    – respondent

2.      to convict  – to acquit

3.     to distinguish a case – brief a case

4.     legal remedy – equitable remedy

5.     to find guilty – verdict of not guilty, to find not guilty

 III.         Write a taxonomic tree of the term TORT. (15pts)

 TORT -> conversion (possession of goods) -> negligence (nedbalivosť) -> nuisance (private and public) ---> TRESPASS --> to land, to goods, to person -> assault, battery, fake imprisonment

IV.          Correct the mistakes in the following statements. (10pts)

1.     The prosecutor brought an action against the defendant on indictment with murder.

2.     He was sued for damage.

3.     The jury gave judgement for the defendant. Delivered

4.     In civil action, the judge must prove the guilt of the defendant beyond reasonable doubt. Criminal

5.     Legislation in England is subdivided into primary legislation and case law. Delegated/Secondary

6.     Solicitors are lawyers in higher courts. Barristers

7.     A decision is overruled when it is altered on appeal.

8.     The decision or judgement of a judge may fall into two parts: ratio decidendi and stare decisis. Obiter dictum

9.     The judge found Mrs. Peterson guilty.

10.  One of the most interesting cases in the USA is State v. Sikes. The people (R.)

 V.            Translate into English or Slovak. (10pts)

1.     to reconcile cases (1) zmieriť prípady

2.     equitable remedy (2) spravodlivý nápravný prostriedok

3.     držať osobu vo väzbe (2) to hold a person in custody

4.     vyhlášky orgánov miestnej správy (1) by-laws

5.     beyond reasonable doubt (1) nad mieru pochybností

6.     Court of Common Pleas (2) súd verejných žalôb

7.     pozmeniť rozhodnutie (1) to alter a decision

 VI.          Translate the following sentence into English. (10pts)

Obžalovaný bol odsúdený za trestný čin krádeže na základe formálnej obžaloby a bol mu uložený trest odňatia slobody na 5 rokov s odkladom na skúšobnú dobu na 2 roky. The defendant was convicted of a criminal offence of theft and was sentenced on the basis of a formal indictment to imprisonment for 5 years with delay to probationary period of 2 years.

[hardtostudy]

slov.

subject-matter of jurisprudence - predmet právnej vedy legal system - právny systém branch of law - právne odvetvie written and unwritten law - písané a nepísané právo public and private law - verejné a súkromné právo substantive and procedural (adjective) law - hmotné a procesné právo common and continental law - obyčajové a kontinentálne právo to regulate legal relationships - regulovať právne vzťahy judicial review - súdne preskúmanie rozhodnutí law of contract - zmluvné právo tort / civil wrong - občianskoprávny delikt trust - právo prevodu majetkov / správa majetku v prospech tretej osoby (zverenectvo) to transfer of property - previesť majetok land law - pozemkové právo law of succession (probate) - dedičské právo family law - rodinné právo criminal law - trestné právo constitutional law - ústavné právo international law - medzinárodné právo administrative law - správne právo tax law - daňové právo legal consequences - právne následky crime / offence / criminal offence - trestný čin negligence - nedbanlivosť civil and criminal proceedings - občianskoprávne a trestnoprávne konanie defendant - odporca, obžalovaný prosecutor - prokurátor, žalobca prosecute - trestne stíhať punishment - trest life imprisonment - trest odňatia slobody na doživotie to prove the guilt - dokázať vinu acquit - zbaviť viny verdict of not guilty - výrok o nevine lack of evidence - nedostatok dôkazov plaintiff - navrhovateľ to sue - žalovať v občianskoprávnom zmysle to bring / file / lodge / take an action - podať žalobu to find sby liable - uznať niekoho zodpovedným to deliver judgment for the plaintiff - vyniesť rozsudok v prospech navrhovateľa damages - odškodné injunction - súdny príkaz / zákaz to perform a contract - plniť zmluvu / vykonať zmluvné podmienky specific performance - špeciálne plnenie burden of proof - dôkazné bremeno beyond reasonable doubt - nad mieru pochybností on the balance of prohabilities - po zvážení všetkých pravdepodobností citation of cases - citácia prípadov to overrule a precedent - zrušiť precedent to reverse a decision - zmeniť, zvrátiť rozhodnutie to distinguish a case - odlíšiť prípad to reconcile cases - zmieriť prípady chancery court - kancelársky súd lord chancellor - lord kancelár remedy - nápravný prostriedok award damages - priznať náhradu škody maxims of equity - maximy ekvity, pravidlá ekvity discretionary - diskrečný, ponechaný na voľné uváženie to redeem wrong - napraviť krivdu mandatory injunction - súdny príkaz prohibitory injunction - súdny zákaz code - zákonník subordinate legislation - podzákonné právne predpisy parliamentary sovereignty - parlamentná suverenita bills - návrhy zákonov to give royal assent - dať kráľovský súhlas zákonu, t.j. podpísať zákon The Queen in Parliament - proces schvaľovania zákonov statutory instruments - zákonné predpisy orders in council - nariadenia kráľovskej rady by-laws - vyhlášky orgánov miestnej správy case study - prípadová štúdia brief a case - analyzovať prípad sources of English law - pramene anglického práva principal sources - primárne pramene subsidiary sources - druhotné pramene accusatorial (adversary) mode of procedure - obžalovací spôsob konania inquisitorial mode of procedure - vyšetrovací spôsob konania comparative law - porovnávacie právo legal rules - právne normy judge-made law - sudcovské právo case law - právo prípadov acts of parliament - zákony parlamentu to interpret statutes - vykladať zákony statutory interpretation - výklad zákonov to execute evidence - vykonávať dôkazy to question the witnesses - vypočúvať svedkov equity - ekvita, spravodlivosť european law - europske právo european community - europske spoločenstvo directly applicable - priamo aplikovateľný member state - členský štát legislation - legislatíva, zákony enacted law - uzákonené právo general customs of the realm - všeobecne platné obyčaje v kráľovstve local customs - miestne obyčaje books of authority - staré právne knihy norman conquest - normanské dobytie central administration - centrálne riadenie royal representatives - kráľovskí zástupcovia permanent royal court - stály kráľovský súd court of exchequer - súd štátnych financií to hear disputes - prejednávať spory circuits - okružná cesta wandering justices - cestujúci sudcovia assizes - zasadania súdu court of common pleas - súd verejných žalôb court of king's bench - súd kráľovej lavice to grant a privilege to sue - udeliť výsadu žalovať writ - oprávnenie na žalobu second Westminster statute - druhý westministerský štatút doctrine of a binding case - doktrina záväzného prípadu stare decisis - zotrvať pri rozhodnutí a case of first impression - prípad, ktorý nemá precedent, po prvý krát je posudzovaný a stáva sa prvým precedentom ratio decidendi - dôvod rozhodnutia, časť súdneho rozhodnutia, ktorá má silu precedentu obiter dictum - druhá, menej podstatná časť súdneho rozhodnutia nemajúca silu precedentu, faktické poznámky sudcu law reports - zbierky precedenčných rozhodnutí committal proceedings - predbežné konanie na inštancii magistrates court pri závažných trestných činoch

[hardtostudy]

1. Capital human-made resources (buildings, machinery, and equipment) used to produce goods and services // kapitál 2. Cost the amount of money paid or needed for buying, doing or producing something // náklady 3. Economic good a good or service that is both useful and scarce and therefore has a price // ekonomický statok 4. Economics the study of how people use their limited resources to satisfy unlimited wants // ekonomia 5. Economy an organized system of the production, distribution and consumption of wealth // ekonomika, hospodárstvo 6. Enterprise 1. the quality in a businessman to organize, innovate, bear risks and make nonroutine decisions // podnikavosť, podnikateľstvo 2. an industrial or commercial organization // podnik 3. an economic system which allows a degree of freedom to private businessman // podnikanie 7. Entrepreneurship see enterprise 1 8. Factors of production resources, or inputs, necessary to produce goods and services // výrobný faktor 9. Free good a commodity that has no price because it is not scarce and does not require the use of scarce factors of production to create them, e.g. fresh air, sunshine (in certain parts of the world) // voľný statok 10. Inflation a continual rise in the average level of prices // inflácia 11. Input the factors of production that are put into a business to produce its output // vstup 12. Labour 1. work, esp. human work needing the use of strength of body or skill and effort of mind // práca 2. the whole class of persons who work for their living // pracovná silk 3. one of the main factors of production, the human energy and mental skill and judgement applied in producing economic goods // práca 13. Land one of the factors of production, also called natural resources being the gifts of nature in the form of useful materials of all kinds in or on the earth, including surface space, soil, rocks, minerals, water, winds and weather // pôda, prírodné zdroje 14. Opportunity cost the cost of a choice stated in terms of the value of other goods or services that must be given up // náklady príležitostí (alternatívne náklady) 15. Raw materials things which are the starting point for manufacturing processes // suroviny 16. Resources a thing provided by nature or accumulated by man that can be used as means of satisfying wants // zdroj 17. Scarce resource a resource whose availability cannot satisfy all its desired uses // vzácny zdroj 18. Scarcity lack of available resources to satisfy all desired users of those resources // vzácnosť 19. Consumer Price Index (CPI) an index which measures prices of a fixed market basket of goods and services purchased by a typical urban household // index spotrebiteľských cien 20. Economic growth an outward shift of the production possibility frontier brought about by an increase in available resources and/or technological improvement // ekonomický rast 21. Macroeconomics the branch of economics that examines and explains the economy as a whole, i.e. in aggregate values // makroekonomia 22. Market failure the inability of the market to deliver the most desired economic outcomes // zlyhanie trhu 23. Antimonopoly law a law that seeks to control market structure and competitive behavior of firms // protimonopolný zákon 24. Barriers to entry anything that prevents the entry of new firms into an industry // prekážky vstupu 25. Bond a form of fixed-interest security issued by central or local governments, companies, banks or other institutions through which a borrower is obligated to pay the principal and interest on a loan at a specific date in the future // dlhopis 26. Competition the presence in a market of a large number of independent buyers and sellers competing with one another and their freedom to enter and leave the market // konkurencia 27. Economies of scale a decrease in per-unit cost as a result of an increase in output // úspory z rozsahu 28. Imperfect competition a state of competition in a market in which buyers and sellers have imperfect knowledge of the market and there is a lack of freedom of movement of factors of production from one industry to another // nedokonalá konkurencia 29. Merger joining together of two or more companies // fúzie 30. Monopolistic competition a market in which many firms produce similar goods or services but each maintains some independent control of its own price // monopolistická konkurencia 31. Monopoly the situation in a market in which there is only one supplier of a commodity and he therefore faces no competition // monopol 32. Natural monopoly a monopoly resulting from the existence of large economies of scale in an industry where technical factors make the efficient existence of more than one producer impossible // prirodzený monopol 33. Oligopoly a market which is dominated by a few large suppliers // oligopol 34. Pure (perfect) competition a market model that assumes a large number of buyers and sellers, a homogeneous product, complete freedom of movement of factors of production from one industry to another, and full knowledge of prices and technology // čistá (dokonalá) konkurencia 35. Quota a limit placed by the government on the amount of imports or exports of a particular article or commodity // kvota 36. Assets anything of monetary value owned by a firm or individual // aktíva 37. Auction a method of selling in public by letting intended buyers compete with each other by making bids (offers of money) // aukcia, dražba 38. Bear market the market for securities where speculators sell shares because they expect a fall in their prices // medvedí trh 39. Black market illegal trading in goods and services that are scarce, either because supplies are officially rationed or forbidden, or because prices are controlled by government order // ��ierny trh 40. Bull market the market for securities where brokers speculate on a rise in their prices // byčí trh 41. Capital market the market with long-term loans and securities as distinguished from the money market, which deals in short-term loans // kapitálový trh 42. Commodity 1. an article of trade resulting from the process of production // druh tovaru, výrobok 2. a primary product // surovina, komodita 43. Commodities market a market in which commodities (esp. food and raw materials) are bought and sold // surovinový (komoditný) trh 44. Economic loss the financial harm or disadvantage in business // hospodárska stráta 45. Equilibrium price the price at which the quantity demanded equals the quantity supplied // rovnovážna cena 46. Foreign exchange market the market in which the currency of one country is exchanged for the currency of another // devízový trh 47. Incentive something that motivates people to action or effort // povzbudenie 48. Labour market the market for the services of workers // trh práce 49. Real estate market the market for land and buildings // trh s nehnuteľnosťami 50. Resource allocation the choosing of the particular use to which a scarce resource is put // pridelovanie (alokacia) zdrojov 51. Revenue money received by a firm from the sale of goods and services // príjem firmy 52. Securities market a market where shares, bonds and other kinds of securities are traded // trh s cennými papiermi 53. Stock exchange an organized market where securities are bought and sold under fixed rules // burza cenných papierov 54. After-tax income income after deducting taxes // príjem po odčítaní dane (zdanený príjem) 55. Budget an estimate of income and expenditure for a future period // rozpočet 56. Corporation tax a tax levied on the profits of companies // daň zo ziskov spoločnosti 57. Tax a sum of money that the government takes from people's incomes, company profits, the sale of goods, etc. to be used for public spending // daň 58. Tax revenue an amount of money collected by the government through taxation // daňové príjmy 59. Trade Unions an organization of employees working in the same industry or area representing its members in discussion and negotiations with management and government // odbory 60. Transfer payment a payment made by the government to individuals without requiring any goods or services in return // transferová platba 61. Unemployment the inability of participants of the labour force to find jobs (lack of paid work) // nezamestnanosť 62. Unemployment benefit money paid by the government to people who are unemployed // podpora v nezamestnanosti 63. Welfare payments (US) see social security benefit 64. Customs duty a tax that must be paid when particular goods are imported into a country // celná sadzba (celný tarif, poplatok) 65. Excise tax a sales tax levied on a particular good or service // spotrebná daň 66. Externality an activity that affects others for better or worse, without those others paying or being compensated for the activity // externalita 67. Family allowances money paid regularly by the government to families with children // rodinné prídavky 68. Individual income tax a tax paid by citizens to the government usually as a percentage of their income // daň z príjmu fyzických osôb 69. Public good a good that is available for the society as a whole and not just individual members // verejný statok 70. Retirement pension a sum of money paid regularly by the state to people above a certain age who have stopped working // starobný dôchodok 71. Social insurance a system of insurance run by the government, into which workers and employers make regular payments, and which provides money for people who are unemployed, old,.etc... // sociálne poistenie 72. Social security benefit (UK) a government payment for people who are sick, unemployed, disabled, retired, or in any other way In need // sociálna dávka 73. Subsidy money paid by a government to producers of certain goods, to help them provide low-priced goods without loss to themselves // dotácie 74. Tariff see customs duty 75. Complement  a good that is used in conjunction with another good // doplnok 76. Demand the amount of a good buyers wish to purchase at each conceivable price // dopyt 77. Demand curve  a curve which graphs the relationship between the quantity demanded of a good and its price // krivka dopytu 78. inferior good a good whose consumption decreases when income increases // podriadený tovar 79. normal good a good whose consumption increases with an increase in income // normalny tovar 80. quantity demanded the quantity of a good buyers wish to buy at a particular price // poptávka dopytu 81. substitute a good that can be used in place of another // náhrada

[hardtostudy]

macroec. microec.

