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MUḤAMMAD IBN AḤMAD
AL-BĪRUNĪ,
Al-Athār al-bāqiya
ʿan al-qurūn al-Khāliya.
الاثار الباقیة عن القرون الخالیة -
محمد ابن أحمد: ابو الریحان البیروني


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Mahomet (Muhammad) addressing His companions


Jesus and Mahomet


"But the most important, valuable and illustrated evidence regarding Caesarean section in Arabic literature comes from Al-Bīrūnī who died in 1048 CE at the age of 78 and who was the author of many books on history, medicine and philosophy. One of his unique manuscripts known as Al-Athār al-Bāqiyah `an al-Qurūn al-Khāliyah, is in the University of Edinburgh, MS No. 161. It was edited and translated into German and English by Professor E. Sachau in 1879 .
In this chronological history of nations, Al-Bīrūnī gave three references to Caesarean section. He wrote that Caesar Augustus (63 BCE-14CE) was born by post-mortem Caesarean section after his mother died. This is the opposite of the generally mistaken belief that Julius Caesar was born in this manner, as his mother was still alive when he invaded Britain.
Al-Bīrūnī also mentioned that Ahmad Ibn Sahl, who was a leader of a revolution against the Sāmānid ruler Nasr II (914-943 CE) of Transaxiana, was born by post-mortem Caesarean section."
Arnold TW. “The Caesarean section in an Arabic manuscript 707 A.H.” In: Arnold TW, Nicholson RA, eds. A volume of Oriental studies presented to EG Brown. Cambridge: The University Press, 1922: 5-7.
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In a book of Mansur Hallaj it is mentioned that when a person becomes incapable of performing Hajj, he should clean a room in his house and, perform tawaf there. This act, he claims, would be like the tawaf of actual Kaaba in reward.
Maulana Zafar Ahmed Usmani commenting on Mansur's book writes (based on Thanvi sahb's notes):
"Although equating any house to the Kaaba is forbidden, but symbolic association with the Kaaba (tashabbuh bil-bayt) is not forbidden.
In this regard, he quotes Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal's opinion that on the day of Arafah, Muslims in all regions should go outside their cities to open fields, stand in prayer and supplication all day as the people of Arafat do, and symbolically associate themselves with them. It is possible that Ibn Mansur understood this type of symbolic action. The clue to this is that this description is for someone who is unable to perform Hajj.
At most, a scholar can perhaps call it a scholarly mistake on the part of Ibn Mansur. Declaring it as disbelief or deserving of fatwa of heresy is incorrect. Treating any place like the Kaaba in form or appearance does not constitute disbelief. It may, at most, be called an innovation (bid’ah) or a sin, and that too only if the intention is to perform tawaf in the shari‘ah sense equating it with original kaaba. If the intention is not of shar‘i tawaf, but only of symbolic or literal tawaf, then it is neither a sin nor an innovation.
Similarly, believing an action or its reward to be equivalent to Hajj is not disbelief. There are hadiths that state sitting after Fajr prayer and remembering Allah until sunrise, and then offering two rakat of Ishraq prayer, earns the reward of Hajj and Umrah. If Mansur had heard from someone that a certain act earns a reward equal to Hajj, even that does not amount to disbelief."
Farid Bin Masood


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Sehewan Sharif Shrine


Ta'zieh

In February 2025, a man (named Abul Razak) in North Kashmir's Waripora Kunzar village of Tangmarg (located in Baramulla district) claimed to be a revered Sufi saint ( Sheikh Nooruddin Wali ) and built a structure resembling the Kaaba. He invited people to visit it as an alternative to Umrah, which was seen as blasphemy by many religious scholars and locals. The structure was demolished, and the man, who was reportedly mentally ill, was taken to a mental health facility.
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Date: c.1306CE or c.1314/15CE Description: The Prophet Salih produces a camel out of a rock. The prophet stands in the centre of the picture. In front of him is a rock, from which the camel emerges. Behind him is another rock, with butts of trees growing from it and a group of six figures of the people Thamud, who register amazement at the event, in front of it.


Date: c.1306CE or c. 1314/5CE Description: View of page from the Compendium of Chronicles by Rashid al-Din. Shows text with central image depicting Yanus (Jonah) and the whale. The position of Junus, lying in the shade of a gourd plant, which God which God grew for him to have food and shelter after being freed from the fish (Jonah 4:6), is similar to iconography found in early Christian art. The depiction of the whale as a fish may be due to a lack of knowledge concerning such creatures.

Date: c.1306CE or 1314/14CE Description: Detail of page from the Compendium of Chronicles by Rashid al-Din. Shows text with central image depicting a youthful Messenger as he is recognised by the monk Bahira. Above the figure of Messenger, an angel can be seen emerging from a cloud, about to anoint him from a golden flask. Of the three figures bowing towards him, the foremost is his uncle, Abu Talib, who was accompanying him on his journey. To the right of the miniature, three camels also appear.

Date: c.1306CE or 1314/5CE Description: Detail of page from the Compendium of Chronicles by Rashid al-Din. Shows text with image below depicting Musa (Moses) and the Israelites watching the Egyptians drown in the Red Sea. Although the sea had parted to enable Moses and his followers to cross, it had turned on the Egptians to were chasing them, according to the Book of Exodus. Moses is identified by a halo and may be seen in the centre of the image.

Description: Detail of page from the Compendium of Chronicles by Rashid al-Din. Shows text with central image depicting Musa (Moses) and seventy learned men hearing the voice of God from the clouds. Moses is shown on a rock, wearing a veil of the type usually worn by prophets and sages, while the seventy are lying prostrate beneath. Mountains can be seen behind.

Date: c.1306CE or c.1314/15CE Description: Detail of miniature from the Compendium of Chronicles by Rashid al-Din. Shows text with central image depicting Ibrahim (Abraham) being catapulted into a fire by order of King Namrud (Nimrod), the great-grandson of Noah. In line with the biblical tradition, Noah sits in the flames, protected by an oasis of flowering plants, while Namrud is seated on a throne to the right of the image.

Date: c.1306CE or 1314/15CE Description: Detail of page from the Compendium of Chronicles by Rashid al-Din. Shows text with miniature above depicting a figure, possibly the Messenger, astride a centaur, who is holding a book. The figure is surrounded by angels, one of which is carrying a sword and shield. Another appears to be offering him sustenance as she is holding a bowl out towards him.

Date: c.1306CE or 1314/15CE Description: Detail of page from the Compendium of Chronicles by Rashid al-Din. Shows text with central image depicting members of the Quraysh tribe, who controlled the area around Makkah (Mecca) in consultation regarding the proscription of their kinsmen, the Banu Hashim and the Banu Abd al-Muttalib, who supported Muhammad.

Date: c.1306CE or c.1314/15 Description: Detail of miniature from the Compendium of Chronicles by Rashid al-Din. Shows view of palace of Iram, the so-called 'earthly paradise' of legendary king Shaddad. A figure can be seen in the centre of the picture, welcoming to individuals on horseback, visible to the right of the miniature. Image has significant damage, with the face of the figure in the centre having been completely obfuscated.
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Date: c.1306CE or c.1314/15CE Description: Detail of page from the Compendium of Chronicles by Rashid al-Din. Shows text with central image depicting Abd al-Muttalib and al-Harith, respectively the grandfather and companion of Muhammad, about to discover the Zamzam well, which, as a miraculously generated source of water from god, is the holiest place in Islam.


Date: c.1306CE or c.1314/15CE Description: Detail of miniature from the Compendium of Chronicles by Rashid al-Din. Shows the Annunciation to Mary. The fact that Mary can be seen with vessel in her hands indicates that this scene is taken from Apocryphal gospel of James, where she is about to draw water from a well when the angel, Jibril (Gabriel), appears to her, and is typical of the Muslim tradition.


