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The evolution of Jamaican Music

Christopher Columbus was the first European to reach Jamaica in May of 1494, during his second voyage to the Americas. He later brought other Spanish settlers who colonized the land and forced the Tainos, American-Indian people who had already occupied the land, into unpaid labor. The Spanish ruled the land mainly in the 1500s and then Britain in 1655. Slavery and sugar cultivation became Jamaica’s main trade, making the English planters incredibly wealthy. Enslaved people were transported from Africa to work on the country’s sugar plantations. But after the emancipation of slaves in 1834, the plantations were worked by indentured Indian and Chinese laborers. The Great Depression caused sugar prices to slump in 1929 and the economic stagnation, discontent with unemployment, and poor living conditions caused social unrest in the 1930s, with Jamaicans demanding economic development from British colonial rule. After World War II, Jamaica began a relatively long transition to full political independence. Jamaica’s political governmental structure was shaped during two decades of what was called “constitutional decolonization,” the period between 1944 and 1962 when Britain gradually granted the colony more self-government. The Constitution took effect on August 6,1962 when Jamaica gained political independence from Britain, and it is the most fundamental legal document in the country, guaranteeing the freedom, rights, and privileges of Jamaican citizens. From all of the above, we can understand that the history of Jamaica over the past 500 years has been marked by colonization and slavery but also the courage of the Jamaican people in their triumphant struggle for freedom and justice. All of this social structure with its upheavals and reforms affected the creation of Jamaican music. Reggae’s roots, springing from the social upheaval in post-war Jamaica, are a fusion of different musical eras and styles, coupled with a message of unity and hope. The earliest reggae lyrics spoke mostly of love, specifically romantic love between a man and a woman. But as the music and the musicians making it made their way into the 1970s, reggae started talking about rebellion and revolution against extreme violence, poverty, racism, and government oppression. In this article, we will examine and explain the evolution of roots reggae music through the years, in combinations with the historical events happening at the same time.

Mento

Mento is the name given to Jamaican folk music that emerged in the 1940s and 1950s. Mento was rural-based music that has been developed in the period of slavery and was influenced by Calypso, which originated in Trinidad. Mento was characterized by the satirical lyrics of everyday life and verse repetition, with origins in enslaved work songs – created with guitar, rumba box, bongo, and banjo.

Ska

Meanwhile, Jamaica’s professional recording industry was also starting to take shape. People were influenced by R&B music from the USA, played on radio stations. Across Jamaica musicians and singers began to cover these songs and imitate their styles. It was all about the exclusivity, getting songs from overseas no one had heard of. In the 1960s a new style known as ska burst onto the urban scene. Adopting America R&B style but adding Mento elements, the new music kept a 4/4 timing with guitar or piano used to increase emphasis on the off-beat. It was also during this period (1950s to 1966) that sound system dances were in the swing in urban Kingston, with many young musicians being influenced by the music that was played. The tempo of the music was energetic and upbeat, something that most observers take to reflect the Jamaican national mood in the run-up to Independence. Jamaica became independent in 1962 and Ska’s upbeat rhythm reflected the mood in the newly autonomous country.

Rocksteady

During the late 1960’s, Jamaica was on the brink of civil war, with political unrest, poverty and volatile streets. By 1966, as the economic expectations around Independence failed to materialize, the mood of the country shifted—and so did Jamaican popular music. Streets in downtown Kingston become lawless with ‘Rude Boys’ gangsters terrorizing locals. A new but short-lived music, dubbed rocksteady, was ushered in as urban Jamaicans experienced widespread strikes and violence in the ghettoes. The symbolism of the name rocksteady, as some have suggested, appeared to be an aesthetic effort to bring stability and harmony to a shaky social order. Musicians would turn to old-fashioned love songs, and singers replaced instrumentals. Rhythms became more relaxed and songs easier to dance to. Needless to say, topical songs, a staple of Caribbean music more generally, were at home in both ska and rocksteady compositions. The ska-rocksteady era was aptly bookended by two songs: the optimistic cry of Derek Morgan’s “Forward March” (1962) that led into Independence and the panicked lament of the Ethiopians’ “Everything Crash” (1968) that spoke to social upheaval and uncertainty of the early post-Independence period.