I.              Find synonyms of the following terms or definition. (20pts)

1.     income from taxation collected by the government = tax revenue 2.     specification of prices when offering products to customers = advertised price 3.     centrally planned economy = command economy, planned economy, centralized economy 4.     company/firm = enterprise, corporation, business, organization 5.     lack of available resources = scarcity 6.     a place where used goods are offered = second-hand, thrift shop, flea market 7.     possible buyer = consumer 8.     an economy changing from command to free market = transition economy 9.     a good that society thinks people should consume/receive = intake / economic good / unique product 10.  returning of items to their proper owners = reclaim

 II.            Fill in suitable prepositions. (10pts)

1.     High prices discourage people …from……… buying.

2.     It is important to look …at……… markets more closely.

3.     Sometimes both buyers and sellers struggle to agree …on……… prices.

4.     Sometimes the goods must be sold …at……… a higher price.

5.     Market is a place where we exchange goods …for……… money.

6.     Apart …from……… households, microeconomics is concerned …with…… companies and individuals, too.

7.     There are many markets …with……… different goods and services.

8.     Firms …in……… some markets are protected ……from……… competition by government.

 III.         Make up collocations. (10pts)

values, unique product, a price, images, goods, resources, the first step, commands, information, the relative values

1.     To allocate = values

2.     To issue = commands

3.     To sell = unique product

4.     To find = resources

5.     To advertise = a price

6.     To convey = information

7.     To ration = goods

8.     To take = the first step

9.     To reflect = the relative values

10.  To call up = images

IV.          Write antonyms to the given words or expressions. (5pts)

1.     positive economics – normative economics

2.     pure / perfect competition          – imperfect competition

3.     supply           – demand

4.     centrally planned economy –  free market economy

5.     revenue – income / debt / loss / cost

 V.            Translate into English. (25pts)

1.     Príležitostné náklady (2) opportunity cost

2.     Prechodová ekonomika (2) transition economy

3.     Všeobecne prospešný statok (3) public good / free good

4.     Dokonalá konkurencia (2) pure (perfect) competition

5.     Index spotrebiteľských cien (2) consumer price index (CPI)

6.     Rovnovážna cena (3) equilibrium price

7.     Devízový trh (2) foreign exchange market

8.     Burza cenných papierov (2) stock exchange

9.     Úspory z rozsahu (3) economies of scale

10.  Fúzia (2) merger

11. Protimonopolný zákon (2) antimonopoly law

[hardtostudy]

phonetics

1. Speech sounds can be studied and classified from different aspects. Attention paid to the creation of speech sounds and to mechanical processes in the ear is described as physiological, which can be further divided into articulatory (genetic) phonetics and perceptual (auditory) phonetics. The transmission of sound waves and the acoustic signal itself are the subject of acoustic phonetics.

2. Articulatory phonetics studies the entire process of speech production that comprises three organogenetic processes: respiration, phonation, articulation.

3. Auditory phonetics studies the process of the reception (hearing connected with the peripheral auditory system, e.i. the one not in the brain) and the perception /decoding/ of speech sounds (in the brain).

Physiological phonetics

- Air excelled from the lungs passes first through the trachea into larynx.

- It then passes through the open glottis into the pharynx and out through the nose or mouth, or both.

- Larynx is composed of four cartilages.

- Larynx is located at the top of the trachea.

- Vocal cords are located in the larynx.

- The opening between the vocal cords is called glottis.

- An increase in the frequency of vibration of vocal cords raises voice pitch.

- By modifying the size and shape of resonance cavities, we can control the quality of a resonated sound.

- List cavities – oral, nasal, labial, pharyngeal.

- Labio-dental sound is articulated by bringing the lower lip in contact with the upper teeth.

- Bilabial sound is produced by bringing the upper and lower lips together.

- Palatal sounds are articulated at hard palate (palatum).

- Velar sounds are articulated at soft palate (velum).

- Nasal sounds are produced when the soft palate is lowered.

- Alveolar sounds are articulated at alveoli.

- Uvular sounds are articulated at uvula.

- To produce sound with nasal quality, soft palate must be lowered.

- Both lips are used in the production of a sound, it is called bilabial.

- Sounds articulated at the palatum are called palatal.

- Sounds articulated at the velum are called velars.

- Apico-alveolar sound is articulated with the apex of the tongue against alveolar ridge.

- When the velum is raised, passage into the nasal cavity is closed.

- Amplitude is perceived in terms of loudness.

- Frequency is perceived in terms of pitch.

- Complexity/simplicity of waves determinates the quality.

- Together with the time duration (i.e. quantity), loudness, pitch and quality are the four perceptual categories in term of which we hear the speech sounds.

1. Acoustic phonetics studies the physical characteristics of speech sounds. In physics, a sound is a vibration, an oscillation of the air particles. A speech sound is produced on the basis of the vocal cords vibration.

2. A sound wave has four basic properties that are also used in linguistics when analysing speech sounds: frequency, amplitude, simplicity/complexity, duration.

3. The amplitude is the peak deviation from the normal, and it determines the volume, the loudness /intensity/ of the sound - the higher the amplitude, the louder the sound.

4. The frequency of a sound wave indicates the number of (cycles) oscillations per second. The frequency is perceived as the pitch, although there is no direct relationship.

5. The wavelength is the distance a sound wave travels in a cycle.

6. The composition of sounds determines the sound simplicity or complexity.

Describe organ of hearing:

The ear has 3 major functions = to collect, to transmit and to analyze. The outer ear = ear canal leads to the eardrum, visible part - pinna (wax and tiny hairs). The middle ear = cavity which contains a chain of three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, stirrup) connected to the eardrum at one end and to the inner ear at the other end, separated by the eardrum, Eustachian tube leads to the back of the nose (it opens when swallowing and yawning.) The inner ear = maze of winding passage ways (labyrinth), cochlea (the spiral tube: snail's shell) - hearing, 3 semicircular canals connected to the vestibule - hair cells bath in fluid - sensitive to gravity, acceleration, head positions and movements.

cup =  kʌp keep =  kiːp bit =  bɪt bird =  bɜːd bike =  baɪk bad =  bæd day =  deɪ cared =  keəd player =  pleɪə tired =  taɪəd put =  pʊt tower =  taʊə dark =  dɑːk bed =  bɛd ago =  əˈgəʊ beard =  bɪəd fool =  fuːl boy =  bɔɪ lock =  lɒk cow =  kaʊ loyal =  lɔɪəl more =  mɔː moors =  mʊəz lower =  ləʊə pet = pet mud = mʌd would = wʊd fill = fɪl pour = pɔː sheep = ʃiːp method = mɛθəd wet = wɛt smoke = sməʊk cat = kæt pot = pɒt alone = əˈləʊn far = fɑː meat = miːt my = maɪ low = ləʊ ear = ɪə here = hɪə chip = ʧɪp father = fɑːðə yet = jet sun = sʌn them = ðem

VOWELS

LONG: iː sheep ɑː farm uː coo ɔː horse ɜː bird

SHORT: ɪ ship æ hat ʊ foot ɒ sock ʌ cup e head ə above

CONSONANTS

VOICED: b book d day ɡ give v very ð the z zoo ʒ vision dʒ jump l look r run j yes w we m moon n name ŋ sing VOICELESS: p pen t town k cat f fish θ think s say ʃ she tʃ cheese

DIPHTHONGS: eɪ day aɪ eye ɔɪ boy aʊ mouth əʊ nose oʊ nose ɪə ear eə hair ʊə pure TRIPHTHONGS – eɪ + ə = eɪə . as in layer, player

– aɪ + ə = aɪə. as in lire, fire

– ɔɪ + ə = ɔɪə, as in loyal, royal

– əʊ + ə = əuə, as in lower, mower 

 – aʊ + ə = auə, as in power, hour

[hardtostudy]

transl. full

1. Jacobson´s division of translation

three kinds of interpretation of a linguistic sign:

intralinguistic translation or REWORDING- it is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs of the same language

interlinguistic translation or TRANSLATION PROPER - it's an interpretation of linguistic signs into signs of another language

intersemiotic translation or TRANSMUTATION - it's an interpretation of verbal signs of a language into non-verbal sign systems

2. Eugene Nida´s division of equivalence (typologies)

formal – SL and TL having similar orthographic or phonological features (Source language and target language)

dynamic (functional)– method of altering the target text so that it has the same effect on readers as the source text. It has sociolinguistic aspect in it.

3. define notion of adaptation

17- 18th century- golden age of adaptation – translations were done to be adapted to the tastes, habits of the target culture regardless to the damage done to the original

adaptation is procedure used to achieve an equivalence of situations when cultural mismatches are encountered, some form of re-creation

characteristic for drama translation

reterritorialization of the original work and annexation in the name of the audience a new version

re-creation of children´s work because of sociolinguistic needs of another readership

when original is of metalinguistic nature – adaptation is justified

translation technique (Vinay, Darbelnet) , a procedure which can be used whenever the context referred to in the original text doesn’t exist in the culture of TT

characteristic for drama translation

aim is being to achieve the same effect that the work originally had, but with an audience from a different cultural background

original text is of a metalinguistic nature (when the subject matter of the text is language itself)

faithfulness to the original text-  some argues that adaptation is necessary in order to keep the message intact, while others see it as a betrayal of the original author.

4. Catford´s concept of free translation

he distinguishes RANK BOUND and UNBOUNDED TRANSLATION

RANK- textual segment of a certain specific lenght: morpheme, word, group, clause, sentence

Rank bound- renders only units at the same rank (individual words, individual sentences)- full-stop to full-stop, is ideal-

Unbounded- renders units of mixed rank , some individual words, prhases, some whole sentences  -LITERAL- renders unbounded translations at lower rank (words, phrases) -FREE- renders unbounded translations at higher rank (clauses, sentences)

5. define Steiger´s hermeneutic motion, its 4 stages

Attempt to project himself into the activity of translating and describe it from within

Explored act of translation in its entirety

Interpret´s desire to understand into the activity, she is attempting to understand

Trust- translator surrenders to the ST, trust it to mean something, translator who stops at this stage produces painfully literal renderings

Aggression (draws on Hegel, Heidegger)- incursive, extractive, to explore the agressive nature of all understanding, all interpretation- of every hermeneutic, translator goues abroad, enters the SL text driven by no longer passive trust but by active intention of taking something away, grabs up fistful of meaning and walking off with them

Incorporation- bringing back, translator comes home with plunder in hand, translator who stops here produces assimilative translations, translation conformed to TL norms, bearing no trace of their origins in SL

Restitution- rendering the SL text into TL text that is balanced between different SL and TL cultural contexts, as faithfully as you can, as freely as you must, translator has to be willing to give back to SL text as much as he has taken

6. Normative models /Toury's types of norms Initial norm- basic choice between adhering to the norms realized in the source text (which reflect the norms of the source language and culture) and adhering to the norms prevalent in the target culture and language. Adherence to the source norms determines a translation´s adequacy with respect to the source text, adherence to norms originating in the target culture determines its acceptability within that culture Preliminary norms- concerns the existence and nature of translation policy and the directness of translation (particular society´s tolerance or intolerancetowards a translation based on a text in an intermediate language rather than on the source language text Operational norms-  concerns decisions made during the actual act of translation

matricial- how textual material is distributed, how much of the text is translated, any changes in segmentation (in case oflarge scale omissions etc.)

text-linguistic- concern  the selection of specific textual material to formulate the the taget text or replace the particular segments of the source text

- translation norms can be investigated using two main sources: text sources (translated texts and extratextual sources (theoretical and critical segments about the translation)

7. Collocations

certain words that tend to co-occur regularly in a given language

they are connected with propositional meaning

their meaning does not always account for collocational pattering

strong tea- same meaning would be roughly translated as equivalent powerful tea, but native speaker knows it is not right,

they are compositional- combines distinct patterns and elements, there is no rational relation between them

8. explain difference between propositional and expressive meaning

Propositional meaning of a word or an utterance arises from the relation between it and what it refers to or describes in a real or imaginary world, as conceived by the speakers of the particular language to which the word or utterance belongs. We can judge an utterance true or false based on this meaning

Expressive meaning cannot be judged true or false. It relates to the speaker's feelings or attitude rather than to what words and utterances refer to. Therefore, two or more words or utterances can have the same propositional meaning but different expressive meanings

9. define restrictions of presupposed meaning

Selectional restrictions: are a function of a propositional meaning of a word.

Collocational restrictions: are semantically arbitrary restrictions which do not follow logically from the propositional meaning of the word.