Birth of the Prophet Muhammad
c.1306 or c.1314/15 Rashid al-din Hamadani's Illustrated History of the World from the University of Edinburgh Or.Ms.20 Title: Jami' al-Tawarikh (World History)

Isaiah’s vision of Jesus riding a donkey and Muhammad riding a camel, al-Biruni, al-Athar al-Baqiyya ‘an al-Qurun al-Khaliyya (Chronology of Ancient Nations), Tabriz, Iran, 1307-8. Edinburgh University Library. EDINBURGH UNIVERSITY LIBRARY

Muhammad and Abu Bakr converse
c.1306 or c.1314/15 Rashid al-din Hamadani's Illustrated History of the World from the University of Edinburgh Or.Ms.20 Title: Jami' al-Tawarikh (World History)

Armia (Jeremiah) resurrecting a donkey
c.1306 or c.1314/15 Rashid al-din Hamadani's Illustrated History of the World from the University of Edinburgh Or.Ms.20 Title: Jami' al-Tawarikh (World History)

The "Day of Cursing": Muhammad and his family with the emissaries of the Christians of Najran, from al-Biruni's Chronology of Ancient Nations, Edinburgh Or. Ms 161
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Date: c.1306CE or c.1314/15CE Description: Detail of miniature from the Compendium of Chronicles by Rashid al-Din. Shows Da'ud (David), as an old man, seated on a rug, judging between two brothers. Recalls passage XXXVIII, 20-5 from the Qur'an in which the Da'ud mediates between the pair, who are arguing over sheep: one of the brothers, who only has one sheep, accuses the brother of stealing it to add to the ninety-nine which he already has.


Date: c.1306CE or c.1314/15CE Description: Detail of miniature from the Compendium of Chronicles by Rashid al-Din. Shows the Messenger solving the dispute over who will lift the Black Stone into position: he can be seen placing the stone onto a carpet, which is held by representatives of all of the four tribes, so that each can have the honour of lifting it. Spectators look on from either side. According to Muslim tradition, the Black Stone is the eastern cornerstone of the Kaaba, the ancient stone.


Date: c.1306CE or 1314/15CE Description: Detail of page from the Compendium of Chronicles by Rashid al-Din. Shows text with central image depicting the seven sleepers of Ephesus, who according to Christian tradition, were walled up in the cave in which they had been sleeping by the Emperor Digyanus (Decius). They were eventually released during the reign of the Emperor Theodosius II, in AD450. Praised for their faith in the Qur'an, the period of their incarceration, where they remained asleep, is 309 years.


Date: c.1306CE or c.1314/5CE Description: Detail of page from the Compendium of Chronicles by Rashid al-Din. Shows text with image above depicting the infant, Musa (Moses), being found by women from the emperor's household. Fearful at the growing strength of the Israelite population, the Egyptian pharaoh had ordered that newborn Hebrew boys be killed. Moses' mother sent him floating down the River Nile, from which he was rescued and adopted by the Pharaoh's sister, Queen Bithia, who is shown. Asiya, the wife of Pharaoh (in Islamic tradition), or sometimes the Pharaoh’s daughter or sister (in Jewish/Christian tradition, often called Bithia or Batya). She is the one who finds and adopts Musa. Some Islamic narratives also include Miriam, the sister of Moses, who followed the basket to see what would happen.