Reggae

In 1966 Emperor Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia visited Jamaica – an important moment for the religious movement Rastafari which saw him as the messiah – 100,000 Jamaicans turned out to see him. It was from this moment that the seeds of roots reggae would flower into a golden age (ca. 1968-1983) of music devoted to honoring the history and struggle of Afro-Jamaicans. Desmond Dekker’s classic early reggae hit in 1968, “Israelites,” was among the songs that heralded the changes to follow in Jamaican popular music. The song referenced Black people as the “true” Israelites, enslaved in a modern-day Babylon and longing for deliverance by a righteous God in Zion.

By 1978 in Jamaica, a failing economy and political unease were at their peak and political issues along with the musical tradition all came together in “Roots” reggae music— which through its close association with the philosophy and culture of the Rastafari—played a major role in recalling the historic struggles of the Jamaican people and condemning the ongoing inequities and forms of injustice that affect Black people. Lyrics became more conscious and words of protest and revolution changed the vibe and identity of the sound. Roots reggae delivered a philosophy that underscored the importance of personal agency in reclaiming one’s history and culture.

Since the 1970s, reggae—in its varied genres, has reached virtually every corner of the globe and at the front of that worldwide trend was the Jamaican artist Bob Marley, who sang of the past oppression of slavery and the future hopes of unity. Several Marley’s classics—including “Natty Dread,” “Ride Natty Ride,” and the call-in “Zimbabwe” that “every man has a right to decide his own destiny!”—emphasize that theme.

Reggae’s presence can still be felt today, influencing genres such as punk, hip hop and rock through artists such as Eric Clapton, Sean Paul, Rihanna, Protoje and Chronixx. Sub-genres such as dub, reggaeton, dancehall, a genre that emerged using digital reggae-influenced rhythms, also formed. Finally, the power of reggae, built on a foundation of history that inspired more than two generations of not only Jamaicans but Black people to think of themselves as “Africans” who consciously stand up for their rights and their culture, became a notion with universal appreciation.

Dancehall

After the death of Bob Marley in 1981, the popular music shifted away from its reggae roots towards a more modern and different display of culture. This new musical style was called Dancehall and it was largely influenced by reggae and ska, but has more of a dance vibe to it. The name comes from the Jamaican dance hall, a cultural institution that has historically nurtured all major genres of that country’s recorded popular music. Dance hall was a place where people would get together and dance, and had existed in the inner cities of Kingston since the 1950s/60s, blasting out popular mento, ska, rocksteady and reggae. The dance hall was inner city, working class culture: a voice for the voiceless.

The spread of affordable digital music technology beyond the recording studio accelerated and solidified dancehall muic. But, the spread of dancehall couldn’t have been possible without the popular sound systems that travelled across the country, providing outlets for aspiring deejays and singers to perform at events. Dancehall has gradually become a global popular music commodity, with record sales closely linked to an ongoing alliance with the hip-hop world.

However, the rapid rise of dancehall music genre in international popularity has not been complete without its almighty controversy. Key observers often note that the transformation of reggae was far from being exclusively musical, but was also connected to the political shift from a government focusing on collective enhancement to the individualistic Jamaican Labour Party of the 1980s. This was an economically impoverished era characterized by widespread violence, and the conservative foreign and domestic policies of the United States and Great Britain. Moreover, the philosophical and political ideals featured in many roots reggae lyrics were accused to have been replaced by “slackness” or promoting misogyny, violence, sexual bragging, objectification and sometimes homophobia, rather than spirituality.

The initial domestic underground impact of dancehall in Jamaica is linked with the work of the producer Henry “Junjo” Lawes, whose early 1980s recordings helped establish both the genre in general and the careers of many of its better-known proponents, such as Yellowman.