10. define register and its 3 sources

medium, social role relationship, translation can be judged according to it

3 sources: tenor, mode, domain, (according to House)

Tenor-  relates author to reader through the degree of formality and accessibility

Mode- defines the channel used for communication, can have an effect on the degree of spontaneity and reader participation in the text

Domain- linked to function and genre

All translators should be familiar with the register of the SL text and choose appropriate register in TL text, produce their own analysis of register

registers vary between the languages, register shifts may occur during translation act

11. Explain theory of translatorial action

function-oriented approach to the theory and practice of translation

developed by Holz-Manttari

translation- process of intercultural communication, whose end product is a text which is capable of functioning appropriately in specific situations and contexts

wider context of cooperative interaction between professionals (experts in the field) and clients

provides the basis for a delineation of the specific characteristics of translatorial action

purpose: enable cooperative, adequate communication across cultural barriers

source text analysis is reduced to analysis of construction and function, ST is subordinate to its purpose, may undergo radical modifications in favour of target audience

target text is determined by its function

translator- expert in the field of transcultural message transfer

action is determined by its function, purpose and outcome

12. Specify concepts of translatability

Rationalist

“ideas” “structures”

meanings are universal → generally translatable into their various language-specific representations

loose relationship between thinking (meanings as ideas) & speaking (representation of meanings)

Relativist

Thinking & speaking tied together

Each language is a way of thinking

translation is an impossible task, it creates a text that is too close either to the source or target culture

Analysis of texts/speech = parole rather than language systems = langues

Incommensurability between two languages → condition of translation

a balance between thinking and speaking, an expression and meaning meaning is neither tied or indifferent to the expression, it is accessible with the help of modes of understanding that may be called 'sense'

the capacity for some kind of meaning to be transferred from one language to another without radical change

language specific content

13.- 3 steps of translation process

analysis- translator reads listens to the source text, drawing on the backgroud, encyclopedic knowledge (including specialist knowledge, knowledge of text conventions), to comprehend features contained in the text, processing at syntactic, semantic and pragamatic levels, micro and macro analysis of actual text, monitoring for cohesion and coherence, checking for coherence between actual text type and the potential textype, of which it is a token realization

synthesis-  target text is produced, written, signed, evalueted in terms of senders meaning and intention (as interpreted by a translator), translator´s intention in translating the text, and the user´s needs (specified by the client)

revision- draft translation  is revised/edited , clause linkage, text conguence with its text-type take place

14. Catford's linguistic approach to translation

language- set of systems operating at different levels

in terms of extent of translation:

full translation- entire text is submitted to translation process, every part of SL text is replaced by TL text

partial translation - some parts or parts of ST are left untranslated

in terms of the levels of language involved:

total translation- all the linguistic levels of the source text (grammar, lexis, graphology, phonology..)are replaced by target text, usually impossible- normally achieved just on level of grammar and lexis, therefore Catford established new definition “replacement of SL grammar and lexis by equivalent TL grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of SL phonology/graphology by non-equivalent TL phonology/graphology

restricted translation- replacement of the ST by TT just on one level

phonological

graphological

- there is no restricted translation at the interlevel of context

in terms of the grammatical and phonological rank:

rank-bound tr.- attempt to consistently select TL equivalents at the same rank in the hierarchy of grammatical units (rank of morpheme, word, group, clause, sentence)

unbounded tr. – equivalences walk up and down the rank scale, but tend to be at higher rank (between larger units than sentences)

15. What is the textual equivalent?

Any TL form which is observed to be equivalent in SL form

Equivalent forms can be matched by appealing to the intuition of bilingual informants, or by applying formal procedures- commutation-  method of discovering textual equivalents, consists of asking bilingual informants to translate stretches of text and then systematically introducing changes into SL text to establish how each change is reflected in the translation

Empirical, probabilistic phenomenon (Catford)

Translation rule- probably that a given ST form will be translated as a given TT form can be calculated on previous experience and recast

It is circular- equivalence is what is observed to be equivalent (Snell-Hornby)

TOURY- equivalence   - descriptive- concrete objects, actual relationship between two languages- ST and TT

     -  an empirical category, , established after the event of translation

-theoretical- denoting, abstract, ideal relationship between two languages- ST and TT

    16. Explain the term of explicitation?

Making explicit in the target text information that is implicit in the source text

Addition strategies

* introduced by Vinay and Darbelnet- “process of introducing information into the target language which is present only implicitly in the source language, but which can be derived from the context  or situation”

Concept of gains and losses

Additions (according to Nida), explicitation and implicitation just some of the methods of addition or omission

Filling out elliptical expressions

Obligatory specification

Additions required because of grammatical reconstructing

Amplification from implicit to explicit

Answers to rhetorical questions

Classifiers

Connectives

Categories of the receptor language that do not exist in the source language

Doublets

Vaseva´s view

Grammatical additions= missing categories

Pragmatic additions- concepts generally known for source text audience, but unknown for target text audience

Blum-Kulka- explicitation connected with shifts of cohesion and coherence

obligatory explicitation- dictated by the differences in syntactic and semantic structure of the source and target text; without the explicitation the target text would be ungrammatical, caused by missing categories (syntactic e. – increase number of separate words, semantic e.- choosing more specific words in target language)

optional explicitation - dictated by differences in text-building strategies and stylistic preferences

grammatically correct sentences can be constructed without their application in the target language, but text will be unnatural, clumsy

pragmatic explicitation - dictated by the difference between cultures

translation-inherent explicitations - dictated by the nature of translation itself, according to the explicitation hypothesis- translation is always longer than the original, necessity to formulate ideas in the target language that were originally conceived in the source language

17. 4 types of terms in glossaries

- medium of language, standardization of terminology

-glossaries can be given before the actual process of standardization (main terms of the relevant subject area)

- are compiled subsequently to

Contain:

terms defined identically in a given standard and its associated glossary

terms defined in the glossary of a standard but not in standard itself

terms which are defined more narrowly in a standard than in its associated glossary

undefined terms used in standards but excluded from glossary

18. Difference between term and the word

word

term

-studied by lexicology

- studied by terminology

-refer arbitrarily to general concepts- inside the linguistic concept and real world

-refer to specific concepts within particular subject fields

-may be studied as purely linguistic entities eg. morphology, sense relations, referential entities

-studied by relation to the conceptual systems, function as dispositories of knowledge

-function in general reference in variety of subject fields

- special reference within a particular discipline

-keeps life and its meaning for only as long as he serves the system, are influenced by same factors as words

19. isosemiotic, diasemiotic action

MONOSEMIOTIC TEXTS- use only one channel of communication, translator controls the entire medium of expression (unillustrated book- just writing)

POLYSEMIOTIC TEXTS- translator is contrained/supported by communication channels: visual or auditory

ISOSEMIOTIC- translation uses same channel or same channels as original

DIASEMIOTIC- translation uses different channels than original

- 4simoltaneus channels (during films, television programs):

Verbal-auditory (dialogue, background voices, lyrics)

Non-verbal auditory (music, natural sounds, sound effects)

Verbal visual (superimposed titles, written signs on the screen)

Non-verbal visual (picture composition, flow)

20. macrocontext and microcontext in the process of decision making in translation

MACROCONTEXT- the translator requires a strategy related to the totality of translated text, so as to avoid inconsistency at strategies at lower level

Who says what to whom with what communication intention in what spatiotemporal setting with what linguistic means

MICROCONTEXT- and reformulating, and jumping back and forth between the source text and emerging target text      21. 4 types of translator's communication competence according to Canale

GRAMMATICAL - passive command of one language and active command of other language, in the sense of possessing the knowledge and skill required to understand and express accurately the literal meaning of an utterance

SOCIOLINGUISTIC - ability to judge the appropriateness of utterances in a context, in terms of status of participants, purpose of interaction and norms and conventions of interaction

DISCOURSE - ability to perceive and produce cohesive and coherent text in different genres and discourses

STRATEGIC - ability to repair breakdowns of communication and to enhance the communication between source text producer and target text receiver 22.Interpretive approach of the Paris school to translation - representatives and main ideas

Theory of sense

*Paris school, later extended by Danica Seleskovitch- theory based on the distinction between linguistic meaning and non-verbal sense

Based on studies of mental and cognitive processes during translating process

Focused on the nature of meaning- sense, nature on linguistic ambiguities (mnohovýznamovosť)

Sense- is composed of explicitness (what is actually said/written) and implicitness (what the writer intends to say or write), its full comprehension depends on level of knowledge- cognitive baggage and cognitive context (knowledge acquired by reading of the text that is to be translated/interpreted)

Cary- relation between discourse and real world is weaker in case of written translation, even intemporal, when vouloir dire or intention of the author is lost, interpreting (ideal communicative situation) is based on the appropriation of meaning and reformulation in target language

Seleskowitch- translation- conversion from the source language to sense and from expression of sense into target language        -dynamic process of comprehension and re-expression of ideas

Delise- translation- heuristic process of intelligent  discourse analyses

comprehension- decoding the source text linguistic sign, defining conceptual content

reformulation- reverbalizing the concepts of the source text by using signifiers of target language, realized through reasoning, thoughts and logical assumptions

verification- process of back-translation by applying qualitative analysis of selected solutions and equivalence 23. Gutt's theory of relevance in translation

Achieving maximum benefit at minimum processing cost

What is meant may be accounted for

Translation has set of hierarchically ordered purposes- skopos

Translation should be derived to target audience without putting the audience unnecessary processing effort

Translation is an instance of interpretive use and translation seek to resemble interpretively to originals 24. Anecdotal and subjective approaches to translation quality assessment

Quality of translation is dependent on translator´s personal knowledge , intuition and artistic competence

Neo-hermeutic approach- interpretation of the original and production of translation- creative arts, defy systematization, generalization, development of rules

The good translation- translator identifies himself fully with text to be translated  

Treatments of translation quality are atheoretical, general principles for transl. quality are rejected 25. The Skopos theory and its main representatives 236

*1970s- Germany by Hans Vermeer

functionally and socioculturally oriented

stresses contextual factors surrounding translation (culture of target readers, or clients) and function which the text is to perform

skopos- from Greek, means purpose of translation

prospective attitude to translation

has its outcome= translatum- variety of target text

purpose determines translation methods and strategies

rule: “human action is determined by its purpose, and its function of its purpose”

skopos is determined by its initiator´s need, target text user, his/her situation, cultural background

coherence rule- target text must be coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, text must be coherent with recipient´s situation

fidelity rule- intertextual coherence between translatum and the source text, relationship which remains 26. At least 3 currently available term banks and these under 4 basic broad axes

Term banks- terminological data bank, interlingual equivalents

E.g.: TEAM, EURODICAUTOM, TERMCAT, BTQ, NORMATERM

4 basic broad axis:

Language orientation: monolingual, bilingual, multilingual

Subject specialization: monodisciplinary, multidisciplinary

Thematic orientation: term-oriented, concept-oriented

Lexical orientation: terms and words, terms only, terms-phrases 27. Describe the division of translation studies by James Holmes

PURE TRANSLATION STUDIES- describing, explaining (developing the principles for doing so)  translation phenomena as they occur

Descriptive translation studies

Product-oriented DTS- text focuses studies which attempt to describe existing translations

Process-oriented DTS- attempt to investigate the mental processes during translation

Function-oriented DTS- attempt to describe the function of translations within recipient sociocultural contex

Translation theory

General translation theory

Partial translation theory

Medium restricted- f.e. theories of human translation as opposed to machine translation, written/oral t./i.

Area- restricted- restricted to specific cultural/ ling. Groups

Rank-restricted- deals with specific ling.  Levels

Text-type- theories of literary translation or Bible translation

Time-restricted- older/contemporary texts

Problem-restricted- translation of idioms/metaphors

APPLIED TRANSLATION STUDIES-  activities which address specific practical applications, translator training, translation aids (dictionaries, term banks), translation policy (giving advice to community about translational issues), translation criticism

Relationship between these all is bidirectional (Toury´s concept- applied t.s. just extensions, are unidirectional) 28. Explain the basic principles of cohesion

Each sentence after the first is linked to the content and/or form of one or more preceding sentences by at least one tie

Categories of ties:

Reference

Substitution

Ellipsis- has to be supplemented by various added meanings, that take ellipsis on in contex (and underlying coherence- intimacy, intensity)

Lexical cohesion

Conjunction

Has to be examined in terms of underlying coherence

Cohesion implies coherence 29. Division of equivalence

Established on ST /source text/ & TT words referring to the same thing:

Referential equivalence- referring to the same thing in a real world

Denotative equivalence- same associations

Connotative equivalence → SL and TL words with the same/similar associations in the minds of native speakers

Text-normative equivalence (Koller) → SL and TL words being used in the same/similar context

Pragmatic/dynamic equivalence → SL and TL words having the same effect on their readers

Formal equivalence → the SL and TL words having similar orthographic/phonological features

Textual equivalence (Baker) → ST and TT information flow

Functional equivalence (Neubert, Newman) → same function → not all functions always appropriate

ONE-TO-ONE-single expression of TT for single expression of ST

ONE-TO-MANY- more than one TL expression for single expression of ST

ONE-TO-PART-OF-ONE- TL expression that covers part of a concept designated by ST

NIL – no TL expression for SL expression

SL = source language TL = target language

[hardtostudy]

lit.

1) Give the definition of onomatopoeia and classify it within the system of literary figures. (2)

-- Onomatopoeia is a word or group of words imitating a real sound of an animal or a thing. It belong to system of literary figures of sound.

2) Explain the syncretic concept of poetry. (2)

— oldest concept of poetry, denoted: a) artistic creation as such b) the whole field of artistic literature, or literary works of art (or creative writing), covering epic, lyric, and dramatic works. unproblematic concept of poetry was enabled by the lack of a sharp distinction between artistic and factual literature, or fiction and non-fiction.

3) Give the definition of anaphora and classify it within the system of literary figures. (2)

— It belongs to sound literary figures and it is deliberate repetition of the first part of the sentence in order to achieve artistic effect.

4) Give the definition of simile, put down its constituents. (3)

A simile is a figure of speech that makes a comparison using word “like” or “as” which makes it a direct comparison. Has 3 constituents: a) COMPARANDUM - the one which is compared b) COMPARANTUM - the one being compared to c) TERTIUM COMPARATIONIS - the element common for both of them —rhetorical figure that compares two diff things by connecting them with like, than, as... (cold as ice, my love is like a red, red rose)

5) Give the definition of sustained metaphor. (1)

— It is an extended metaphor that is usually constructed of more sentences. Comparison continues throughout the paragraph or lines in a poet.

6) Explain the concept of irony, define verbal vs. dramatic irony. (1)

Irony is a figure of speech in which words are used in such a way that their intended meaning is different from the actual meaning of the words. It may also be a situation that ends up in quite a different way than what is generally anticipated. In simple words, it is a difference between appearance and reality.

A) Verbal irony = Verbal irony involves what one does not mean. For example, when in response to a foolish idea, we say, “What a great idea!” This is verbal irony. B) Dramatic irony = Dramatic irony is frequently employed by writers in their works. In dramatic irony, the characters are oblivious of the situation, but the audience is not. For example, in Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, we know well before the characters that they are going to die.

7) Explain the term and concept of inversion and put down all of instances. (8)

— Inversion is known as anastrophe and it is a literary technique in which the normal order of words is reversed in order to achieve an effect of emphasis or meter. Inversion techniques • Placing an adjective after the noun e.g. the soldier strong • Placing a verb before its subject e.g. shouts the policeman • Placing a noun before its preposition e.g. worlds between /The Hyperbaton, the enallage, the dialysis, the hysteron proteron, the anastrophe, the tmesis/

8) Give the definition of syncope. (1)

— It’s a contraction by omitting sounds, syllables or letters from the middle of the word. It can also be defined as the dropping of the unstressed vowels.