Date: c.1306CE or 1314/15CE Description: Detail of page from the Compendium of Chronicles by Rashid al-Din. Shows text with image below depicting the Messenger receiving his first revelation from the Angel Gabriel.
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Towards Revolution: Indian Muhajirs adrift in Central Asia (1915-1920)
November 6, 2017
Suchetana Chattopadhyay
Before the emergence of a communist movement within India, there was the tendency. It emerged from the passage of the muhajirs, Muslims religious exiles from colonial India during the First World War and post-war turmoil. Following the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, they reached civil war torn formerly Czarist Central Asia through Afghanistan. From their ranks emerged an émigré communist party. Though the impact of their initiatives was limited by their external locations and repression by the colonial state, they represented the earliest left collective effort related to the Indian subcontinent. The article will explore the experiences and shifting contexts in the course of their journey through certain contiguous terrains of revolutionary dissent which made them abandon pan-Islamist anti-imperialism and turn to communism.
Lahore to Kabul
In the era of Balkan War and the beginning of First World War, pan-Islamism, as a political ideology upholding the unity of Sunni Islam and the authority of its Caliph, the Ottoman Emperor, gained popularity as one of the chief vehicles of anti-colonialism in India. The sovereign authority of the British Crown could be viewed from this perspective as a temporal constraint. A student group emerged in the Government College at Lahore, the capital city of Punjab, led by Khushi Mohammad. Planning to set the premises ablaze, their immature militancy amounted to smashing a glass-door, and acquiring minor hand injury in the process.
In January 1915, Khushi joined a group of friends who had sworn to undertake ‘hijrat’. The colonial intelligence deployed the gamut of orientalist knowledge to explain their motivation, observing that the general term applied to these ‘runaway students’ was muhajirin, the plural of muhajir, meaning one who performed hijrat (that is, flight or migration). An Arabic word describing those who abandoned their country due to religious persecution, hijrat referred to the historic instance of hijrat or flight from Mecca to Medina by the prophet Mohammad in the early 7th Century. Among the 15 students who escaped from Lahore and headed towards Afghanistan, most were from middle-class families in decline or impoverished agrarian and artisanal families of Punjab. Khushi Mohammad’s father and grandfather were village oilmen, a manual profession. The exposure to a paradoxical modernity of colonial rule, which promised prosperity through education while denying the same in practice and draining the material resources of their surroundings on behalf of colonial capital, as well as concrete experience of repression and racism, propelled these students towards pan-Islam. Not seeking a medieval Caliphate, they wished to live in Muslim societies undergoing modernisation. Afghanistan, far from being a bold utopia of Islamic resurgence, was to disappoint them.
Kabul to Tashkent
They reached a rebel settlement at Asmas, a border village politely labeled by British officials as the ‘colony of Hindustani Fanatics’. A bastion of the mujahidin or holy warriors waging a jihad against the British Empire since the 19th Century, they received preliminary military training there. The poverty of the place was overwhelming. Convinced that resistance to imperialism was better built elsewhere, the students proceeded to Kabul by a route used since antiquity by travellers and merchants, with overlapping cultural influences of Greek settlers, Buddhism and Islam. In Kabul, the fugitives became close followers of Obeidullah Sindhi, a respected pan Islamist preacher exiled from India. In October 1915, the Indian-Turkish-German Mission also arrived and failed to convince Amir Habibullah to join the anti-British alliance. Squeezed between Czarist Central Asia and British India, the Afghan government was keen to placate Britain and imposed draconian restrictions on the muhajirs. To paraphrase one of the students, from guests of the Afghan government they were reduced to the status of donkeys. The top leaders of the muhajirs, intent on the worldly pursuit of setting up mercantile enterprises across the Muslim world, found their ambitions thwarted. In 1915, under Obeidullah’s guidance, the students formed an ‘Army of God’; the wing of a Provisional Government of India. Obeidullah’s military knowledge prompted the British colonial intelligence to note that the army of holy war was upside down; it was devoid of soldiers and possessed ‘few subordinate officers’ with 2 generals, including Obeidullah, 30 lieutenant generals, 16 major-generals, 24 colonels, 10 lieutenant-colonels, 5 majors, 2 captains and 1 lieutenant. Sindhi and the muhajirs, however, envisioned a secular constitutional government, presiding over a multi-religious population rather than a military-theocratic dictatorship for India once political freedom was attained. With this aim, they studied the British parliamentary model with interest alongside the Koran.
The post-war situation improved slightly when an anti-British Amir ascended the throne. By this time, the political and social aspirations of the exiles stood shattered. They could not take the risk of returning to India; so they turned further west towards Russian Central Asia and Turkey.
At of the end of 1919, Khushi Mohammad travelled to Tashkent, the headquarters of Bolshevik Turkestan.
Route to Tashkent and Moscow
While the muhajirs in Kabul were searching for support in Turkestan, a huge exodus began from India and their numbers in Afghanistan swelled unexpectedly. The hijrat of 1920 became a movement. Almost 40,000 refugees crossed into Afghanistan. The muhajirs keen to join the anti-British war led by Mustafa Kemal in Turkey were allowed to leave. According to M. N. Roy around ‘200 Khilafat pilgrims’ arrived in rags at Russian Turkestan. Some muhajir students, much like the ones who had escaped to Kabul from Lahore in 1915, recalled being warmly welcomed by an assorted crowd of Turkmen, Uzbeks, Tajiks and Russians at Tirmiz. A band played the ‘Internationale’ and the ‘Red Flag’ in their honour. After the cautious and restricted hospitality in Afghanistan, they were bewildered. The Civil-War, having virtually ended in the west was raging in Central Asia with British support. Tirmiz, cut off from the region and governed by an elected revolutionary committee comprising workers, peasants, students, soldiers, was like a Bolshevik island. The majority of the muhajirin wished to move on to Turkey; they fell into the hands of the rebels, were treated as infidels, and faced incarceration, semi starvation and possible execution. Rescued by the Red Army, 36 immediately joined Bolshevik military detachments comprising Russians and red Turkmen to fight the counter-revolutionary forces. They were impressed by the example of young Bokharans who had formed a communist party in Tashkent and were active in the new revolutionary government. Confiscation and redistribution of land among the peasants, a revolutionary programme, enjoyed popular support and the general mood of the place influenced them. Meanwhile, M. N. Roy, the nationalist turned-communist from India who had reached Russia via Mexico was entrusted by the Bolshevik authorities to look after them. Roy was not at all optimistic that pan-Islamists would take easily to Bolshevism. He nursed a cautious hope that some will join the civil-war on the Bolshevik side against the British-backed counter-revolutionaries and respond to the offer of military training to liberate India. He requisitioned clothes, housing and food for them in Tashkent. An American Wobbly, the Commandant of the military and political school to train the muhajirs, sarcastically remarked upon observing his charges: ‘We are going to train not an army of revolution, but an army of God.’ Roy had already mobilised Indian Muslim deserters from the British colonial army, enlisting them into Red Army’s international detachments.
Deployed against the British forces in Central Asia’s borders, some were raised to officer rank, a status denied to subalterns in the colonial army. Roy later recalled: ‘The news of their experience could not be kept away from their comrades still in colonial army, and it had a disintegrating effect. The number of deserters increased daily.’ Roy made no effort to form a communist party from the ranks of the enthusiastic deserters, mostly peasants in uniform. His previous nationalist training of organising educated and alienated middle-class Hindu upper caste youth in Bengal, probably influenced him to seek communist recruits from the muhajir students. He met and persuaded Khushi Mohammad to become a communist through dialogue and conversations and turned to other young muhajir students from India, about 50 in number, enrolled in the Indian Military School in Tashkent. The India House, a one storey building became the residence of the muhajirs, including students. Though the majority wanted to join the Kemalists in Turkey, a large section wanted to learn revolutionary techniques from the Bolsheviks and apply them in India. They were not keen to move on. A small section was interested in the ongoing social experiment accompanying the Bolshevik revolution.
The inner life of India House at Tashkent came to showcase the differences over the Bolshevik Revolution among the muhajirs. Roy recalled that the Bolsheviks provided the Indian muhajirs with all the basic comforts at a time when they themselves were undergoing extreme hardship.
No attempt was made to forcibly turn the muhajirs into communists. Only elementary political training was offered. A house committee was formed so that the emigrants could manage their own affairs. Despite their suspicion of communism, some managed to overcome their initial prejudice against an atheist creed. This led to a split among the muhajirs. In the end, the section that had turned left wished to form a communist party despite Roy’s cautious insistence that there was no hurry. Their pressure led to the formation of an émigré communist party in Tashkent in late October 1920. Mohammad Shafiq, described by Roy as an ‘intelligent and fairly educated young man’ became the secretary. They held regular lectures at the lodging to attract more members, avoided attacking religion, did not utter the word ‘communism’ but promoted a vision of mass revolution from below to liberate India. This was different from the positions advocated by nationalist militants or pan-Islamist preachers. According to Roy, one of the students who had taken part in the hijrat of 1920, Shaukat Usmani, ‘intelligent and the most fanatical’ became a communist; his lectures began to have an influence on the others.
Usmani, unaware of Roy’s cynical assessments, later wrote that Roy was like a ‘father-figure’ to them and there were differences between the pan-Islamists and Roy’s group in India House over communism and religion. For a while, Usmani steered clear of both groups but ultimately joined the communists. Encouraged to read Marx and having poor idea of industrial capitalism (since he came from a region with little modern industry), he found words such as the ‘bourgeoisie’ and the ‘proletariat’ to constitute a funny yet intriguing interpretive vocabulary. When asked to read about trade unionism, he impatiently declared, he was not interested in trade and industry, which made Roy and his ‘American wife’ and comrade Evelyn burst into laughter. However, he rapidly took to the socialist and internationalist vocabulary of the Comintern and read extensively on the conditions of workers and peasants in colonial and semi-colonial countries.
The novelty, social weight and political force of certain ideas over others made some of the muhajir students turn to communism in an atmosphere of chaos, civil-war and revolution. The social content of their anti-imperialism as members of a colonised intelligentsia was transformed under the combined impact of circumstances and new thinking. The Bolshevik support to post-war movements against colonialism and semi-colonialism in Asia and friendly relations with Turkey and Afghanistan since all were confronting British invasion, made many muhajir students turn left. The process involved rejecting the visions of state and society offered by Indian pan-Islamist and nationalist leaders. Instead of adopting the proffered model of a constitutional government which conserved proprietor authority and kept the rule of private property intact, some were turning to a new model of governance based on self-rule of the poor. Coming from the milieu of a derooted intelligentsia and impoverished agrarian classes, they were familiar with penury and destitution. The second route evoked an empathy for governance from below and persuaded them to join the Bolsheviks. The Second Congress of the Communist International placed communist parties at the centre of future revolutions across the world. Roy played a key role. He persuaded Lenin and the Comintern to accept his ‘Supplementary Thesis on the Colonial Question’; Roy argued the struggle for national liberation from imperialism could not be left in the hands of nationalists, prone to make compromises and reinforce class inequality; communist parties had to be formed with the aim of organising workers and peasants so that national liberation became an anti-imperialist and revolutionary class-war in the colonial and semi-colonial countries. This was followed by the Baku Congress of the Peoples of the East in September 1920, emphasising the role of mass uprisings to dismantle the formal and informal empires of capital.
It was this environment of internationalist revolutionary surge from European Russia to Central Asia, with a novel perspective that combined a vision of class-struggle with anti-imperialist political and social liberation, which contributed to the making of a party-in-exile. The party remained minute in terms of size though its membership increased. After the conclusion of the Anglo-Russian Trade Agreement in March 1921, effectively ending the civil-war, the muhajirs interested in further training, around 36 to 40 in number joined the University of the Toilers of the East at Moscow from mid-1921. Roy, with a degree of sadness, arranged for the rest of the muhajirs, around 100 or so, to be given money so that they could either settle in Central Asia or head for Turkey or return to Afghanistan or India. The ex-Muhajir communists planned to join the ongoing anti-colonial mass upsurge in India and establish contact in labour circles. Usmani, who thrived in the internationalist milieu by making friends with Chinese and Indonesian students, forced Roy to let him leave for India in September 1921. 19 months later, Usmani was arrested as Roy had feared and ultimately convicted in the Kanpur Bolshevik Conspiracy Case of 1924, alongside Muzaffar Ahmad, S. A. Dange, already active in Calcutta and Bombay and Nalini Gupta, Roy’s emissary. When he left Moscow, Usmani was unaware that the ex-muhajirs were already being arrested from June 1921 onwards by the colonial state. Secret trials and rigorous imprisonment awaited them at Peshawar, the frontier city. Their long and eventful journey was coming to an end.
Conclusion: flight from Lahore, return to Peshawar
‘Times like the present bring to the surface secret and long forgotten currents.’ This poetic line from the Sedition Committee (Rowlatt) Report of 1918 on Muslim Indian revolutionaries ended with the observation: ‘For the purpose of accomplishing their objects they seek to co-operate with enemies of Britain…Always they preach sedition.’
This imperial understanding of Muslim rebels as peripatetic, transterritorial, dangerous subversives in the employ of hostile powers was extended to the Muhajirs-turned-communists when they crossed over into India from Afghanistan. Despite the gaps in the years between 1915 and 1920, their passages led them through rebel territories and zones of anti-colonial inter-mixing during war-time and at the war’s end. Through a trail of old cities, they experienced different forms of governments and societies undergoing chaotic transition through regime-change and revolution. They came to learn of intersecting anti-imperialist routes with divergent social content and political programmes that led in different directions.
Among the original runaways of 1915 and post-war travelers of 1920, the voyage of the muhajirs evoked a varied response. Some became active in the Comintern, a few resided in the Soviet Union, others returned to India or settled in Turkey. Among the 7 convicted in the Peshawar Bolshevik Conspiracy Case of 1922-23, some remained with the communist movement, partially or wholly during the 1920s or even later. By inserting spies among the muhajirin between 1915 and 1920, the colonial intelligence laboriously tracked their movements. One of the secret agents, Abdur Qadir, while offering a full account of their travel to Tashkent and Moscow, perhaps unconsciously hinted at the social dimension of their political transformation which visited the muhajirs who turned left: ‘The term by which communists, including ourselves refer to each other is ‘Tawarish’, which means Comrade.’ For those who remained on the left, an altered perspective came to influence the way they related at a deeper level, politically and socially, to the world. Abdul Majid convicted at Peshawar, returned to Lahore, his home-city, upon release from prison. Addressing a meeting organised by a leftwing Punjabi youth group, Majid spoke of his first-hand experience as a muhajir in Central Asia, the conditions in Afghanistan, the encounter with Turkmen counterrevolutionaries, and the futility of pan-Islamist politics. He had sought but failed to attain emancipation within an identarian structure, forever withholding an elusive promise of Islamic brotherhood and unity. From a muhajir, he had become a Bolshevik.