Following the signing of Lieutenant Stitchie to Atlantic Records in 1987, commercial peaks have included the early 1990s success of Shabba Ranks and the twenty-first-century impact of Shaggy, Beenie Man, and Sean Paul.

Reggaeton

Reggaeton is a form of dance music that became popular during the early 1990s and spread worldwide during the first few years of the 21st century. Its’ roots are from Panama with the music evolving and coming to prominence in Puerto Rico. Reggaeton blends Jamaican music influences of reggae and dancehall with those of Latin America, such as bomba and plena, as well as that of hip hop. The music is also combined with rapping (generally) in Spanish.

The genre morphed through the years, at various points being termed Melaza, musica underground, reggae de Puerto Rico, and Dem Bow. This last name originated from reggaeton’s distinguishing rhythmic feature: the Dem Bow beat. The origins of the Dem Bow rhythm route back in 1989 when Jamaican production duo Steely and Clevie revolutionized dancehall reggae with drum-machines and synthesizers and created a beat, or, better, “riddim”, for the Poco Man Jam sung by Jamaican dancehall vocalist Gregory Peck. This came to be known as the “dembow riddim”. After that Jamaican record producer Bobby “Digital” Dixon, used it in the anti-colonialist anthem Dem Bow (They Bow), performed by Jamaican dancehall artist Shabba Ranks in 1991. An overwhelming majority of reggaeton songs share this same beat and for the most part, are indistinguishable from one another aside from their lyrics. Reggaeton lyrics tend to be more derived from hip hop than dancehall. Typical themes may include dancing, love stories, partying, and problems in life. Popular reggaeton songs are mainly intended to be danceable, rhythmic, party-like songs for young people. Like hip hop, reggaeton has caused some controversy, due to a few of the songs’ explicit lyrics and alleged exploitation of women. Reggaeton, though, has a beat that is influenced not by hip-hop, but by reggae, dancehall, merengue, and techno.

Reggaeton became known when in the mid 90s albums like Playero 37 (In which Daddy Yankee became known) and The Noise 5 became very popular in Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic.

Reggaeton spread outside the Spanish-speaking world, and especially in the USA and Europe, when Luny Tunes produced Daddy Yankee’s hit single Gasolina (2004) and pop star Shakira recorded La Tortura (2004). Albums such as Mas Flow, The Last Don also expanded reggaeton’s popularity among Latinos in the United States.

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The Goddess of love and fertility in various ancient cultures

Throughout the ancient history, polytheism – commonly known as paganism – was the defining aspect of all societies and civilizations. People in ancient times personified natural aspects like life and death, rain, sun and fertility. They imagined them as feminine and masculine – powerful deities and gave them names. They also believed that those deities could be appeased with various rituals, to help with crops, childbirth, or victory in war.

In this article we will describe a cult that was the central part of all pagan religions – fertility. And as fertility and the female form are deeply connected by nature itself, therefore the earliest forms of fertility worship in the world, were centralized to female deities. Women, earth, and fertility were often combined, and complex deities evolved to ensure a bountiful harvest, safe childbirth, and the celebration of procreation. In the Paleolithic, early societies worshipped buxom, motherly figurines of fertility goddesses dates as far back as 300,000 years.

While some goddesses held vicious and beastly forms, most of them embodied beauty and had feminine features. Archaeological finds of the earliest Goddesses, from around the world, show her as the Great Mother Goddess and creator. This is illustrated by her large breasts and a swollen Belly. Later in history the fertility Goddesses embody the fertile nature of the earth itself. Over time Goddesses become increasingly differentiated, representing a multitude of different aspects of the female and the natural world. Goddesses like Aphrodite (Greek), Venus (Roman), Ishtar (Babylonian), Inanna (Mesopotamian) and Hathor (Egypt) are some of the most notable female deities in the ancient world. Many of those deities are often depicted as a half-naked woman figures and they are linked to the various aspects of the mother. Also a main and common characteristic of those female goddesses is the fact that they are young, beautiful, and very sexually active women. Sexuality was not demonized, as it was the source of life. From the earliest marble sculptures of women with swollen breasts and pregnant bellies, these goddesses were unashamedly natural, presenting the female human form in its most blessed, life bringing states.