9) Classify the anacoluthon within the system of literary figures. (1)

— It belongs to rhetorical figures -- STYLISIC ELIPTICAL GRAMATICALLY INCORRECT CONSTRUCTIONS FIGURES

10) Classify poems by type. (1)

— narrative — lyric — dramatic

11) Give the definition and explain the concept of lyric poetry and name its types. (17)

— Non-narrative, non-dramatic poetry, which was originally sung or recited with a musical instrument, called a lyre. It’s about the poet’s feelings and personal views. Types : the ode, elegy, epitaph, epigram, eclogue, epistle, ballad, folk song, song, romance, nonsense, psalm, idyll, pastoral poem, story in verse, aubade -- SELF-REPRESENTATIVE, REPRESENTATIVE, DESCRIPTIVE, REFLEXIVE, MEDITATIVE, CREATIVE, DIDACTIC, POLITICAL, CIVIC

12) Give the definition of epic poetry and put down its types. (5)

— It’s long, narrative poem and usually about heroic deeds and events that are significant to the culture of the writer. They were common in the ancient world to tell tales. Types: - the fable, epic, chronicle, historical song, ballade

13) Explain the term of hypermetrical verse. (3)

— a verse which contains a syllable more than the ordinary measure

14) Give the definition of rhyme, name the instances of perfect rhymes. (8)

- The basic definition of rhyme is two words that sound alike. Rhyme is a repetition of similar sounding words, occurring at the end of lines in poems or songs. A rhyme brings rhythm or musicality to poems.

PERFECT RHYMES = rhyme in which the stressed vowels and following consonants of the rhyming words correspond, but preceding consonants do not (Ex.: make, take). A) Half-rhyme occurs when only the final consonant-sounds of the rhyming words are identical. The stressed vowel sounds as well as the initial consonant-sounds differ. e.g. soul-oil, mirth-fourth B) Eyerhyme is in fact no rhyme, it just looks like rhyme. e.g. cough-bough-rough. C) Masculine rhyme occurs when final syllables are stressed and are identical in sound after their differing initial consonant sounds, e.g. stark-mark, support-report. D) Feminine rhyme (double rhyme) occurs when stressed rhyming syllables are followed by identical unstressed syllables. e.g. revival-survival. E) Triple rhyme a kind of feminine rhyme in which identical stressed vowel sounds are followed by two identical unstressed syllables, e.g. tenderly-slenderly. F) End rhyme (terminal rhyme) has the rhyming word at the end of the line. G) Internal rhyme contains at least one rhyming word within the line. Poets may choose to write imperfectly for effect.

15) Name individual types of formula poems (7)

— the ballade, the roundel, the rondeau, the roundel, the sestina, the triolet, the villanelle

16) What is the pattern of free verse based on? (2)

Free verse — has no fixed metrical foot, and often no fixed number of feet per verse. -- The pattern is often based on repetition and parallel grammatical structure. Nonmetrical, nonrhyming lines that closely follow the natural rhythms of speech.

17) Name and explain the basic elements of the novel. (3)

— The plot - what happens in the story, — setting - where does the story take place, — point of view - from what angle do the readers see the action ( perspective from which you tell the story ) — development of characters - how do characters evolve and interact — theme: central topic or idea explored in a text.

18) Name the stages of the development of action in the novel. (5)

A) Exposition which consists in introducing the setting and the characters, B) Rising Action during which we encounter first conflict(s) and the relations among the characters, C) previously introduced conflicts develop into a climax, D) Anticlimax solves the major conflict of the climax, E) The major conflict is solved in the resolution or denouement.

19) Give the definition of the novelette and its typical characteristics. (4)

= a short novel, typically one that is light and romantic or sentimental in character. A novelette is longer than a short story, but shorter than a novella. 3 typical characteristics: a) the number of characters is limited, usually there are no more than four-five of them, b) only one event is rendered, and should there be a digression from the central line of narration, it is only for the sake of making a thematic contrast or creating a parallel plot, c) everyday life is depicted with no special claims on extraordinariness.

20) Name the types of novels classified according to their function. (4)

A) The didactic novel — to instruct and to educate. The artistic form of literature is used to instruct, making use of the principles of morals and religion to meet the practical requirements of the day. B) The tendentious novel — tendentiousness may be enforced in a hidden, illusionary or in a direct, anti-illusionary method, the latter containing explicit author’s comments. Tendentious novel is more explicit, however, if the reader is identified with the presented ideology. C) The bildungsroman — newer variant of didactic novel, it portrays the inner formation of a person in relation to his/her cultural and personal environment.

D) The philosophical novel — if its ideational message is significant.

PART B

21) What questions should be asked in our trying to make the analysis of prosody? (10)

Diction/language/tone Images/metaphors/symbols Phonetic figures of speech (sound) alliteration, assonance, onomatopoeia Rhyme and meter of the poem, kind of pauses Verse forms and stanza forms Major theme of the poem Substitutions Rectitation Elisons and expansions 22) What questions should be asked before the analysis of structure? (10)

Genre -- poetry/drama/epic Form Emotional aspect Theme Rhyme/Assonance/alliteration Characters Theme Plot Composition Space - fictional/real Time - duration/order/beginning/ending 23) Give the definition of synecdoche and classify it within the system of literary figures. (2)

= in which a part is used for the whole or the whole for a part, the special for the general or the general for the special, as in ten sail for ten ships or a Croesus for a rich man.

— The rhetorical or metaphorical substitution of a part for whole, or vice versa. It belongs to figures of speech - tropes.

24) Explain the differential concept of poetry. (2)

= increasing importance of artistic prose which was becoming a counterpart to poetry, so the need arose to define poetry in opposition to prose. Individual conceptions of poetry then depart from the: a) formal criteria, b) evaluative criteria, and c) semantic criteria. Depending on the character of the underlying poetic and aesthetic systems. — Later conception of poetry which arose to define poetry in opposition to prose- artistic prose was becoming a counterpart to poetry

25) Give the definition of catachresis and classify it within the system of literary figures. (3)

FIGURES OF SPEECH—> Figures of contradictory meaning. = misuse or strained use of words, as in a mixed metaphor, occurring either in error or for rhetorical effect.

— use of the wrong word for the context

— use of a forced and especially paradoxical figure of speech (such as blind mouths)

26) Give the definition of allusion. (2)

= an expression designed to call something to mind without mentioning it explicitly; an indirect or passing reference. = Allusion is a figure of speech, in which one refers covertly or indirectly to an object or circumstance from an external context. It is left to the audience to make the connection.

27) Explain the concept of sarcasm in opposition to irony. (2)

As the highest form of bitter irony —> sarcasm. While irony may still be considered a friendly, at least harmless, comment and tone, what dominates in sarcasm is hatred or cynicism and the author makes hardly any effort to hide his true feelings.

28) Give the definition of periphrasis. (2) the word for “bee” in a different language and instead say, “a yellow and black thing that makes honey.”

— It is a stylistic device that can be defined as the use of excessive and longer words to convey a meaning which could have been conveyed with a shorter expression, or in a few words.

29) Classify the palilogy. (3)

"That answer is wrong, wrong, wrong!!!" — Stylistic figure of figures of simple repetition. It’s a repetition of words for emphasis.

30) What makes lyric poetry static? (3)

— plotlessness, motif, subjectivity

31) Give the definition and explain the concept of epic poetry and name its types. (6)

— It’s long, narrative poem and usually about heroic deeds and events that are significant to the culture of the writer. They were common in the ancient world to tell tales. Types: - the fable, epic, chronicle, historical song, ballade

32) Give the definition of dramatic poetry. (2)

= Has elements that closely relate it to drama, either because it is written in some kind of dramatic form, or uses a dramatic technique. May also suggest a story, but there is more emphasis on character rather than on the narrative. - Work that both tells a story and connects the reader to the audience through emotions or behavior. A form of narrative closely related to acting, it usually is performed physically and can be either spoken or sung.

33) Give the definition of sonnet, name its types and structures. (14)

— A lyric poem of 14 lines. There are 2 common species of sonnet distinguished by their rhyme scheme:| The Italian (Petrarchan) = sonnet can be broken into 2 parts, the octave (8 lines) and the sestet (6 lines) The Shakespearean (English) = sonnet consists of 3 quatrains and 1 couplet

34) Define the song and give its types. (7)

= a short metrical composition intended or adapted for singing, especially one in rhymed stanzas; a lyric; a ballad. = literary technique that is lyrical in nature, but not very lengthy

The sacred song or hymn, The patriotic and war song, The love song, The convivial song, Political song, Comic song

35) Explain possible arrangement of rhymes. (4)

Arrangement of rhymes in verses seems dependent on the kinds of poetry to which their introduction is suitable and/or necessary. A) consecutively in couplets and rarely in triplets, B) alternately, as in the elegiac stanza and ballad metre, C) at irregular intervals, or crossed.  Internal rhyme - functions within a line of poetry End rhyme - occurs at the end of the line of some other line, usually within the same stanza Eye rhyme - a similarity between words in spelling but not in pronunciation

36) Give the three typical characteristics of the novelette. (4)

3 typical characteristics: a) the number of characters is limited, usually there are no more than four-five of them, b) only one event is rendered, and should there be a digression from the central line of narration, it is only for the sake of making a thematic contrast or creating a parallel plot, c) everyday life is depicted with no special claims on extraordinariness.

37) Give the definition of the existential novel and its themes. (5)

Existential novel makes extensive use of monologues to manifest the protagonist’s growing awareness of his human condition. It is thought rather than action which dominates in this type of novels. The themes of existentialist novels are depersonalization, alienation from society, the belief in divinity, and an individual search for identity.

38) Give the types of novels classified according to the elaboration of theme. (4)

A) The humorous novel B) The satirical novel C) The experimental novel D) The journalistic novel

39) What questions should be asked for the analysis of structure? (10)

1. What happens in the story, play, or poem?

2. What kind(s) of conflict do you see in the work of literature?

3. What do the different parts of the literature contribute to the whole structure?

40) Give the definition of syntactic ambiguity and classify it within the system of literary figures. (2)

FIGURES OF INCREMENTAL REPETITION

= Stylistic figure. The opposite to syntactic ambiguity is a pun, i.e. verbal ambiguity. It is one of the most effective ways of achieving the multivalence (or multiple significance) of a good piece of literature. Syntactic ambiguity demonstrates a confusion in the meaning of a sentence. If there is more than one possible meaning then the sentence is syntactically ambiguous. E.x. Toilet Out of Order. Please Use Floor Below

41) Give the definition of oxymoron and classify it within the system of literary figures. (3)

FIGURES OF CONTRADICTORY MEANING = Oxymoron is a figure of speech in which two opposite ideas are joined to create an effect. The common oxymoron phrase is a combination of an adjective proceeded by a noun with contrasting meanings, such as “cruel kindness,” or “living death”. Belongs to tropes.

42) Give the definition of alliteration. (1)

It is a stylistic device in which a number of words, having the same first consonant sound, occur close together in a series. Ex: But a better butter makes a batter better.

43) Give the definition of diaeresis and classify it within the system of literary figures. (2)

Figures of thought —> Rhetorical figures = is the separation of a diphthong into two sounds, as is occasionally found in older poets, such as regarding the endings -tion, -sion, and words like hire, dire as disyllables,. = the mark ¨, in writing placed over the second of two adjacent vowels to indicate that it is to be pronounced separately rather than forming a diphthong with the first, as in some spellings of coöperate, naïve, etc.

= a pause in a line of verse occurring when the end of a foot coincides with the end of a word. — A sign put over the second of two vowels to indicate that they are pronounced separately. — Separation of a diphthong into two sounds

44) Explain the concept of anastrophe. (2)

= kind of hysteron proteron limited on the inversion of a two-word group, e.g. happy is he who… instead of he is happy who… — inversion of the typical word order in a sentence to bring attention to specific concept

45) Give the definition of amplification. (2)

— writer embellishes the sentence by adding more information to it in order to increase its worth and understandability

46) Classify the hendiadys. (3)   “to look with eyes and envy” instead of “with envious eyes.”.

— the expression of a single idea by two words connected with 'and'

47) Give the definition of epic poetry. (2)

Epics usually operate on a large scale, both in length and topic, such as the founding of a nation or the beginning of world history, they tend to use an elevated style of language and supernatural beings take part in the action. It’s long, narrative poem and usually about heroic deeds and events that are significant to the culture of the writer.

48) Define the comedy of manners and give its types. (7)

— is a form of comedy that satirizes the manners and affectations of contemporary society and questions societal standards. types = Comedy of characters, comedy of morals.

49) Name and explain the basic types of an essay. (6)

A) Literary essay B) Personal essay C) Philosophical essay D) Religious essay E) Scholarly essay F) Scientific essay

50) Give the types of novels classified according to the milieu (3)

the family novel, the novel of the soil

PART B

51) What questions should be asked in our trying to make the analysis of imagery? (10)

how the poem’s figurative language functions within the poem? why is the imagery literally appropriate? - how does it relate to what is actually being described? (often this centres on appearance - think about size, shape, colour etc.) what is being suggested by the metaphorical use of language? - how does it relate to the overall

ideas / themes of the text? sounds/tastes/smells/moves = straight imagery metaphor/simile = figurative language tone, mood, theme

52) What questions should be asked for the analysis of character and conflict? (10)

When does my character live? Past, present or future? Where does my character live? In the country, the city, the suburbs...? What is the socioeconomic background of my character? Does my character work? If so, at what? Who lives with my character and what are their relationships? Who else heavily influences my character? What is my character’s biggest life goal? Does my character have a hidden agenda or a deep secret? What is my character’s greatest fear? What kind of self-esteem does my character have? How does my character’s motivation change from the beginning of the play to the end?