(Prisoners in the Meerut Conspiracy Case. Shaukat Usmani (ex-Muhajir communist) fourth from left in the back row)

(Tashkent, 1917)

(Founders of the Comintern, including M. N. Roy, Tan Malaka and Ho Chi Minh)
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#Islam#Abraham#Issac#Gabriel#Solomon#Noah#Ark of Noah#Ali#Imam Ali#Joseph#Yusuf and Zulaikha#Islamic Art
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Samantha Reed Smith
https://www.samanthasmith.info/
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Samantha Smith
American peace activist and actress
Also known as: Samantha Reed Smith
Written by
Fact-checked by : The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Last Updated: Apr 30, 2025 • Article History
Samantha Smith (born June 29, 1972, Houlton, Maine, U.S.—died August 25, 1985, Auburn, Maine) was an American peace activist and child actress, celebrated for giving children around the world a voice in the volatile Cold War during the 1980s.
In December 1982, when she was 10 years old, Smith wrote a letter to the new leader of the Soviet Union, Yury Andropov. Having learned from public television of the apocalyptic potential of the nuclear arms race then escalating under Andropov and U.S. President Ronald Reagan, she asked Andropov to tell her what he would do to avoid a nuclear war with the United States:
Dear Mr. Andropov,
My name is Samantha Smith. I am ten years old. Congratulations on your new job. I have been worrying about Russia and the United States getting into a nuclear war. Are you going to vote to have a war or not? If you aren’t please tell me how you are going to help to not have a war. This question you do not have to answer, but I would like to know why you want to conquer the world or at least our country. God made the world for us to live together in peace and not to fight.
Sincerely,
Samantha Smith
After excerpts of her letter were published in the Soviet newspaper Pravda in April 1983, she wrote to the Soviet ambassador to the United States, Anatoly Dobrynin, to ask why Andropov himself had not replied. Andropov responded with his own letter later that month, acknowledging Smith’s specific question and the terrible nature of nuclear weapons. He cited his nation’s declaration not to use nuclear weapons first against any country. He also complimented her as a courageous and honest girl, resembling the character Becky of Mark Twain’s Huckleberry Finn (1884), and concluded by inviting Smith to come to the Soviet Union.
In July 1983 Smith and her family spent two weeks in the Soviet Union, visiting Moscow, Leningrad, and Artek, a children’s camp on the Black Sea. After returning home, she gave numerous television interviews and, with her father’s help, wrote a book about her experience, Journey to the Soviet Union (1985). In a December 1983 speech at the International Children’s Symposium in Kōbe, Japan, she suggested that U.S. and Soviet leaders exchange granddaughters for two weeks every year, because a leader would not want to bomb a country that “his granddaughter was visiting.”
In February 1984 she hosted a television special, Samantha Smith Goes to Washington: Campaign ’84, in which she interviewed various political leaders about the issues in the campaign. Later that year she appeared as a guest star in an episode of the television series Charles in Charge, and in 1985 she began appearing in a new television series, Lime Street, in a regular supporting role.
In August 1985, while returning to Maine from London, where she had filmed a segment of Lime Street, Smith and her father were killed in a commuter plane crash. The Soviet government issued a postage stamp with her likeness and named a diamond and an asteroid in her honour. The state of Maine erected a life-size statue of Smith releasing a dove with a small bear (representing both Maine and the Soviet Union) sitting at her feet and proclaimed the first Monday in June to be Samantha Smith Day. In October 1985 her mother established the Samantha Smith Foundation, dedicated to peace education and fostering international friendships among children.
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Samantha Smith visiting Soviet Union
“Dear Mr. Andropov,
My name is Samantha Smith… I would like to know why you want to conquer the world or at least our country”…
Samantha’s letter was sent to the Soviet Union in November 1982, and in early 1983 – the newspaper “Pravda” published it. Samantha was happy when she found out about it. April 25, 1983 – Soviet leader Yuri Andropov invited American girl Samantha Smith and her parents to the Soviet Union. Samantha Reed Smith (1972-1985) – beautiful and brave American schoolgirl from Maine, has become world famous thanks to the letter, which she wrote to the General Secretary of the CPSU in the midst cold war. For two weeks, the Smiths spent in the Soviet Union, Goodwill Ambassador Samantha visited Moscow, Leningrad and chief pioneer camp “Artek” in Crimea. In the camp “Artek” she lived like all Soviet children, wore a traditional pioneer form. She liked it very much, and took it to the US. Although seriously ill Andropov never met Samantha, they talked on the phone.
In Memory оf Samantha Smith, а Girl-Diplomat, the Little Ambassador of Peace. Тhе summer of 1983 made аn 11 year-old girl famous аll over the world. She lived in the American city of Manchester, the state of Maine. Everything began оnе morning when Samantha woke up and “wondered if this was going to bе the last day of the Earth”, and if “there was going to bе another war … who would start the war and why. And then she did something that only а child might do. She wrote �� letter to the Kremlin in which she tried to find out whether the Russians want war.