Aphrodite

Aphrodite, one of the great Olympian divinities, was the ancient Greek goddess of sexual love, passion, beauty, fertility and also the patron deity of prostitution. The cult of sacred prostitution was practiced at her temples and her prostitute servants were conceived as sacred holy women. Aphrodite was worshiped by men, women, and city-state officials, and she also played a role in the commerce, warfare, and politics of ancient Greek cities. According to the cosmogonic views of the nature of Aphrodite, she was the personification of the generative powers of nature, and the mother of all living beings. The Greek word aphros means “foam,” and according to Hesiod’s Theogony, Aphrodite was born of the foam from the sea after Saturn castrated his father Uranus with a sickle and cast the genitalia into the sea from where Aphrodite appeared amidst the resulting foam. In other versions, she is the daughter of Zeus and Dione, the Titaness. The birth of Aphrodite from the sea and the judgment of Paris were popular subjects in ancient Greek art. The goddess is often identified with one or more of the following: a mirror, an apple, a myrtle wreath, a sacred bird or dove, a sceptre, and a flower. On occasion, she is also depicted riding a swan or goose.

Aphrodite was the wife of Hephaestus, the ugly god of metalworking and volcanoes, but also related to several gods and humans, leaving the impression of an unfaithful wife who was making her husband jealous. Despite that her beauty and sexuality was respected by the people. There is a popular myth according to which Aphrodite was compelled by Hera to marry the not-so-great catch of Hephaistos, the lame god of fire and crafts. But Aphrodite was less than faithful, having notorious affairs with the gods Ares, Hermes, and Dionysos. Knowing that Hephaistos manufactured a special golden bed to entrap his wife. When Aphrodite and Ares were at their most passionate, the bed sprang forth golden chains which locked the naked gods in their illicit embrace. Their embarrassment was made worse when Helios the sun god shone down his bright light upon the couple so that all the Olympians could get a good look at the disgrace.

Venus

Venus was the Roman goddess of love, sex, beauty, and fertility. The loveliest of all deities, Venus desired—and was desired by—mortals and gods alike. The name “Venus” came directly from the classical Latin noun venus, meaning “love.” This noun was often used to indicate particularly sexual love or desire. Like the Greek Apollo, she had a fluid sexuality and embraced male and female lovers alike. She was the daughter of Jupiter and usually she was equated with the Greek goddess Aphrodite. She like Aphrodite was the wife of Vulcan, the god of volcanoes and master of metallurgy and in the meantime she maintained an affair with various lovers like Mars, the god of war, passion and anger. Vulcan and Venus had a loveless marriage and no children. Albeit, the goddess of love and sex was not barren; she had many children from different gods. With Mars, she gave birth to Timor (Phobos), the godly embodiment of fear, his twin Metus (Deimos) the personification of terror, and Concordia (Harmonia) the goddess of harmony and concord. Venus and Mars also had a group of children known as the Cupids—winged creatures that symbolized love in all its forms. As the goddess of love and sex, Venus possessed the ability to make mortals and gods fall madly in love, and because of that she was very important to new brides. They made offerings to her before they got married. Some people also say that they gave their childhood toys to her when they left home to get married. The Theogony story of Hesiodos defenetly had an influence on the countless artworks depicting Venus rising from the sea in a clam. One of the most famous works of Western art depicts this event: Botticelli’s The Birth of Venus, portrays her as standing on a large shell naked, surrounded by other mythical figures. Also depictions of Venus were often found in domestic settings. In many of her appearances, she was accompanied by symbols such as the rose—a symbol of fertility, sexual passion, and female genitalia. Additionally, she was often featured with a crown of myrtle which quickly became one of her chief symbols.