[hardtostudy]

linguistics

MORPHOLOGY - MORPHEME, MORPH Morphology = a subbranch of linguistics which deals with the internal structure of words (word - forms) and meanings of units of which words are constructed Inflectional morphology = deals with inflectional operations which leave syntactic category of the base untouched but add extra elements of grammatical meaning and grammatical function Derivational morphology = deals with derivational operations (word - formation processes) which typically create a word of a syntactic class different from that of the base (e.g. affixes er / - action form verbs into nouns) Morpheme = the smallest linguistic sign, the smallest bilateral unit, so it is the smallest linguistic unit that has both - form and meaning. - the meaning of morpheme - sememe - the form of morpheme - formeme Morph = concrete realizations of morpheme e.g. - /s, z, dz/ are morphs of the same morpheme ‘'plural of nouns’' because of their phonetic realization — we speak about allomorphs of a morpheme if: 1) They have the same meaning 2) They are in relationship of complementary distribution, i.e. they occur in mutually excluding contexts 3) They are used in parallel constructions 4) They feature a certain degree of phonetic invariance admitting only regular changes There are 2 types of morphemes: 1. Free = they can function independently - stay by themselves as single words: a) lexical morphemes - words which carry the content of the messages we convey b) functional m. - functional words of language 2. Bound = they cannot occur independently: a) derivational m. - to make new words - diff. gram. cat. b) inflectional m. - to indicate aspects of the gram. Function of the word - same gram. cat. INFLECTION, DECLENSION, CONJUGATION Inflection = the combination of lexical and grammatical morphemes - a change made in the form of a word to express its relation to other words in the sentence - it includes the declension of nouns, adjectives, and pronouns, and the conjugation of verbs according to paradigms — providing word-stem with grammatical morphemes Declension = occurs in nouns, adjectives and pronouns - indicates such features as number, syntactic category, case, gender Conjugation = the modification of a verb form its basic form using inflection - it may be affected by person, mood, tense, aspect, number or other grammatical categories

WORD-FORMATION, ITS POSITION IN THE SYSTEM, METHODS - SEMASIOLOGICAL, ONOMASIOLOGICAL, MONEME. Word-formation = the branch of linguistics which studies the patterns on which new lexical units (words) are coined - there is no agreement among linguists whether WF is included in morphology: Morphology deals with morphemes as component parts of word-forms, word-formation focuses on morphemes that generate new naming units (lexemes) Semasiological method = it proceeds in general - from the form of naming units to their meaning - it concentrates on the question concerning the meanings (semantic structure) of WF types - it focuses on the analysis of WF units, the specification of the individual components and morphological structures of naming units - it specifies analyzable naming units (morphologically motivated and correspond to the particular WF type. = A discipline within linguistics concerned with the meaning of a word independent of its phonetic expression. Onomasiological method = It focuses on the process of coining new naming units, starting point is the concept or conceptual meaning or it may be set into the extralinguistic reality as an object of the process of denomination - the particular object of denomination is conceptually processed in human consciousness and classified according to the principles valid in the given language - it is usually distinguished between the onomasiological basis (determined component) that classifies the object within a certain conceptual group / class and then, within that group it is specified by means of an O. Mark (determining component). These two polar members of the O. Structure are connected by logical and semantic relations subsumed under the notion of O. Connective = the branch of linguistics that deals with concepts and the terms that represent them, in particular contrasting terms for similar concepts, as in a thesaurus. Units of word-formation: Moneme = minimal linguistic sign —> unanalyzable in smaller bilateral units e.g. receive, deceive, cranberry Naming unit = if WF is considered a branch of linguistics - naming unit is the basic unit of WF - a lexeme that is synchronically related to the word from which it was coined immediate constituents of naming units: word-formation base (stem) - the part of the motivating word which enters the naming unit word-formation element - the derivative element (suffix, prefix) root - part of a word-form that remains when all inflectional and derivational morphemes have been removed DETERMINANT - DETERMINATUM Syntagma = F. De Saussure’s term - a combination of morphemes the relationship btw them being that between the determinant (determing element - modifier) and determinatum (determined element - head) —> each naming unit falling within the scope of word-formation is a syntagma consisting of determinant and determinatum Determinatum = identifies the object to be named with other similar objects, Determinant = specifies its typical features by which it differs from all the other objects of its class WORD-FORMATION PROCESSES 1) Compounds = combination of WF basis of two or more originally independent words - the individual compound constituents do not contain any inflectional morphemes - only compound as a whole is inflected - can be written as single unit, separate units or connected by a hyphen EX: lifetime, football, upside, grandmother, passport, become 2) Affixation = attaching an affix morpheme to the beginning (prefix) or to the end (suffix) of a WF base - includes suffixation and prefixation EX: unwilling, submit, dependent, action, wonderful 3) Conversion (Functional shift) = the process of coining new naming units resulting in words of a different word class though having the same phonological shape of the fundamental grammatical forms EX: from verb to cheat to noun a cheat. 4) Backformation = formation of a new word by deletion of a suffix - like element from a complex form by analogy with other complex words - a word of one type is reduced to form another word of a different type EX: word babysit from babysitter 5) Blending = the process of coining new naming units by merging parts of originally independent words - joining of the beginning of one word to the end of another word EX: smoke + fog = smog OR motor + hotel = motel 6) Shortening of complex words = Clipping = an existing word is shortened while still retaining its original meaning EX: mathematics - math, gasoline - gas, advertisement - ad Acronyms = when initial letters are taken to stand for the whole compound EX: UNICEF, RADAR, NATO LEXICON - LEXICAL ENTRIES ABOVE WORDS Lexicon = vocabulary or total stock of words, or lexemes of a language - words, units smaller than words and larger than words have to be stored in a mental lexicon, which is studied by psycholinguistics. - words which are derived by common rules (e.g. [V+ion]n —> transmission - noun denotes the act) don’t need to be stored — we understand them - all words which are not derived by such rules have to be stored, as well as every unpredictable word (affixes, idioms, boy) - rules are not stored LEXICOLOGY, SEMANTICS, LEXICAL SEMANTICS, W-FORMATION Lexicology =a branch of linguistics concerned with lexicon - it deals with the structures existing in the system of lexemes, also with such issues as the size and structure of vocabulary, the link with extra-linguistic knowledge etc. Semantics - the branch of linguistics which studies meaning Pragmatics - the branch of linguistics which studies how utterances communicate meaning in context Lexical semantics - the study of meaning of lexicon, deals predominantly with paradigmatic relations among lexemes (homonymy) Word-formation - branch of linguistics which studies the patterns on which a language forms new lexical units (words)

LEXEME, LEXICAL UNIT, SEMEME, SEME, NAMING UNIT Cruse = defines the lexical unit as a union of a lexical form and a single sense, and the lexeme as a family of lexical units e.g. the lexeme fox includes two lexical units: fox (animal) + fox (person) - this distinction refers to polysemantic words, the lexeme covers a polysemantic word with all its individual meanings - it is a combination of one signifiant with all encompassed signifies, while the lexical unit refers to one particular meaning of a polysemantic word - it is a combination of a significant with one signifié within such a polysemantic word The meaning of a lexical unit is termed SEMEME. A sememe can be decomposed into semantic components, also called SEMES. Hence, sememe is a complex or hierarchical configuration of semes, which corresponds to a single meaning of a lexeme. The method used in this connection is called componential analysis. Di Scullio and Williams’ 4 motions of word: 1) morphological object = constructed out of morphological ‘’atoms'', i.e. morphemes, by processes of affixation and compounding 2) syntactic atom = invisible building block of syntax. Syntactic words are considered to be ‘'atomic'' units of syntax, and thus they are treated as invisible into morphemes. They represent one whole. 3) listed object (listeme) = listemes are linguistic expressions memorized and stored by speakers 4) phonological word = i.e. word consisting of sounds or letters. Thus Works, worked, man, men are four different words Matthews distinguishes 3 kinds of word: 1) phonological (orthographic) - word consisting of sounds and letters 2) dictionary word - lexeme 3) grammatical - a unit fulfilling particular grammatical function Potential vs. Actual words: Actual = any word that is used by the speech community Potential = reflect the unlimited human capacity to coin new naming units Sense vs. Meaning: Meaning = the characteristic of a linguistic form which allows it to be used to pick out some aspect of the non-linguistic world Sense = the central meaning of a linguistic form, regarded from the point of view of the way it relates to other linguistic items

PARADIGMATIC RELATIONS BETWEEN LEXICAL UNITS — ANTONYMY, SYNONYMY, HOMONYMY, POLYSEMY, HYPERO. Syntagmatic = the relation between any linguistic elements which are simultaneously present in a structure, e.g. the lexeme old is syntagmatically related with the definite article the and the noun man in the expression the old man. Paradigmatic = the relation between a set of linguistic items, which in some sense constitute choices, so that only one of them may be present at a time in a given position. 5 types of paradigmatic relations: 1. Homonymy = two or more words are identical in form (signifiant) but different in meaning (signifié), unrelated meaning a) homophones = identical sound form of the lexemes, different spelling (sell - cell) b) homographs = identical spelling but different pronunciation (lead: [li:d], [led]) c) full homonyms = identical sound form and spelling (lie, bank)

2. Polysemy = words with one form and several meanings, which are semantically related - relation among different meanings of one lexeme (fox) 3. Synonymy = words or phrases with the same or nearly the same meaning (refuse, reject) 4. Antonymy = a relation between signs whose content is different (opposite) but undoubtedly in a way related 3 types:

complementary - (male vs. female, dead vs. alive) - the denial of one implies the assertion of the other one and vice versa b) antonymy in narrow sense (good - bad) - gradable, 3rd possib. c) conversness - they imply each other mutually (husband - wife) 5. Hyponymy / Hyperonymy (flower - tulip, violet, rose) - paradigmatic relation between the contents of a linguistic sign finding themselves in a hierarchical relationship - the subordinate lexical item (the one with a narrower, more specified meaning) is called hyponym, the superordinate one, covering the meanings of all its hyponyms, is called hyperonym (archilexeme) - hyponyms which are on the same level of the hierarchical structure are called co-hyponyms hypernym = dog hyponym = labrador MULTI-WORD UNITS, LEXICAL FIELDS, METAPHOR, METONYMY Lipka = distinguishes between lexical fields (consisting of simple and complex lexemes) and word-fields (exclusively containing morphologically simple items - monemes) J. Lyons defines the lexical field as a paradigmatically and syntagmatically structured subset of the vocabulary (lexicon) - it is a set of lexemes that cover the conceptual area in any - one language system and by means of the relations of sense which hold between them give structure to it - lexical fields can be either linear or hierarchical Metaphor = a semantic change based on the association of similarity between two referents - they can be objective or emotive Ullman recognizes 4 major groups: 1. Anthropomorphic - based on similarities of parts of human body and inanimate objects 2. Animal - based on the denomination of objects after their resemblance to some aspects of animal word 3. From concrete to abstract - (to throw light on) 4. Synaesthetic - a transposition from one sense to another (sound to sight etc) Metonymy - the transfer of meaning is based on the association of contiguity - it is a semantic shift reflecting some kind of inherent relationship of referents SYNTAX - SENTENCE, CLAUSE, PHRASE Syntax = a subbranch of linguistics that deals with the analysis of structures and regular patterns of sentences —> it studies the principles, and rules for constructing sentences in natural languages - 5 units of grammatical description: morpheme, word, phrase, clause, sentence Sentence Mathesius - defines the sentence as an elementary speech utterance through which the speaker (writer) reacts to some reality, concrete or abstract, and which in its formal character appears to realize grammatical possibilities of the respective language, and to be subjectively, that is, from the point of view of the speaker, complete Bloomfield defines sentence as an independent linguistic form, not included by virtue of any grammatical construction in any longer linguistic form —> It means that the sentence is the largest unit of grammatical description. - he explains that in any utterance, a linguistic form appears either as constituent of some larger form (John (John in the exclamation John!) —> when a linguistic form occurs as a part of a larger form, it is said to be in included position, otherwise it is said to be in absolute position and to constitute a sentence Sentence types: Classification according to sentence functions: 1. Statements 2. Questions 3. Exclamations 4. Commands Classification according to sentence structural complexity: 1. Simple - consists of a single independent clause 2. Multiple - contains one or more clauses as its immediate constituents — compound = the immediate constituents are two or more coordinate clauses (equival.junct.) — complex = one or more of its elements are realized by subordinate clause which modifies the main clause Classification worked out by Darbyshire: - he distinguishes 5 sentence types in English based on different syntagmatic relations among: subject (S), complement (C), object (O), indirect object (O2), intransitive verb (I), transitive verb (T), adverbial group (A) Basic sentence types Intransitive sentences: 1. SI (the sun shines) 2. SIC (the sun is a star) Transitive: 3. STO (the sun melts the ice) 4. STO2O (the sun gives us warmth) 5. STOC (the people elected him president) CLAUSE - a sentence-like segment of a sentence - it can be structurally exactly the same as a sentence of any type There are 3 main types in English: 1. Nominal clause = it functions as subject, complement, object, indirect object, opposition 2. Adjectival clause = functions mostly as post-modifier of the head 3. Adverbial clause = functions as adjunct to verbs, can function as sentence adverb - 2 main functions: — to restrict the area of reference of verbs as to time, place, manner, condition — to indicate comparisons PHRASE - a word or a group of words which is grammatically equivalent to a single word and which does not have its own subject and predicate - the dominant word of the phrase is called the HEAD. - elements which precede the head - modifiers (premodifiers, postmodifiers) and those which follow the head - qualifiers - according to the dominant word, we distinguish: noun, phrases, verb phrases, adverb, adjective CONSTRUCTION - the grouping and combining of words in a sentence, and their resulting relation - ship to each other - they can be either endocentric (syntactically equivalent) or exocentric (basic sentence, further irreducible) SYNTACTIC VS LEXICAL CATEGORY Syntactic - any of the types of gram. Unit from which sentences of language are constructed Lexical - any of the gram. Characterized classes into which words of a language are grouped (noun, verb, adj.) S - sentence NP - noun phrase VP - verb phrase T - determiner PHRASE STRUCTURE GRAMMAR (PSG) PSG is a type of generative grammar, which represents constituents structure directly. The idea of PSG is that we first note what syntactic categories appear to exist in a given language and what different internal structures each of these have. Then for each structure we write a rule that displays its structure. —> so e.g. an English sentence typically consists of a NP followed by a VP (my sister bought a car) and we therefore write a phrase structure rule: S—>NP+VP - we continue this way until we have a rule for every structure in the language —> Nom the set of rules can be used for generating sentences —> starting with S, we apply suitable rules to tell us what units the sentence consists of —> until we reach the level of individual words —> we simply insert words belonging to the appropriate parts of speech. The result is usually displayed graphically in a tree FUNCTIONAL SENTENCE PERSPECTIVE, THEME, RHEME, THE ROLE OF CONTEXT FSP = Combines in itself a syntactic and semantic approaches to the organization of the sentence and makes it possible to understand how the semantic and grammatical structures function in the very act of communication - according to FSP, the sentence can be divided into two parts: THEME represents the basis, the part about which something is stated. It does not bring new information and usually represents a link to the previous part of the text RHEME is the nucleus of the utterance representing the new information. It is the part of the sentence with the highest degree of communicative dynamism. Objective ordering - focuses on the hearer - theme-theme Subjective ordering - emotionally coloured - reverse Passive construction - used to follow fixed word-order and place the theme at the beginning The role of context - those elements of the sentence which are context-independent have generally a higher degree of communicative dynamism compared to context-dependent elements THE DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE, ANALYTIC / SYNTHETIC According to Eduard Sapir there are 4 basic types of languages: 1. Analytic (Isolating) - a language that uses specific grammatical words or particles, rather than inflection, to express syntactic relations within sentences 2. Synthetic type - language in which syntactic relations are expressed by inflection a) agglutinating - 1-1 correspondence in meaning (Hungary, Turkish) b) inflectional - homonymy, synonymy in grammar (Slaronic languages) 3. Polysynthetic - Language in which all derivational categories and grammar are packed into one word - compound words - they can express in one word what is expressed in more words in other language 4. Introflecting - internal inflection - there is a consonantal skeleton, usually 3 consonants, which carry a very general meaning and by inserting vowels between them you can express meaning - create words DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENGLISH GRAMMAR SYSTEM: ANALYTIC TRENDS, WORD-ORDER, POSSESSIVE CASE, ADJECTIVIZATION - development of English language reflects a complete reshapement of once synthetic type into an analytic type of language - general tendency of the development is the tendency towards an overall simplification of the morphological system - Old English was a complex system of distinct word endings (inflections) overtime the distinction between them was lost —> the word-order became more and more important in conveying meaning —> grammaticalization of word-order - the fixed position of subject, predicate and object in a sentence - the only remaining variations in the standard language are plural (e)s, possessive apostrophe s, and third-person singular s on verbs. LANGUAGE AND CULTURE: LINGUISTIC DETERMINISM, SAPIR-WHORF HYPOTHESIS, LINGUISTIC RELATIVISM Linguistic determinism - it is the idea, that language shapes thoughts —> we can only think in the categories which our language allows us to think in Linguistic relativism (Sapir-Whorf hypothesis) - it is the idea that differences in language are related to the differences in cognition of the language users - there is no limit to the structural diversity of languages