After а long journey over land and sea the letter arrived at the Kremlin in Moscow. Soon Samantha received а detailed reply and also an invitation to visit Russia and to see with her own eyes that there is nо place for war in the life of the Russian people.
The world press called this dialogue something quite new in world history.
In the summer of 1983, Samantha, with her parents, visited Russia. She saw Moscow and stayed several days at Artek, а seaside cаmp.
Тhе country which she had bееn so afraid of, turned оut to be, as she said, “good and beautiful”. Earlier the Russians had seemed to her 1ike people from another planet. During her stay she understood that the people hеre were not different from the Americans. All her fears turned out to be groundless.
Samantha quickly found а common language with everyone she met. Children asked many questions about life in America, about what people wear, and what music they listen to. Some asked her what the Americans thought about war and peace. But such questions were rare because “… it didn’t really seem necessary because not оnе of them hated America, and not оnе of them ever wanted war …. It seemed strange even to talk about war when we all got along so well together… .”
When Samantha left Russia, she was not worried, because she took away with her the answer to her main question – do the Russians want war? She had promised Russian children that at home she would tell to her countrymen the truth about our country, that Russian people dream only of peace and friendship with other peoples. When she returned to Manchester, she kept her word. She wrote а book about her journey in which she told the truth about the country of which she, like millions of her countrymen, had known nothing. “I dedicate this book to the children of the world. They know that peace is always possible,” Samantha wrote.
In her book she honestly described everything she saw in our country, аll that she spoke about with children and grown-ups. In Russia Samantha not only looked and observed, she not only listened and tried to memorize, she also thought and analyzed for herself. She never stopped asking questions: “Why? What for? And what do you do then?” And in book, she expressed her thoughts and feelings: “The
world does not seem so complicated as it did when I looked at travel books I got from the library. And the people of the wor1d seem more like my own neighbors. I think they аге more like mе than I ever imagined. I guess that’s the most important change inside mе.”
The media of the USSR, the United States and around the world watched her every move, each phrase. Before leaving home July 22 Samantha smiled at the cameras and shouted with a smile in Russian: “We will live!”. And in her book “Journey to the Soviet Union” Samantha concluded that “they are the same as we are.”
Samantha Smith died in a plane crash August 25, 1985 (Bar Harbor Airlines Flight 1808). On that day, Samantha with her father returned from filming the show of Robert Wagner «Lime Street», where Samantha was playing a role. The death of the famous girls, many in the United States linked to the activities of the KGB, the Soviet Union – on the contrary – with the CIA.
As a return visit in 1986, Soviet schoolgirl Katya Katya Lycheva visited the United States.
In 1987 in Moscow was founded Center of Children Diplomacy named after Samantha Smith. The center had offices in different cities (for example, in Donbass), and its press organ – magazine for children and teenagers “Roly-Poly”, registered on 19 December 1985, was published in Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages.
September 8, 1985 the name of Samantha Smith was given to a diamond weighing 32.7 carats, found two weeks earlier in Yakutia.
July 4, 1986 in the pioneer camp “Artek” was opened Samantha Smith Alley, with a granite monument.
December 16, 1986 the Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Chernykh discovered asteroid, which was named 3147 Samantha. February 28, 1987 the mother of Samantha Jane Smith was awarded an official certificate.
Name Samantha Smith has a mountain peak in the Caucasus (on the border of Georgia and South Ossetia).
A number of streets in different localities in the former Soviet republics are named Samantha Smith, some of which have retained this title until now. In particular, in Buryatia and Bryansk region.
There is a ship “Samantha Smith” in Yalta port.
In Nizhny Novgorod, the children’s park was named after Samantha Smith. One of the pioneer summer camps in Sverdlovsk region was named Samantha Smith.
In honor of Samantha Smith named one of walking and sightseeing ships of Yalta seaport. Another small boat on the Volga near Astrakhan, was also named in honor of Samantha.
The name of Samantha Smith was given by Soviet breeders to bred variety of dahlias, tulips and tomatoes, as well as one of the varieties of Echinopsis (Echinopsis) – a plant of the family Cactaceae.
December 5, 1985 edition of 2.6 million copies was released a postage stamp size of 28 × 40 mm with a picture of Samantha and envelope with special cancellation.
Samantha Smith was а small ambassador of peace. There is hardly anyone on this planet who has not heard her name and her appeal to put an end to unfriendliness between our country аnd the USA, ог who does not know about her tragic death in a plane accident. Нег name has become а symbol of peace, like Pablo Picasso’s “White Dove”. Samantha lives on in people’s hearts. Though she was lost to the world so early, the candle she lit is still burning.
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تحریکِ آزادی اور مولانا بھاشانی — حصہ دوم
کامریڈ محمد عامر حسینی
16 مئی کو ایک اور بیان میں مولانا بھاشانی نے تمام ریاستوں کے سربراہان، خصوصاً یحییٰ خان کو چیلنج کرتے ہوئے کہا:
"اگر کسی کو بنگلہ دیش کے عوام کے دل سے اٹھنے والے مطالبے پر شک ہے، تو وہ اقوامِ متحدہ کی نگرانی میں ریفرنڈم کروا لے۔ آپ دیکھیں گے کہ 99 فیصد سے زیادہ لوگ ایک آزاد و خودمختار بنگلہ دیش کی حمایت کریں گے۔"
31 مئی کو صحافیوں سے گفتگو کرتے ہوئے مولانا نے کہا:
"بنگلہ دیش کی مکمل آزادی ہی وہ واحد راستہ ہے جس کے ذریعے بنگالی عوام کو مغربی پاکستان کے انسانیت سوز استحصال سے بچایا جا سکتا ہے۔"
انہوں نے اُن لوگوں کے رویے کی مذمت کی جو بنگلہ دیش کے مسئلے کا "سیاسی حل" تلاش کرنے کی بات کرتے تھے۔ انہوں نے کہا کہ بنگلہ دیش کے عوام گزشتہ 23 سالوں سے دنیا کے بدترین جبر و استحصال کا شکار رہے ہیں، اور اب وہ مکمل جنگ کی حالت میں ہیں۔ ایسے میں کسی سیاسی سمجھوتے کی کوئی گنجائش باقی نہیں۔ "یا تو مکمل تباہی یا مکمل فتح ہمارا مقدر ہے — لیکن یہ 75 لاکھ لوگوں کی قربانیاں ہرگز رائیگاں نہیں جائیں گی۔"
مولانا بھاشانی نے عالمی رہنماؤں سے نہایت جذباتی انداز میں اپیلیں کیں۔ چین نواز اس رہنما نے چیئرمین ماؤ زے تنگ اور وزیرِاعظم چو این لائی کو بھیجے گئے ایک ٹیلیگرام میں لکھا:
"سوشلسٹ نظریے کا مقصد ظلم کے خلاف جنگ ہے۔ میں آپ سے اپیل کرتا ہوں کہ آپ بنگلہ دیش کے ساڑھے سات کروڑ مظلوم عوام کو جنرل یحییٰ خان کی فوجی جنتا کے ظلم و ستم سے بچائیں۔ یحییٰ کی حکومت، آپ کی طرف سے مہیا کردہ جدید ہتھیاروں کے ذریعے، بنگلہ دیش کے معصوم، غیر مسلح، بےبس کسانوں، مزدوروں، طلبہ، دانشوروں، خواتین اور بچوں کا بےرحمی سے قتل عام کر رہی ہے۔ اگر آپ نے ان مظالم کے خلاف آواز نہ اٹھائی تو دنیا یہ سمجھ سکتی ہے کہ آپ مظلوموں کے نہیں بلکہ ��الموں کے ساتھ ہیں۔"
سوویت یونین کے رہنما بریژنیف، صدر پوڈگورنی اور چئیرمین کوسیگن کو بھیجے گئے ٹیلیگرام میں مولانا نے کہا:
"بنگلہ دیش کے 75 ملین عوام کی جانب سے میں سپریم سوویت کے بیان پر شکریہ ادا کرتا ہوں جو صدر پوڈگورنی نے جاری کیا۔ تاہم، میں توجہ دلانا چاہتا ہوں کہ بنگلہ دیش کے نہتے اور بےبس عوام کا قتلِ عام روکنے کے لیے فوری اور مؤثر اقدام کی ضرورت ہے، جو جنرل یحییٰ خان کی ظالم فوجی آمریت کے ہاتھوں ہو رہا ہے۔ یہ قتلِ عام مغربی پاکستانی فوج امریکی اور چینی اسلحے کی مدد سے کر رہی ہے۔ آپ کی قوم اور قیادت نے ہمیشہ مظلوم اقوام کے حقِ خودارادیت کی حمایت کی ہے اور آزادی کی تحاریک کی اخلاقی، سیاسی اور مادی مدد کی ہے۔ میں آپ سے اپیل کرتا ہوں کہ آپ یہی کردار بنگلہ دیش کے لیے بھی ادا کریں، اور عوامی جمہوریہ بنگلہ دیش کی حکومت کو فوری تسلیم کر کے اس کی ہر ممکن مدد کریں۔"
امریکی صدر نکسن کو مخاطب کرتے ہوئے، جس امریکی پالیسی کے وہ زندگی بھر شدید مخالف رہے، مولانا نے اپنے ٹیلیگرام میں لکھا:
"جنرل یحییٰ خان کی آمریت کے حکم پر اور آپ اور چین کی حکومت کی طرف سے دیے گئے جدید ہتھیاروں کی مدد سے مغربی پاکستان کے وحشی فوجی، بنگلہ دیش کے لاکھوں معصوم، نہتے اور بےبس لوگوں کو بےدریغ قتل کر رہے ہیں — خواہ وہ کسی مذہب، نسل یا فرقے سے ہوں، یہاں تک کہ خواتین، بچے اور نومولود بھی نہیں بچے۔ میں آپ سے پُرزور اپیل کرتا ہوں کہ آپ اسلحے کی نئی کھیپ کی فراہمی بند کریں، اور پہلے سے مہیا کیے گئے ہتھیاروں کے استعمال کو روکنے کے لیے مؤثر اقدامات کریں تاکہ یحییٰ خان ان ہتھیاروں سے مزید قتل عام نہ کر سکے۔ میں آپ سے گزارش کرتا ہوں کہ آپ بنگلہ دیش کی حکومت کو فوری طور پر تسلیم کریں اور ہر ممکن مدد فراہم کریں۔"
اپنے پیغام میں انہوں نے مزید کہا:
"اگر آپ مہربانی فرما کر اس امر کا بندوبست کریں کہ مختلف عالمی خبر رساں اداروں کے نمائندے بنگلہ دیش کے اندر جا کر خود اپنی آنکھوں سے دیکھیں کہ مغربی پاکستانی فوج کس پیمانے پر لوٹ مار، آگ زنی، قتلِ عام، خواتین کی بےحرمتی اور غنڈہ گردی کر رہی ہے — تاکہ بنگلہ دیش کی خونچکاں کہانی دنیا کے سامنے واضح ہو سکے — تو میں شکر گزار رہوں گا۔"
فرانسیسی صدر جارج پومپیدو کو بھیجے گئے ایک اور ٹیلیگرام میں مولانا نے لکھا:
"...میں آپ سے اپیل کرتا ہوں کہ مغربی پاکستان کے فوجیوں کی طرف سے جنرل یحییٰ خان کی ہدایت پر اور جدید جنگی ہتھیاروں کی مدد سے کیے جانے والے مظالم کے خلاف آواز بلند کریں۔ میں آپ سے التجا کرتا ہوں کہ بنگلہ دیش میں انسانی حقوق کی اس بےرحمانہ پامالی کے خلاف بولیں۔ فرانس دنیا کی انقلابی تحریکوں کی قیادت کا تاریخی علمبردار رہا ہے، اور میں امید کرتا ہوں کہ آپ کی دانشمندانہ قیادت میں فرانس بنگلہ دیش کے عوام کے حقِ خودارادیت کی حمایت میں آواز بلند کرے گا۔"
برطانوی وزیرِاعظم ایڈورڈ ہیتھ کو اپنے پیغام میں مولانا نے کہا:
"میں آپ سے اپیل کرتا ہوں کہ جنرل یحییٰ خان کی فوجی آمریت کے ہاتھوں مشرقی بنگال کے ہزاروں معصوم شہریوں کے قتلِ عام کے خلاف آواز بلند کریں۔ میں امید کرتا ہوں کہ آپ کی حکومت حالات کی سنگینی کو سمجھتے ہوئے عوامی جمہوریہ بنگلہ دیش کی حکومت کو فوری تسلیم کرے گی اور ہر ممکن مدد فراہم کرے گی۔ برطانوی اخبارات میں شائع ہونے والی رپورٹس، جو برطانوی صحافیوں نے فراہم کی ہیں، دل دہلا دینے والی ہیں۔ مگر سچ تو یہ ہے کہ یہ رپورٹس بھی اُس ظلم و بربریت کی پوری تصویر کشی نہیں کرتیں جو مغربی پاکستان کے خون کے پیاسے فوجی بنگلہ دیش کے نہتے عوام پر روا رکھے ہوئے ہیں۔"
مولانا بھاشانی نے یوگوسلاوی صدر مارشل ٹیٹو، مصری صدر انور سادات، عرب لیگ کے سیکریٹری جنرل عبد الخالق حسونہ، اور افریقی اتحاد کی تنظیم کے سیکریٹری جنرل دیالو تیلی کو بھی ٹیلیگرام بھیجے۔
اقوام متحدہ کے سیکریٹری جنرل یو تھانٹ کے نام اپیل میں مولانا نے لکھا:
"میں آپ سے اپیل کرتا ہوں کہ آپ فوری طور پر ان معصوم لوگوں کے قتلِ عام کو رکوانے کے لیے اپیل جاری کریں اور جنرل یحییٰ خان کی فوجی آمریت کے خلاف مظلوموں کو ریلیف فراہم کرنے میں ہر ممکن مدد فراہم کریں۔ میں خوش آمدید کہوں گا اگر آپ اپنے مبصرین کو بنگلہ دیش بھیجیں تاکہ وہ خود اپنی آنکھوں سے اس قتل و غارت، لوٹ مار، آگ زنی اور خواتین کی بےحرمتی کی ہولناک حقیقت دیکھ سکیں — اور اقوام متحدہ کے ذریعے یہ سچی تصویر دنیا کے سامنے لائی جا سکے۔"
بنگلہ دیش کے عوام کی قوم پرست تحریک ایک تحریکِ آزادی تھی — نہ کہ کوسووو یا کریمیا جیسے علیحدگی پسند گروہوں جیسی کوئی علاقائی بغاوت۔ جنگِ آزادی درحقیقت 23 برس پر محیط بنگالی قوم پرستی کی جدوجہد کا نقطۂ عروج تھی۔
حکومتِ جلاوطن کی جانب سے کل جماعتی مشاورتی کمیٹی قائم کی گئی، جس کے چیئرمین مولانا بھاشانی مقرر ہوئے۔ اس کمیٹی کے دیگر اہم ارکان میں وزیرِاعظم تاج الدین احمد، خواجہ خوندکر مشتاق (عوامی لیگ)، مونی سنگھ (سی پی بی)، مظفر احمد (نیپ-مارکسسٹ) اور منورنجن دھر (کانگریس) شامل تھے۔
16 دسمبر کو مولانا بھاشانی دہلی میں تھے۔ بھارت میں نو ماہ سے زیادہ وقت گزارنے کے بعد وہ 22 جنوری 1972 کو اُس سرزمین پر واپس لوٹے، جسے انہوں نے ہمیشہ اپنی آزاد مملکت کے طور پر خواب میں دیکھا تھا — بنگلہ دیش۔