TASKS 1. Which of the linguistic items below is best described as the smallest —> linguistic sign? — the word — the morpheme = has verb + meaning — the phoneme 2. Fill in: Declension is the occurrence of inflection in nouns, adjectives and pronouns. When inflecting nouns, we indicate such features as number (typically singular vs. plural), gender or case (in English 2 - N,G). Conjugation is the occurrence of inflection in verbs. Conjugation may be affected by number, person, tense, aspect (vid), mood or other grammatical categories. 3. Isolate the —> affixes in each of these words and state whether each is —> prefix or —> suffix: a) react b) happily c) active d) belittle - prefix e) attention f) repackage g) undecided h) restfully - suffix 4. Are following words —> simple or —> complex? and - S readers - C linked - C gain - S within - C redness - C killed - C readily - C dragged - C 5. In the following sentences, identify the —> word classes: a) Yesterday (adverb), I saw him walking down the street and he was not alone.

6. Fill in: Linguistic determinism is the idea that language shapes thought. Linguistic relativism is the idea that differences in language are related to differences in cognition of the language users.

7. Sentences —> simple, complex (podr. súvetie), compound (prir. súvetie) a) We have to go to work every day. - simple b) The teacher did not believe your excuse. - simple

c) As soon as they saw the burglar, they rushed straight to the police. - complex d) We rushed to the station, but the train was late. - compound Traditional grammar has two component parts: syntax and morphology. Morphology is the branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words. Syntax is the branch of linguistics that studies the principles and rules for constructing sentences. 8. Smog (smoke + fog) = blending language teacher (language, teacher) = blending editor = back formation 9. pass/fail = antonym expensive/cheap = antonym lead/lead = homonym vehicle/train = hyponym tulip/flower = hypernym

[hardtostudy]

American

THE PLANTATION - South in 1815: growing prosperity, and power. 
- Cotton 
- Slavery affected also values, customs, laws, class structure and the region’s relationship to the nation and the world
 - Shape defined by plantation, cotton, and slaves

 MASTER-SLAVE RELATIONSHIP
 - Labor and profit was essential 
- The labor relation was connected with violence - Slaves bodies, labor, and lives began to be defined as chattel
 - Slaves struggled to survive but also to resist and limit the level of exploration 
- Essential struggle - turning the system of absolute power and personal domination of the master to a design based on reciprocity — - Slaves had the means and human agency to resist (made their masters observe some limits to the exploitation of their labor
 - Master-slave relationship was very asymmetrical 
 SLAVES 
- Legally — chattel property — enslave people — mere extension of the master’s will
 - J. H. Hammond:
 The cardinal principle of slavery — that the motive is to be regarded as a thing — as an article of prosperity - a chattel personal - obtains as undoubted law in all these southern states. 

The slave lives for his master service. His life, his labour, his comforts are all at his masters disposal. Slave is the most valuable property.

 - Masters exercised exclusive power of slaves
 - Slaves could be sold to pay off their ots, transferred, sold by executors to set states, seized by sheriffs, etc. 
- Only 10% of wills did show some human concessions and made a human connection (arrangement to protect their family after their master’s death) 
- As a property they were legally devoid of will
 - Lives of slaves were full of violence (constant surveillance, sold or transferred, sexual abuse)
 - Insistence on the recognition of their humanity, natural rights to family and or their owner’s recognition of these families and communities 
- The debate about race was much more heated in the North (Northern institutions and universities looking for scientific proofs). 
- Polygenesis — the idea that races were distinct and unequal in origin, Phrenology, etc.

 - In South — slavery took the ideological work
 - The defense of pro-slavery argument was largely biblical —fixed orders (hierarchy) were the basis of a proper Christian republic.

 - J. D. Hammond:
 What God ordains and Christ sanctifies should surely command a respect and toleration of Man 

PRO-SLAVERY ARGUMENT
 - The necessity of Democratic-Republican government (only on the foundations of slavery could true republican society flourish) 
- Rejection of liberalism and principles of human equality - W. Harpor 1837: 
…is it not palpably near the truth to say that no man was ever born free and no two men were born equal? 

PRO-SLAVERY 
— Slavery is like a marriage. A benevolent institution to protect the weak 
ANTI-SLAVERY 
— Slavery is like a marriage. A form of illegitimate authority formed to oppress.

 - Analogy of slavery and marriage was an attempt to extent the public sense of immorality of slavery to other equally illegitimate forms of social domination 
- Pro-slavery ideologues turned to gender analogies too — to justify as equally natural relation of masters and slaves.

 SLAVE RESISTANCE
 - The ability to convey the experience of slavery was highly constrained - Narratives with first-hand experience broke through to the public life outside the South
 - Anti-slavery narratives (Solomon Northup, David Walker, Frederick Douglas, etc.) — their confessions were crucial in shaping American politics in the run up for the Civil War
 - Nat Turner Rebellion - in 1831 in Virginia (70 whites were killed) - fear on both sides - whites constantly lived in the fear from these rebellions - Slave rebellions were not uncommon - with the Civil War messages in the South they were less covert

 SLAVE FAMILY
 - Family - a body to protect individuals 
- Slave marriage had no legal standing in the South - chattel property had no rights 
- Forcing owner’s recognition of Family was the greatest political achievement under slavery - to make AA define themselves as people 

Marriage = A husband also owns his wife (possession of her body, her property and her children) 
Slave marriage = Everything belonged to the master, not the man a slave woman married.

 SLAVERY AND WOMEN 
‘’…slavery is terrible for men but it is far more terrible for women’’ H. Jacobs
 - Intimate relationships were recognized in slave communities - Unwed mothers were not ashamed (virtue and virginity was necessarily different for slave women — they could not control the circumstances of their sexual life)

 KINSHIP 
- Kinship (fictive kin) - extended biological ties - practice that tied people to children and expand the group and people invested in the child’s wellbeing - The selling of slaves involved repeated cycles of social death and re-birth - the narrative of Ch. Ball.

 THE END OF SLAVERY
 - The Civil War meant the end of slavery as an institution and the beginning of life - family, religion, freedom
 - When slaves were finally articulated, slaveholders had to acknowledge them as people

 THE END OF PLANTATION 
- 1865 the Confederacy was in ruins, slave regime was defeated - AA southerners had a long journey to gain their dignity 
- It was also the fall of the planter’s class. The plantation ended.
 THE HOME - ‘’America is God’s crucible, the great melting pot where all the races of Europe are melting and reforming!’’
 - 1607 - The arrival of three ships in the Chesapeake Bay
 - It was the newcomers who had the larger impact on the natives, rather than the other way around 
- Up through the early 1800s, European immigrants streamed into the colonies and the US, primarily from the British Isles

 FIRST WAVE OF IMMIGRATION
 - Late 1700s, it was the Scotch-Irish (Scots who had briefly settled in Ireland).
 - From about 1820 to 1880, it was the Irish and Germans.
 - The Irish arrived poor, but the Germans often had a little money and a skill.
 - The Irish took menial jobs, while the Germans went into printing, banking, painting, etc.
 - Many Germans pushed on to the Midwest, set up farming communities, and maintained old-country traditions.

 SECOND WAVE OF IMMIGRATION
 - From 1880-1924 some 26mil immigrants arrived — the largest migration in world history.
 - The earlier wave was primarily from western and northern Europe, the second wave was largely from eastern and southern Europe (large numbers of Italians, Jews fleeing persecution in Russia, Poland, and Hungary)
 - Between 1900 and 1909, when the 2nd wave peaked, two-thirds of immigrants came from Italy, Austria-Hungary, and Russia.
 - By 1910 arrivals from Mexico outnumbered arrivals from Ireland, and numerous Japanese had moved to the West Coast and Hawaii. Foreign-born blacks, mainly from the West Indies, also came. 
- Many immigrants never intended to stay.
 - For every hundred foreigners who entered the country, around thirty ultimately left.
 - Most of the 26mil immigrants who arrived with this wave remained, and the great majority settled in cities. 

MELTING POT
 - A salad bowl with discrete units may be slightly better 
- Suggests the nature of America at the time — a changing blend of cultures.
 - Each group affects and is affected by the pre-existing culture, yet the result is more or less homogeneous society that speaks the same language and abides by the same laws.
 - Immigration to the US was part of a world-wide movement
 - Population pressures, land redistribution, and industrialization induced millions of peasants, small land-owners, and craftsmen to leave Europe and Asia for Canada, Australia, Brazil, Argentina, and the US.
 - Technological advances in communications and transportation spread news of opportunities and made travel cheaper, quicker, and safer.
 - Religious persecution — pogroms and military conscription that Jews suffered in eastern Europe, forced people to escape across the Atlantic. 
- New arrivals received aid from relatives who had already immigrated

 NON-WHITE CITIZENS
 - African Americans, American Indians, Mexican Americans, and Asian Americans — their opportunities were scarce.
 - Asians particularly encountered discrimination and isolated residential experience — they were blamed for unemployment in California in the late 1870s.
 - ,,The Chinese must go’'
 - To limit this latest influx, the government passed the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882.

 THE AMERICAN DREAM
 - Non-manual jobs and the higher social status and income were attainable (white-collar jobs). 
- From poverty to moderate success.
 - Rates of upward occupational mobility were slow but steady between 1870 and 1920 (One in five manual workers rose to white-collar or owner’s positions within ten years)
 - America was not a utopian dream, but it was generally better than what they had left behind. - In the 1920s intolerance pervaded American society 
- Congress reversed previous policy and, In the Emergency Quota Act of 1921, set yearly immigration allocations for each nationality
 - Preference for Anglo-Saxon Protestant immigrants reflected in annual immigration quotas for eastern European nationalities (could not exceed 3% of the number of immigrants from that nation residing in the United States in 1910).
 - In 1924 Congress replaced it with the National Origins Act - law that limited annual immigration to 150 000 ppl and set quotas at 2% of each nationality residing in the US in 1890, except for Asians, who were banned completely.
 - In 1950, 88% of Americans were of European ancestry; 10% of the population was African American; 2% was Hispanic; and Native Americans and Asian Americans each accounted for about one fifth of 1%.
 - By 1960s only 5,7% of Americans were foreign-born (compared with approx 15% in 1910 and 12,4 in 2005)