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تحریکِ آزادی اور مولانا بھاشانی — حصہ اول
کامریڈ محمد عامر حسینی
مولانا بھاشانی (1880–1976)
یہ 25 مارچ کی شام کا وقت تھا۔ پروفیسر گوویندا چندر دیو، جو فلسفے کے شعبے سے تعلق رکھتے تھے، اپنے ایک جونیئر ساتھی کے ہمراہ جامعہ ڈھاکہ کے ٹی ایس سی کے قریب سڑک عبور کر رہے تھے تاکہ رمنا ریس کورس کی طرف روزانہ کی سیر کو جا سکیں۔ دوپہر سے ایک بےچین خاموشی شہر پر چھائی ہوئی تھی۔ ہم تین دوست فٹ پاتھ پر کھڑے گپ شپ کر رہے تھے۔ انہوں نے ازخود مجھے نصیحت کی کہ رات کو زیادہ دیر باہر نہ رہا کروں کیونکہ "یہ دن اچھے نہیں ہیں۔" میں نے ان کی بات پر عمل کیا اور ساڑھے سات بجے تک گھر واپس آ گیا۔ لیکن صرف پندرہ گھنٹے کے اندر، وہ استاد، وہ عظیم انسان دوست اور غیر سیاسی مفکر، ڈاکٹر دیو، کو جگن ناتھ ہال کی رہائش گاہ میں پاکستانی فوج نے سنگینوں اور گولیوں سے بےدردی سے شہید کر دیا۔
25 اور 26 مارچ کی درمیانی رات، پاکستانی فوج نے ڈھاکہ شہر میں معصوم اور نہتے شہریوں پر ٹینکوں، توپوں اور خودکار ہتھیاروں سے فائر کھول دیا۔ اس قیامت خیز رات میں ہزاروں بےبس افراد، بشمول جامعہ ڈھاکہ کے اساتذہ اور طلبہ، شہید کر دیے گئے۔ گنجان آباد جھونپڑ پٹیاں راکھ میں بدل دی گئیں۔ یہ خالص نسل کشی تھی — ایسی جس کے آگے فرانکو کے اسپین اور سلازار کے پرتگال کے مظالم بھی ماند پڑ جاتے ہیں۔
یکم مارچ کو، عملی طور پر سول اقتدار شیخ مجیب الرحمٰن کو منتقل کر دیا گیا تھا۔ عوام اب کسی بھی مطالبے پر راضی نہ تھے سوائے بنگلہ دیش کی مکمل آزادی کے۔ جو تحریک پہلے متحدہ پاکستان کے اندر خودمختاری کی تلاش تھی، وہ بنگالی شہریوں کے قتلِ عام کے بعد مکمل آزادی کی جدوجہد میں بدل گئی، اور بالآخر ایک آزاد ریاست کی صورت میں ابھری۔
مولانا بھاشانی مسلسل شیخ مجیب کے رابطے میں تھے۔ عدم تعاون تحریک کے دوران، چٹاگانگ میں ایک جلسے سے خطاب کرتے ہوئے مولانا نے کہا کہ "بھٹو اور اُس جیسے ذہنیت رکھنے والے افراد نے مشرقی بنگال کو استحصال، جبر اور ظلم کے ذریعے قبرستان بنا دیا ہے۔"
فوجی کریک ڈاؤن کے فوراً بعد، مولانا بھاشانی سانتوش چھوڑ کر اپریل کے دوسرے ہفتے میں آسام پہنچے۔ وہاں اُنہیں کولکتہ کی پارک اسٹریٹ پر ایک فلیٹ میں رکھا گیا، جہاں وزیرِاعظم تاج الدین احمد کے خاندان کو بھی ساتھ والا کمرہ دیا گیا تھا۔ وزیرِاعظم مولانا سے ملاقات کے لیے آئے تاکہ جنگِ آزادی کی تازہ ترین صورتحال پر تبادلہ خیال کیا جا سکے۔
22 اپریل کو ایک طویل بیان میں مولانا بھاشانی نے کہا:
"مشرقی بنگال ایشیا کا حصہ ہے۔ اس خطے کے لوگ ایشیائی اقوام، خصوصاً افریقی-ایشیائی اقوام کی جانب دیکھتے ہیں۔ آج اس نازک لمحے میں مشرقی بنگال کے عوام انسانیت سے ایک دہکتا سوال کرتے ہیں — کیا اُن کی عظیم اور برحق جدوجہد کو ہمیشہ کے لیے کچل دیا جائے گا؟ میں دنیا بھر کے تمام امن پسند اور جمہوری ذہن رکھنے والے انسانوں اور حکومتوں سے پُرزور اپیل کرتا ہوں کہ وہ عوامی جمہوریہ بنگلہ دیش کی نو تشکیل شدہ حکومت کو جلد از جلد تسلیم کریں۔"
انہوں نے مزید کہا:
"میں مشرقی بنگال کے تمام افراد سے اپیل کرتا ہوں — کسانوں، مزدوروں، لوہاروں، کمہاروں، کشتی بانوں، جولاہوں، دستکاری کے کاریگروں، طلبہ، تاجروں، دانشوروں، سرکاری ملازمین اور تمام عوام سے — کہ وہ فولاد جیسی وحدت اختیار کریں۔ مشرقی بنگال کے موقع پرست عناصر، جو اب بےنقاب ہو چکے ہیں، مذہب اور اتحاد کے نام پر جھوٹا پراپیگنڈہ کر کے آپ کو گمراہ کرنے کی کوشش کر رہے ہیں۔ یہ سب مغربی پاکستان کی فوجی جنتا، صنعتکاروں، جاگیرداروں اور آمرانہ بیوروکریسی کے ایجنٹ ہیں۔ مشرقی بنگال کے یہ میر جعفر گزشتہ 23 برسوں سے آزادی کی تحریک کے ��لاف مغربی پاکستانیوں کے آلہ کار بن کر کام کر رہے ہیں۔ ان غداروں کی بات مت سنو۔ اگر وہ تمہاری وحدت اور عزم کو توڑنے میں کامیاب ہو گئے، تو تم ہمیشہ کے لیے مغربی پاکستان کے فوجی حکمرانوں، سرمایہ داروں، بیوروکریٹس اور جاگیرداروں کے غلام بن جاؤ گے۔ آج کے وقت میں، اتحاد، ذہنی طاقت اور وطن سے سچی محبت ہمارے سب سے اہم ہتھیار ہیں۔ فتح یقینی ہے۔ خدا ظالموں اور غداروں کو پسند نہیں کرتا۔ ہم ضرور اللہ کی مدد حاصل کریں گے اور مشرقی بنگال میں ایک آزاد، خودمختار، خوشحال اور پُرامن بنگلہ دیش قائم کریں گے۔"
[آنند بازار پتریکا، 23 اپریل]
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مولانا بھاشانی کا ماؤ زے تنگ کو خط (1971): ایک انقلابی ضمیر کی گواہی
کامریڈ محمد عامر حسینی
نوٹ : 📝 نوٹ برائے تحقیق و جواب دہی
پاکستان کے چین نواز کمیونسٹوں سے ایک سوال
جب 1971 میں مشرقی پاکستان میں مغربی پاکستان کی فوجی جنتا نے ایک وحشیانہ فوجی آپریشن کا آغاز کیا — لاکھوں افراد کو قتل کیا، ہزاروں عورتوں کی عزت پامال کی، لاکھوں افراد کو ہجرت پر مجبور کیا — تو دنیا کی بہت سی آنکھیں بند رہیں۔ مگر اس خاموشی میں سب سے زیادہ تکلیف دہ وہ خاموشی تھی جو خود ان لوگوں کی جانب سے آئی جو خود کو مظلوموں کا ہمدرد، عوام کا ترجمان، اور انقلاب کا نقیب کہتے تھے۔
ہم ایک سادہ لیکن ضروری سوال اٹھاتے ہیں:
جب مشرقی پاکستان میں مظالم کی آندھی چل رہی تھی، تب پاکستان میں کام کرنے والے چین نواز کمیونسٹ، اور وہ تنظیمیں اور جماعتیں جو مولانا عبد الحمید بھاشانی کو اپنا رہبر، مرشد یا نظریاتی پیشوا مانتی تھیں — ان کا موقف کیا تھا؟
کیا ان چین نواز جماعتوں، طلباء تنظیموں، ٹریڈ یونینز اور کسان محاذوں نے فوجی جبر کے خلاف آواز بلند کی؟
کیا انہوں نے مشرقی پاکستان میں کام کرنے والی چین نواز کمیونسٹ پارٹیوں اور ان سے منسلک مزدور، کسان، اور طلباء محاذوں کی طرح واضح طور پر پاکستان کی فوجی حکومت کی مخالفت کی؟
یا وہ قیس انور جیسے محققین کا دعویٰ درست ہے، جن کے مطابق پنجاب اور مغربی پاکستان کے اکثر چین نواز کمیونسٹ فوجی جنتا کی پشت پر کھڑے ہو گئے تھے؟
مولانا بھاشانی نے جب چین کی حکومت کو خود ایک سخت لہجے کا خط بھیج کر کہا کہ: "اگر آپ احتجاج نہیں کریں گے، تو دنیا سمجھے گی کہ آپ مظلوموں کے دوست نہیں ہیں", تو کیا ان کے پاکستانی پیروکاروں نے بھی ایسا ہی کوئی اخلاقی یا نظریاتی قدم اٹھایا؟
یہ سوال محض ماضی کی کھوج نہیں، بلکہ موجودہ سیاسی اور نظریاتی صداقتوں کی جانچ کا پیمانہ بھی ہے۔ کیونکہ اگر کوئی خود کو بھاشانی کا پیروکار کہتا ہے، مگر 1971 جیسے فاشسٹ قتل عام پر خاموش رہا — یا اس سے بھی بڑھ کر، جنتا کا حامی بن گیا — تو پھر اس کے نظریات، وابستگیاں اور کردار سب مشکوک ہو جاتے ہیں۔
یہ نوٹ ایک تحقیقی دعوت ہے — ایک سوال جو ریکارڈ کا تقاضا کرتا ہے:
کیا کوئی چین نواز پاکستانی کمیونسٹ، طلباء رہنما، مزدور لیڈر یا کسان رہنما ہے جس نے 1971 میں مشرقی پاکستان میں فوجی بربریت کے خلاف بھاشانی جیسا موقف اختیار کیا ہو؟
اگر ہے، تو وہ تاریخی ثبوتوں کے ساتھ سامنے آئے۔
اگر نہیں، تو پھر یہ تسلیم کرنا پڑے گا کہ بائیں بازو کا ایک اہم حصہ اُس وقت ظلم کے ساتھ کھڑا تھا، مظلوم کے ساتھ نہیں۔