 - The immigration and Naturalization Act of 1952 ended the quota system that favored some nationalities over others. 
- Between 1970 and 1990s the US absorbed more than 13 mil new arrivals, most from Latin America and Asia. Immigrants flooded in from South Korea, Thailand, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Singapore, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam. 
- In 1970 Latinos comprises 4,5% of the nation’s population; it jumped to 9% by 1990s, when one out of three Los Angelenos and Miamians were Hispanic.
 - Hispanics created a new hybrid culture — ‘'We want to be here, but without losing our language and our culture. They are richness, a treasure that we don’t care to lose.'' - Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 — ( discourage illegal immigration by imposing sanctions on employers who hired undocumented workers).
 - In 2002 the foreign-born were 11,5% of the US population, a rising trend in recent decades, though still below the 14,5% of 1910…
 WOMEN "a woman's place is in the home" Not mentioned in  the Declaration of Independence, they were absent in the Constitution, they were invisible in the new political democracy. They were the women of early America – half the population that remained invisible – the very invisibility of women is a sign of their submerged status. Throughout most of history women generally have had fewer legal rights and career opportunities than men. Wifehood and motherhood were regarded as women's most significant professions. In the 20th century, however, women in most nations won the right to vote and increased their educational and job opportunities. Perhaps most important, they fought for and to a large degree accomplished a reevaluation of traditional views of their role in society. Maternity, the natural biological role of women, has traditionally been regarded as their major social role as well. The resulting stereotype that "a woman's place is in the home" has largely determined the ways in which women have expressed themselves.  Biological predispositions positioned women as childbearers – whom men could use, exploit, who was at the same time servant, sex mate, companion, and bearer-teacher-warden of his children. Societies based on private property and competition in which monogamous families became practical units for work and socialiyation found it especially useful to establish this special status of women – something of a house slave in the mater of intimacy and oppression. The conditions under which white settlers came to America created various situations for women. Where the first settlements consisted almost entirely of men, women were imported as sex slaves, childbearers, companions. In 1619, the year that the first black slaves came to Virginia, ninety women arrived at Jamestown on one ship: „Agreeable persons, young and incorrupt... sold with their own consent to settlers as wives, the price to be the cost of their own transportation.“ Most women came as indentured servants – and did not live lives much different from slaves – they were to be obedient to masters and mistresses... The situation was much worse for black women – as slaves they were the property of their masters Even free white women not brought as servants or slaves, but as wives of the early settlers, faced special hardships.. Those who lived shared the life in the wildernss with their men and were often gien respect because they were so bady needed. And when men died, women often took up the men’s work as well. Women on the American frontier seemed close to equality with their men. But many were burdened with ideas from England influenced by Christian teachings. English law was summarized in a document of 1632 – „The lawes Resolutions of Womens Rights“ „In this consolidation which we call wedlock is a locking together. I tis true, that man and wife are one person, but understand in what manner. When a small brooke or little river incorporateth with Rhodanus, Humber, or the Thames, the poor rivulet looseth her name..... A woman as soon as she is married, is called covert... that is, „veiled“; as it were, clouded and overshadowed; she hath lost her streame. I may more truly, farre away, say to a married woman, her new self is her superior; her companion, her master…” Julia Spruill describes the woman’s legal situation in the colonial period: “The husband’s control over the wife’s person extended to the right of giving her chastisement…. But he was not entitled to inflict permanent injury or death on his wife…” As for property: “Besides absolute possession of his wife’s personal property and a life estate in her lands, the husband took any other income that might be hers. He collected wages earned by her labor…. Naturally it followed that the proceeds of the joint labor of husband wife belonged to the husband.” Puritan New England carried over the subjection of women – one woman dared to complain about the work a carpenter had done for her, the Reverend John Cotton said – “… that the husband should obey his wife, and not the wife the husband, that is a false principle. For God hath put another law upon women: wives, be subject to your husbands in all things.” In the 1700s – a best-selling “pocket-book” Advice to a Daughter: “You must first lay it down for a Foundation in general, that there is inequality in sexes, and that for the better Economy of the world; the men, who were to be the law-givers, had the larger share of reason bestowed upon them; by which means your sex is the better prepared for the xompliance that is necessary for the performance of those duties which seemed to be most properly assigned to it… your sex wanted our reason for your conduct, and our strength for your protection: ours wanted your gentleness to soften, and to entertain us… “ Yet women rebelled. Ann Hutchinson – a religious woman, mother of thirteen children – insisted that she, and other ordinary people, could interpret the Bible for themselves. She was a good speaker, held meetings and people gathered at her home in Boston to listen to her criticism of local ministers. John Winthrop described her as “a woman of a haughty and fierce carriage, of a nimble wit and active spirit, and a very voluble tongue, more bold than a man, though in understanding and judgement, inferior to many women.” She was put on trial for heresy and for challenging the authority of the government.  She was made to leave Boston. 20years later, one person who had spoken up for her during Hutchinson’s trial was hanged for rebellion, sedition, and presumptuous obtruding themselves.” During the Revolution, the necessities of war brought women out into public affairs. Women formed patriotic groups, carried out anti-British actions, wrote articles for independence. They were active in the campaign against the British tea tax. They organized Daughters of Liberty groups, boycotting British goods, urging women to make their own clothes and buy only American-made things. Abigail Adams – even before the Declaration of Independence wrote to her husband: … in the new code of laws which I suppose it will be necessary for you to make, I desire you would remember the ladies, and be more generous to them than your ancestors. Do not put such unlimited power in the hands of husbands. Remember, all men would be tyrants if they could. If particular care and attention are not paid to the ladies, we are determined to foment a rebellion, and will not hold ourselves bound to obey the laws in which we have no voice of representation.” But Jefferson underscored his phrase “all men are created equal” by his statement that American women would be “too wise to wrinkle their foreheads with politics”.. And after the Revolution none of the new state constitutions granted women the right to vote. Between the American Revolution and the Civil War so many elements of American society were changing – the growth of population, the movement westward, the development of the factory system, expansion of political rights for white men, educational growth to match the new economic needs – that changes were bound to take place in the situation of women. In pre-industrial America, the practical need for women in a frontier society had produced some measure of equality – women worked at important jobs – publishing newspapers, managing tanneries, keeping taverns, engaging in skilled work. Women were being pulled out of the house and into industrial life, while at the same time there was pressure for women to stay home where they were more easily controlled. As the economy developed, men dominated as mechanics and tradesmen, and aggressiveness became more and more defined as a male trait. The outside world created fears and tensions in the dominant male world and brought forth ideological controls to replace the loosening family controls: the idea of “the woman’s place” promulgated by men, was accepted by many women. Cult of true womanhood – pious, religious, sexually pure, feminine, chaste, submissive.. The Young Lady’s Book of 1830 – “… in whatever situation of life a woman is placed from her cradle to her grave, a spirit of obedience and submission, pliability of temper, and humility of mind, are required from her.” “True feminine genius is ever timid, doubtful, and clingingly dependent; a perpetual childhood.” One book – rules for domestic happiness – “Do not expect too much”  “How interesting and important are the duties devolved on females as wives… the counsellor and friend of the husband; who makes it her daily study to lighten his cares, to soothe his sorrows, and to augment his joys; who, like a guardian angel, watches over his interests, warns him against dangers, comforts him under trials; and by her pious, assiduous, and attractive deportment, constantly endeavors to render him more virtuous, more useful, more honorable, and more happy.” Republican mothers – patriotic women – women were urged to be patriotic since they had the job of educating children. The cult of domesticity – to pacify women with a doctrine – separate but equal – giving her work equally as important as the man’s, but separate and different. Inside that “equality” there was the fact that the woman did not choose her mate, and once her marriage took place, her life was determined. The new ideology worked – it helped to produce the stability needed by a growing economy. But the cult of true womanhood could not erase what was visible  as evidence of woman’s subordinate status – she could not vote, could not own property; when she did work, her wages were one-fourth to one-half what men earned in the same job. Women were excluded from professions of law and medicine, from colleges from the ministry. In 1789 in new England was introduced the first industrial spinning machinery and now there was a demand for young girls to work the spinning machinery in factories. All the operations needed to turn cotton fiber into cloth were under one roof. The new textile factories swiftly multiplied – most of the women working there were between 15-30. Some of the earliest industrial strikes took place in these textile mills in the 1830s – demanded shorter workday “I was awakened at five, by the bells calling to labor. The time allowed for dressing and breakfast was so short, as many told me, that both were performed hurriedly, and then the work at the mill was begun by lamplight, and prosecuted without remission will twelve, and chiefly in a standing position. Then half an hour only allowed for dinner, from which the time for going and returning was deducted. Then back to the mills to work till seven o’clock…. It must be remembered that all the hours of labor are spent in rooms where oil lapms, together with from 40 to 80 persons, are exhausting the healthful principle of the air… and where the air is loaded with particles of cotton thrown from thousands of cards, spindles, and looms.” Middle-class women barred from higher education, began to monopolize the profession of primary-school teaching. Literacy among women doubled between 1780 and 1840. Women became health reformers. They formed movements against double standards in sexual behavior. They joined in religious organizations. Some of the most powerful of them joined the antislavery movement. So, by the time a clear feminist movement emerged in the 1840s, women had become practiced organizers, agigatators, speakers. “Reason  and religion teach us, that we too are primary existences… not the satellites of men.” Women, after becoming involved in other movements or reform – antislavery, temperance, dress style, prison conditions – turned, emboldened and experienced, to their own situation. Angelina Grimke, a southern white woman who became a fierce speaker and organizer against slavery, saw that movement leading further: “Let us all first wake up the nation to lift millions of slaves of both sexes from the dust, and turn them into men and then… it will be an easy matter to take millions of females from their knees and set them on their feet, or in other words transform them from babies into women.” Opposition – “Some have tried to become semi-men by putting on the Bloomer dress. Let me tell you in a word why it can never be done. Is is this: woman, robed and folded in her long dress, is beautiful. She walks gracefully…. If she attempts to run, the charm is gone…. Take off the robes, and put on pants, and show the limbs, and grace and mystery are all gone.” Sarah Grimke , Angelina’s sister, wrote: “During the early part of my life, my lot was cast among the butterflies of the fashionable world; and of this class of women, I am constrained to say, both from experience and observation, that their education is miserably deficient; that they are taught to regard marriage as the one thing needful, the only avenue to distinction…” Angelina was the first woman to address a committee of the Massachusetts state legislature on antislavery petitions.. Many other women began speaking on other issues and thus on the situation of women. Women put in enormous work in antislavery societies all over the country. In the course of this work, events were set in motion that carried the movement of women for their own equality racing alongside the movement against slavery. First Women’s Rights Convention in history – Seneca Falls, New York held by Elizabeth Cady Stanton = three hundred women and some men came. A Declaration of Principles was signed and signed by 68 womena dn 32 men. It made use of the language and rhythm of the Declaration of Independence.  A series of women’s conventions in various parts of the country followed the one at Seneca Falls. Sojourner Truth – “Ain’t I a woman?” – That man over there says that woman needs to be helped into carriages and lifted over ditches…. Nobody ever helps me into carriages, or over mudpuddles or give me any best place. And an’t I a woman? ..” Women began to resist, in the 1830s and 40s and 50s, the attempt to keep them in their “woman’s sphere”. They were taking part in all sorts of movements, for prisoners, for the insane, for black slaves, and also for all women. In the 19th century, women began working outside their homes in large numbers, notably in textile mills and garment shops. In poorly ventilated, crowded rooms women (and children) worked for as long as 12 hours a day. Great Britain passed a ten-hour-day law for women and children in 1847, but in the United States it was not until the 1910s that the states began to pass legislation limiting working hours and improving working conditions of women and children. Eventually, however, some of these labor laws were seen as restricting the rights of working women. For instance, laws prohibiting women from working more than an eight-hour day or from working at night effectively prevented women from holding many jobs, particularly supervisory positions, that might require overtime work. Laws in some states prohibited women from lifting weights above a certain amount varying from as little as 15 pounds (7 kilograms) again barring women from many jobs. During the 1960s several federal laws improving the economic status of women were passed. The Equal Pay Act of 1963 required equal wages for men and women doing equal work. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited discrimination against women by any company with 25 or more employees. A Presidential Executive Order in 1967 prohibited bias against women in hiring by federal government contractors. But discrimination in other fields persisted. Many retail stores would not issue independent credit cards to married women. Divorced or single women often found it difficult to obtain credit to purchase a house or a car. Laws concerned with welfare, crime, prostitution, and abortion also displayed a bias against women. In possible violation of a woman's right to privacy, for example, a mother receiving government welfare payments was subject to frequent investigations in order to verify her welfare claim. Sex discrimination in the definition of crimes existed in some areas of the United States. A woman who shot and killed her husband would be accused of homicide, but the shooting of a wife by her husband could be termed a "passion shooting." Only in 1968, for another example, did the Pennsylvania courts void a state law which required that any woman convicted of a felony be sentenced to the maximum punishment prescribed by law. Often women prostitutes were prosecuted although their male customers were allowed to go free. In most states abortion was legal only if the mother's life was judged to be physically endangered. In 1973, however, the United States Supreme Court ruled that states could not restrict a woman's right to an abortion in her first three months of pregnancy. Until well into the 20th century, women in Western European countries lived under many of the same legal disabilities as women in the United States. For example, until 1935, married women in England did not have the full right to own property and to enter into contracts on a par with unmarried women. Only after 1920 was legislation passed to provide working women with employment opportunities and pay equal to men. Not until the early 1960s was a law passed that equalized pay scales for men and women in the British civil service. WOMEN AT WORK The medical profession is an example of changed attitudes in the 19th and 20th centuries about what was regarded as suitable work for women. Prior to the 1800s there were almost no medical schools, and virtually any enterprising person could practice medicine. Indeed, obstetrics was the domain of women. Beginning in the 19th century, the required educational preparation, particularly for the practice of medicine, increased. This tended to prevent many young women, who married early and bore many children, from entering professional careers. Although home nursing was considered a proper female occupation, nursing in hospitals was done almost exclusively by men. Specific discrimination against women also began to appear. For example, the American Medical Association, founded in 1846, barred women from membership. Barred also from attending "men's" medical colleges, women enrolled in their own for instance, the Female Medical College of Pennsylvania, which was established in 1850. By the 1910s, however, women were attending many leading medical schools, and in 1915 the American Medical Association began to admit women members. In 1890, women constituted about 5 percent of the total doctors in the United States. During the 1980s the proportion was about 17 percent. At the same time the percentage of women doctors was about 19 percent in West Germany and 20 percent in France. In Israel, however, about 32 percent of the total number of doctors and dentists were women. Women also had not greatly improved their status in other professions. In 1930 about 2 percent of all American lawyers and judges were women in 1989, about 22 percent. In 1930 there were almost no women engineers in the United States. In 1989 the proportion of women engineers was only 7.5 percent. In contrast, the teaching profession was a large field of employment for women. In the late 1980s more than twice as many women as men taught in elementary and high schools. In higher education, however, women held only about one third of the teaching positions, concentrated in such fields as education, social service, home economics, nursing, and library science. A small proportion of women college and university teachers were in the physical sciences, engineering, agriculture, and law. The great majority of women who work are still employed in clerical positions, factory work, retail sales, and service jobs. Secretaries, bookkeepers, and typists account for a large portion of women clerical workers. Women in factories often work as machine operators, assemblers, and inspectors. Many women in service jobs work as waitresses, cooks, hospital attendants, cleaning women, and hairdressers. During wartime women have served in the armed forces. In the United States during World War II almost 300,000 women served in the Army and Navy, performing such noncombatant jobs as secretaries, typists, and nurses. Many European women fought in the underground resistance movements during World War II. In Israel women are drafted into the armed forces along with men and receive combat training. Women constituted more than 45 percent of employed persons in the United States in 1989, but they had only a small share of the decision-making jobs. Although the number of women working as managers, officials, and other administrators has been increasing, in 1989 they were outnumbered about 1.5 to 1 by men. Despite the Equal Pay Act of 1963, women in 1970 were paid about 45 percent less than men for the same jobs; in 1988, about 32 percent less. Professional women did not get the important assignments and promotions given to their male colleagues. Many cases before the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission in 1970 were registered by women charging sex discrimination in jobs. Working women often faced discrimination on the mistaken belief that, because they were married or would most likely get married, they would not be permanent workers. But married women generally continued on their jobs for many years and were not a transient, temporary, or undependable work force. From 1960 to the early 1970s the influx of married women workers accounted for almost half of the increase in the total labor force, and working wives were staying on their jobs longer before starting families. The number of elderly working also increased markedly. Since 1960 more and more women with children have been in the work force. This change is especially dramatic for married women with children under age 6: 12 percent worked in 1950, 45 percent in 1980, and 57 percent in 1987. Just over half the mothers with children under age 3 were in the labor force in 1987. Black women with children are more likely to work than are white or Hispanic women who have children. Over half of all black families with children are maintained by the mother only, compared with 18 percent of white families with children. Despite their increased presence in the work force, most women still have primary responsibility for housework and family care. In the late 1970s men with an employed wife spent only about 1.4 hours a week more on household tasks than those whose wife was a full-time homemaker. A crucial issue for many women is maternity leave, or time off from their jobs after giving birth. By federal law a full-time worker is entitled to time off and a job when she returns, but few states by the early 1990s required that the leave be paid. Many countries, including Mexico, India, Germany, Brazil, and Australia require companies to grant 12-week maternity leaves at full pay. Traditionally a middle-class girl in Western culture tended to learn from her mother's example that cooking, cleaning, and caring for children was the behavior expected of her when she grew up. Tests made in the 1960s showed that the scholastic achievement of girls was higher in the early grades than in high school. The major reason given was that the girls' own expectations declined because neither their families nor their teachers expected them to prepare for a future other than that of marriage and motherhood. This trend has been changing in recent decades. Formal education for girls historically has been secondary to that for boys. In colonial America girls learned to read and write at dame schools. They could attend the master's schools for boys when there was room, usually during the summer when most of the boys were working. By the end of the 19th century, however, the number of women students had increased greatly. Higher education particularly was broadened by the rise of women's colleges and the admission of women to regular colleges and universities. In 1870 an estimated one fifth of resident college and university students were women. By 1900 the proportion had increased to more than one third. Women obtained 19 percent of all undergraduate college degrees around the beginning of the 20th century. By 1984 the figure had sharply increased to 49 percent. Women also increased their numbers in graduate study. By the mid-1980s women were earning 49 percent of all master's degrees and about 33 percent of all doctoral degrees. In 1985 about 53 percent of all college students were women, more than one quarter of whom were above age 29. WOMEN IN REFORM MOVEMENTS Women in the United States during the 19th century organized and participated in a great variety of reform movements to improve education, to initiate prison reform, to ban alcoholic drinks, and, during the pre-Civil War period, to free the slaves. At a time when it was not considered respectable for women to speak before mixed audiences of men and women, the abolitionist sisters Sarah and Angelina Grimke of South Carolina boldly spoke out against slavery at public meetings (see Grimke Sisters). Some male abolitionists including William Lloyd Garrison, Wendell Phillips, and Frederick Douglass supported the right of women to speak and participate equally with men in antislavery activities. In one instance, women delegates to the World's Anti-Slavery Convention held in London in 1840 were denied their places. Garrison thereupon refused his own seat and joined the women in the balcony as a spectator. Some women saw parallels between the position of women and that of the slaves. In their view, both were expected to be passive, cooperative, and obedient to their master-husbands. Women such as Stanton, Lucy Stone, Lucretia Mott, Harriet Tubman, and Sojourner Truth were feminists and abolitionists, believing in both the rights of women and the rights of blacks. (See also individual biographies.) Many women supported the temperance movement in the belief that drunken husbands pulled their families into poverty. In 1872 the Prohibition party became the first national political party to recognize the right of suffrage for women in its platform. Frances Willard helped found the Woman's Christian Temperance Union (see Willard, Frances). During the mid-1800s Dorothea Dix was a leader in the movements for prison reform and for providing mental-hospital care for the needy. The settlement-house movement was inspired by Jane Addams, who founded Hull House in Chicago in 1889, and by Lillian Wald, who founded the Henry Street Settlement House in New York City in 1895. Both women helped immigrants adjust to city life. (See also Addams; Dix.) Women were also active in movements for agrarian and labor reforms and for birth control. Mary Elizabeth Lease, a leading Populist spokeswoman in the 1880s and 1890s in Kansas, immortalized the cry, "What the farmers need to do is raise less corn and more hell." Margaret Robins led the National Women's Trade Union League in the early 1900s. In the 1910s Margaret Sanger crusaded to have birth-control information available for all women (see Sanger). FIGHTING FOR THE VOTE The first women's rights convention took place in Seneca Falls, N.Y., in July 1848. The declaration that emerged was modeled after the Declaration of Independence. Written by Elizabeth Cady Stanton, it claimed that "all men and women are created equal" and that "the history of mankind is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations on the part of man toward woman." Following a long list of grievances were resolutions for equitable laws, equal educational and job opportunities, and the right to vote. With the Union victory in the Civil War, women abolitionists hoped their hard work would result in suffrage for women as well as for blacks. But the 14th and 15th Amendments to the Constitution, adopted in 1868 and 1870 respectively, granted citizenship and suffrage to blacks but not to women. Disagreement over the next steps to take led to a split in the women's rights movement in 1869. Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, a temperance and antislavery advocate, formed the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) in New York. Lucy Stone organized the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA) in Boston. The NWSA agitated for a woman-suffrage amendment to the Federal Constitution, while the AWSA worked for suffrage amendments to each state constitution. Eventually, in 1890, the two groups united as the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA). Lucy Stone became chairman of the executive committee and Elizabeth Cady Stanton served as the first president. Susan B. Anthony, Carrie Chapman Catt, and Dr. Anna Howard Shaw served as later presidents. The struggle to win the vote was slow and frustrating. Wyoming Territory in 1869, Utah Territory in 1870, and the states of Colorado in 1893 and Idaho in 1896 granted women the vote but the Eastern states resisted. A woman-suffrage amendment to the Federal Constitution, presented to every Congress since 1878, repeatedly failed to pass.  Pros of Immigration: • Will work at unwanted jobs. • Immigrants are a key part of Americas economic growth. • Increasing population. • We expand the American culture into other cultures and vice-versa. • Boost the economy. Cons of Immigration: • Immigrants take jobs away from Americans. • Illegal immigrants are decreasing wages for the poor and increasing taxes. • Immigrants are threating the American identity. • Some say that immigration is going to bring the economy down. • Cheap Labor. [it puts more Americans out of their jobs.]