۔۔۔۔۔۔۔۔۔۔۔۔۔۔۔۔۔۔۔۔۔۔۔۔۔۔۔۔
پس منظر: خون، خاموشی اور دوستی کا امتحان
1971 برصغیر کی تاریخ کا ایک نکتۂ عروج تھا۔ مشرقی پاکستان (موجودہ بنگلہ دیش) کے عوام طویل سیاسی استحصال، لسانی امتیاز اور معاشی جبر کے بعد مکمل آزادی کی راہ پر گامزن ہو چکے تھے۔ 7 مارچ کو شیخ مجیب الرحمٰن کی تقریر اور 25 مارچ 1971 کو مغربی پاکستان کی فوجی حکومت کی جانب سے مشرقی پاکستان پر "آپریشن سرچ لائٹ" کا آغاز اس تحریک کا عملی نقطۂ آغاز بن گیا۔
اس آپریشن میں پاکستانی فوج نے وحشیانہ انداز میں عوامی رہنماؤں، طالب علموں، دانشوروں، اقلیتی ہندو برادری اور عام شہریوں پر یلغار کی۔ لاکھوں افراد مارے گئے، ہزاروں خواتین کی عزتیں پامال ہوئیں، اور ایک منظم نسل کشی کا آغاز ہوا۔ کروڑوں افراد ہجرت پر مجبور ہو کر بھارتی سرحدوں کی جانب روانہ ہوئے۔ ان المیوں پر مغربی میڈیا، بھارت اور کچھ مغربی ملکوں میں آواز اٹھی، لیکن چین — جو اس وقت خود کو مظلوموں کا عالمی ہمدرد اور سوشلسٹ انقلاب کا علمبردار سمجھتا تھا — مکمل طور پر مغربی پاکستان کی فوجی حکومت کی حمایت میں کھڑا دکھائی دیا۔
یہی وہ موقع تھا جب مولانا عبد الحمید خان بھاشانی، جنہیں برصغیر کے سوشلسٹ نظریہ دان اور کسان رہنما کے طور پر جانا جاتا ہے، میدان میں اترے۔ بھاشانی خود دہائیوں تک چین کی انقلابی سیاست کے زبردست حامی رہے تھے۔ 1963 میں وہ ماؤ زے تنگ کی دعوت پر بیجنگ گئے اور چینی انقلاب کی تعریف میں رطب اللسان رہے۔ مگر 1971 میں جب مظالم اپنی انتہا کو پہنچے، تو بھاشانی نے چین کی خاموشی کو بزدلی اور غداری قرار دیا۔
مولانا بھاشانی کی حیثیت اور انقلابی کردار
مولانا بھاشانی ایک غیر روایتی مذہبی شخصیت تھے جنہوں نے اپنی سیاست کو کسانوں، مزدوروں اور پسے ہوئے طبقات کے مفادات سے جوڑ رکھا تھا۔ وہ نہ صرف مشرقی پاکستان بلکہ پورے برصغیر میں ترقی پسند تحریکوں کے ترجمان سمجھے جاتے تھے۔ اُن کی چین سے قربت محض نظریاتی نہیں تھی بلکہ وہ عملی سطح پر بھی ماؤسٹ ماڈل کے حامی رہے تھے۔ انہوں نے مشرقی پاکستان میں بائیں بازو کی سیاست کو مقامی رنگ میں ڈھالنے کی کوشش کی اور سامراج، جاگیرداری، اور استحصالی مرکزیت کے خلاف بھرپور جدوجہد کی۔
1971 میں جب پاکستانی فوج نے مشرقی پاکستان میں بے رحمانہ آپریشن شروع کیا تو بھاشانی، جو اُس وقت بھارت میں مقیم تھے، یکدم عالمی سطح پر متحرک ہو گئے۔ انہوں نے نہ صرف بنگلہ دیش کی آزادی کی حمایت کا اعلان کیا بلکہ دنیا بھر کے رہنماؤں سے اپیل کی کہ وہ اس فوجی جبر کی مذمت کریں۔ اسی ضمن میں انہوں نے چین کے چیئرمین ماؤ زے تنگ اور وزیر اعظم چو این لائی کو ایک ٹیلیگرام بھیجا جسے ایک تاریخی موڑ قرار دیا جاتا ہے۔
ٹیلیگرام کا متن: سچائی کا آئینہ
بھاشانی نے اپریل 1971 میں یہ ٹیلیگرام بھارت سے روانہ کیا۔ اس کا مکمل اصل متن شاید اب دستیاب نہ ہو، لیکن اس کے اقتباسات اور لب و لہجہ مختلف ذرائع میں موجود ہیں، جن سے یہ اندازہ لگایا جا سکتا ہے کہ یہ خط محض احتجاج نہیں بلکہ ایک نظریاتی مؤقف تھا۔
"The ideology of socialism is to fight against oppression… I appeal to you to save seven and a half crores of oppressed people of Bangladesh. Yahya’s military government, with the help of modern war weapons supplied by your government, is mercilessly slaying innocent, unarmed and helpless people — farmers, workers, students, intellectuals, women and children. If you do not protest, the world may think that you are not the friend of the oppressed."
یہ الفاظ محض ایک سیاسی مراسلہ نہیں تھے بلکہ ایک انقلابی ضمیر کی گواہی تھے۔ بھاشانی نے ماؤ کو یاد دلایا کہ اگر چین واقعی مظلوموں کا ہمدرد ہے تو اسے یحییٰ حکومت کے ظلم پر خاموش نہیں رہنا چاہیے۔ چین کی جانب سے فراہم کردہ اسلحہ استعمال ہو رہا تھا اور چین ہی اقوام متحدہ میں مغربی پاکستان کی حمایت کر رہا تھا۔ بھاشانی نے نہایت ہمت کے ساتھ اس پالیسی کو چیلنج کیا۔
چین کی خاموشی اور بین الاقوامی ردعمل
چین نے بھاشانی کے اس خط کا کوئی باضابطہ جواب نہیں دیا۔ نہ کوئی سرکاری بیان جاری کیا گیا اور نہ اقوام متحدہ میں کوئی مؤقف بدلا۔ اس خاموشی کو عالمی انقلابی حلقوں میں شدید تنقید کا نشانہ بنایا گیا۔
برطانوی اسکالر نائیجل ہیرس نے اس رویے پر تبصرہ کرتے ہوئے لکھا:
"If China continues to support Yahya’s government in the face of this monstrous repression, it will damage the credibility of Chinese socialism in the eyes of the oppressed of the world."
یعنی اگر چین یحییٰ خان کی حکومت کی حمایت جاری رکھتا ہے تو دنیا کے مظلوم عوام کی نظر میں چینی سوشلزم کی ساکھ مجروح ہو جائے گی۔
بھاشانی کا کردار: اصول پسندی کی معراج
مولانا بھاشانی نے اس خط کے ذریعے نہ صرف ایک اخلاقی مؤقف اپنایا بلکہ ایک انقلابی تعلیم بھی دی: کہ نظریاتی وفاداری کبھی مظلوموں کے حقوق پر پردہ نہیں ڈال سکتی۔ وہ مجیب الرحمٰن کے سیاسی مخالف تھے، مگر آزادی کی جنگ میں انہوں نے ہر اختلاف کو پسِ پشت ڈال کر عوام کا ساتھ دیا۔ انہوں نے دکھایا کہ سچا انقلابی وہی ہے جو ظلم کو کسی بھی قیمت پر قبول نہ کرے، چاہے ظالم اُس کا پرانا نظریاتی ساتھی ہی کیوں نہ ہو۔
نتیجہ: ایک تاریخی خط، ایک لازوال پیغام
مولانا بھاشانی کا ماؤ زے تنگ کو خط 1971 کی جنگ آزادی کا ایک خاموش لیکن گونج دار لمحہ تھا۔ یہ ایک ایسی صدا تھی جو آج بھی انسانی ضمیر کو جھنجھوڑتی ہے۔ اُس خط میں بھاشانی نے تاریخ کے سب سے طاقتور انقلابی رہنما سے کہا تھا: "اگر آپ نے احتجاج نہ کیا تو دنیا سمجھے گی کہ آپ مظلوموں کے دوست نہیں۔"
یہ جملہ آج بھی کسی بھی سیاسی رہنما، کسی بھی نظریاتی کارکن اور کسی بھی طاقتور حکومت کے لیے ایک چیلنج ہے۔ بھاشانی کا کردار آج ہمیں یہ سکھاتا ہے کہ سیاست کا اصل میدان وہی ہے جہاں انسان مظلوموں کے ساتھ کھڑا ہو، چاہے اس کے نتیجے میں پرانی دوستیوں اور رفاقتوں کی قربانی دینی پڑے۔
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حواشی:
1. “The War of Liberation and Maulana Bhashani,” The Daily Star, March 26, 2015.
https://www.thedailystar.net/supplements/independence-day-special-2015/the-war-liberation-and-maulana-bhashani-73746
2. Nigel Harris, The End of the Third World: Newly Industrializing Countries and the Decline of an Ideology, I.B. Tauris, 1987.
3. Hasan Hafizur Rahman (ed.), Bangladesh Documents: Vol. 1, Ministry of Information, Dhaka, 1972.
4. Bengal Studies Archive, University of Dhaka.
5. Ananda Bazar Patrika, April 21, 1971. (بحوالہ Daily Star)
6. M. Sajjadur Rahman, “China and Bangladesh War of Liberation,” Asian Studies Review, Vol. 10, 1999.
3 notes
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