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school drop-out : a person who leaves school without completing his education

equitable : characterized by equity or fairness; just and right; fair; reasonable:

equitable treatment of all citizens.

affluent : 1.having an abundance of wealth, property, or other material goods;prosperous; rich:

an affluent person.

2. abounding in anything; abundant.

3.flowing freely:

an affluent fountain.

by a mailshot : the posting of advertising or similarmaterial to a lot of people at one time

to hit the ground running : to immediately work hard and successfully at a new activity

disparities : lack of similarity or equality; inequality; difference, a disparity in age; disparity in rank.

Dismal : 1.causing gloom or dejection; gloomy; dreary; cheerless; melancholy:

dismal weather.

2.characterized by ineptness or lack of skill, competence, effectiveness, imagination, or interest; pitiful:

Our team played a dismal game.

Mimic : to copy the way in which a particularperson usually speaks and moves, usually in order to make people laugh:

Scramble : to move or climbquickly but with difficulty, often using your hands to help you, or  to compete with other people for something there is very little of:

Smudge : to rub, daub, or wipe in a smeary manner, to make indistinct : blur

Twitch : (to cause) to make a sudden smallmovement with a part of the body, usually without intending to

Ungracious : not polite or friendly / not graceful or elegant

Vicious : deliberately cruel or violent. / immoral

Wail : a prolonged high-pitched cry of pain, grief, or anger

Sticking plaster help : insufficient help, temporary and inadequate solution to a serious problem

Vulnerable : weak or easily hurt

Second chance finance : a loan you take out to pay off your debts

Affliction : a cause of pain or harm / the state of being in pain.

to steer : 1.guide or control the movement of (a vehicle, vessel, or aircraft), for example by turning a wheel or operating a rudder.

are also on course to : a set of classes or a plan of study on a particular subject, usually leading to an exam or qualification

interim deficit targets : interim adj : (prenominal) temporary, provisional, or intervening: interim measures to deal with the emergency.

wearying of : causing tiredness; tiring.

Latitude : scope for freedom of action or thought

Deflation : reduction of the general level of prices in an economy

austerity measures : official action by a government to reducethe amount of money it spends, or theamount of money that people in a countryspend

commission research :  commission is a group of people who have been appointed to find out about something or to control something.

Reallocating : allocate again or in a different way.

red tape : excessive bureaucracy or adherence to official rules and formalities.

Allocated : distribute (resources or duties) for a particular purpose.

Resilience : the capacity to recover quickly from difficulties; toughness / the ability of a substance or object to spring back into shape; elasticity.

green technologies : technology whose use is intended to mitigate or reverse the effects of human activity on the environment.

the Kyoto Protocol : is an international treaty among industrialized nations that sets mandatory limits on greenhouse gas emissions

binding legislation : Common legal phrase indicating that an agreement has been consciously made, and certain actions are now either required or prohibited

renewable energy sources : Most of our power comes from nonrenewable sources that can run out. In this lesson, learn about the many types of renewable energy sources that will never run out and could be used instead

ominous : portending evil or harm; foreboding; threatening; inauspicious / indicating the nature of a future event, for good or evil; having thesignificance of an omen; being a portent

stark : empty, simple, or obvious, especiallywithout decoration or anything that is notnecessary:

pre-eminence : the fact of surpassing all others; superiority

arable land : land capable of being ploughed and used to grow crops

exacerbated : make (a problem, bad situation, or negative feeling) worse.

With impunity : If you say that someone does something with impunity, you disapprove of the fact that they are not punished for doing something bad

In retaliation : to hurt someone or do something harmfulto someone because they have done or said something harmful to you

holding accountable :

to consider someone responsible for something; to blame something on someone

trench warfare : a type of combat in which opposing troops fight from trenches facing each other.

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W10 asset - any possession that has value in an exchange bailout - a rescue from financial difficulties balance sheet - is a summary of a company's assets, liabilities, and owners' equity bank run -  a period when many people take their money out of a bank because they are afraid the bank will lose it or go out of business bond - a certificate of debt issued by a government or corporation guaranteeing payment of the original investment plus interest by a specified future date. call the shots - to decide on the course of action; to be in charge capital - material wealth used or available for use in the production of more wealth default - act of failing to meet a financial obligation; loss resulting from failure of a debt to be paid equity - ownership; what a person, company, or account has to its name if all debts were liquidated GDP – gross domestic product - the total market values of goods and services produced by workers and capital within a nation's borders during a given period (usually 1 year) haircut (economy) - the margin or difference between the actual market value of a security and the value assessed by the lending side of a transaction liability - an obligation to pay an amount in money, goods, or services to another party (debt) loan - something lent for temporary use; the temporary provision of money interest - a charge for a loan, usually a percentage of the amount loaned owe - to be indebted to the amount of; to be under an obligation to pay (someone) to the amount of recapitalize - to change the capital structure of (a corporation) security - a document, such as stock or bond certificate, that represented your investment in that stock or bond to hammer sth out - to ​reach an ​agreement or ​solution after a lot of ​argument or ​discussion

W11 Cutting-edge - the position of greatest advancement or importance; the leading position in any field To dock with – to manoeuvre (a vessel or vehicle) into or next to a dock; to couple (two or more spacecraft, for example) in space Blast off – to take off, as a rocket Eerie – inspiring inexplicable fear, dread, or uneasiness; strange and frightening Cargo – goods carried by a ship, aircraft, or other vehicle; freight Thruster – a small rocket engine, esp. one used to correct the altitude or course of a spacecraft To get a kick out of something – to enjoy something very much get a charge out of something Shuttle – a regular travel back and forth over an established, often short route by a vehicle

W9 acknowledge - to recognize as being valid or having force or power; to admit the existence, reality, or truth austerity - reduced availability of luxuries and consumer goods, especially when brought about by government policy; strictness in discipline combat - a fight, conflict, or struggle troops – a group of soldiers commitment - an obligation, promise, etc. that restricts one's freedom of action streamline - to improve the appearance or efficiency of; modernize; protection ally - one in helpful association with another deploy - to adopt or cause to adopt a battle formation, especially from a narrow front formation; to redistribute (forces) to or within a given area juncture - a point in time, especially a critical point; a place where two things are joined; a junction or joint refugee - a person who has fled from some danger or problem, especially political persecution step up to the plate - to move into a position where one is ready to do a task summit - a conference or meeting of high-level leaders, usually called to shape a program of action sustain - to keep in existence; maintain headquarters - the offices of a commander, as of a military unit, from which orders are issued; centre of operations or administration endow - to provide with property, income, or a source of income. embark - to commence or engage (in) a new project, venture, etc. credibility - the quality of being believed or trusted scrutinize - to examine or observe with great care; inspect critically accountability - responsibility to someone or for some activity; the state of being liable to being called to account; answerable MEP – member of European Parliament

W8 adamant - impervious to pleas, appeals, or reason; stubbornly unyielding Bible, especially one delivered during a church service condescension - patronizingly superior behavior or attitude consolation - a person or thing that is a source of comfort in a time of suffering, grief, disappointment, etc. evangelist - one who practices evangelism, especially a Protestant preacher or missionary who brings the Gospel to people impious - lacking reverence lousy – inferior or bad moderate - being within reasonable limits; not excessive or extreme outrageous - extremely unusual or unconventional - extraordinary; being well beyond the bounds of good taste; grossly offensive to decency or morality parish - an administrative part of a diocese that has its own church in the Anglican, Roman preacher - one who preaches, especially one who publicly proclaims the gospel for an occupation preposterous - contrary to nature, reason, or common sense; absurd reverence - a feeling or attitude of profound respect, usually reserved for the sacred or divine; devoted veneration secular - worldly rather than spiritual; not specifically relating to religion or to a religious body secularization - the activity of changing something (e.g. education or society) so it is no longer under the control or influence of religion sermon - an address of religious instruction or exhortation (advise), often based on a passage from the solace - comfort in sorrow, misfortune, or distress; consolation trailblazer - an innovative leader in a field; a pioneer turn a blind eye - to ignore something and pretend you do not see it withdraw - to remove from consideration or participation; to remove oneself from active participation

W6 painstaking: extremely ​careful and ​correct, and ​involving a lot of ​effort sham -  something that is not what it ​seems to be and is ​intended to ​deceive ​people, or someone who ​pretends to be something they are not the bottom-line – the most important fact in a situation to go to hell in a handbasket – to rapidly deteriorate to lose the edge - to lose the qualities or skills that made you successful in the past vocational - relating to applied educational courses concerned with skills needed for an occupation, trade, or profession vulnerable - unprotected against attack; liable to be hurt or damaged