Ishtar – Inanna

The Sumerian poem, The Descent of Inanna (c. 1900-1600 BCE) describes the journey of Inanna, the great goddess and Queen of Heaven, from her realm in the sky, to earth, and down into the underworld to visit her recently widowed sister Ereshkigal, Queen of the Dead.  The poem begins with the lines:

From the Great Above she opened her ear to the Great Below From the Great Above the goddess opened her ear to the Great Below From the Great Above Inanna opened her ear to the Great Below (Wolkstein and Kramer, 52)

Sumerian poem: The Descent of Inanna (c. 1900-1600 BCE)

Ishtar – Inanna is an ancient goddess closely associated with love, sensuality, fertility, and also war. This powerful goddess is the first known deity for which we have written evidence. The evidence for Ishtar comes from Mesopotamia, an area of the Ancient Near East generally considered to be placed geographically between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Mesopotamia was home to many of the world’s first great empires, including the Sumerian, Babylonian and Assyrian Empires. In Sumerian poetry Inanna is portrayed as a young girl under patriarchal authority, but also as an ambitious goddess seeking to expand her influence. Furthermore the Sumerian myths paint a very consistent picture of her, describing her as seductive, ambitious, and impulsive. But despite all those treats, she was according to the Ancient History Encyclopedia, the most popular goddess in all of Mesopotamia, respected “because of who she was”. Therefore she had a complex and influential role in the religions and cultures of the Ancient Near East. She is often shown in the company of a lion, denoting courage, and sometimes even riding the lion as a sign of her supremacy over the ‘king of beasts’. Also the warlike aspect of the goddess tends to be expressed in politically charged contexts, in which the goddess is praised in connection with royal power and military might. In some myths she is presented as the daughter of Enki, the god of wisdom, fresh water and magic, while in others she appears as the daughter of Nanna, god of the moon and wisdom. According to the story Inanna’s marriage was arranged without her knowledge, either by her parents or by her brother Utu, with a spouse that she didn’t like at first, named Dumuzi. Her marriage was a big mythological event in the early Sumerian history, and people got inspired by it to create the so-called “sacred marriage” ceremony celebrated during the New Year’s festival, to ensure prosperity and abundance. She was also seen as the bright star of the morning and evening, Venus.

Hathor

Hathor was one of the most popular deities in ancient Egypt and she was considered the primeval goddess from whom all others were derived. The origins of her cult are unknown but scholars believe her worship began before the beginning of the dynastic period. She was the goddess of musical arts, dance, joy, love, sexuality, and maternal care and fertility, besides being a companion of some male divinities and progenitor of their children. Also she was in charge of providing food and drinks to the dead, as well as welcoming them when they passed to another spiritual world.

Hathor was regarded as the mother, daughter and wife of the sun god Ra and held a prominent place in his barge as it sailed across the night sky, into the underworld, and rose again at dawn. The name Hathor, translates “The House of Horus”, which identified her as the queen of Egypt. Hathor’s depictions usually show her as a woman wearing a headdress, which was also her primary symbol. The headdress had two horns with a sun-disc encircled by the divine cobra between the horns. She is also depicted as a woman with the head of a cow, ears of a cow, or simply in cow form. Her animal appearance referred to the role she sometimes took in Egyptian mythology, as the divine cow who gave birth to the world and some gods. The Egyptians associated Hathor with the Milky Way which they called the Nile of the sky. Her relationship with the sky identified her with Venus, the evening and morning star.

Isis

Isis is also known under many different titles, such as:

The Divine One

The Queen of all Gods

Queen of Heaven

The Maker of Sunrise

Mother of God

The priests of Heliopolis developed the myth of Isis, which told that she was the daughter of the gods Geb, god of the earth, and Nut, goddess of the sky, and also the sister of the deities Osiris, Seth, and Nephthys. Great mother Isis, the goddess of healing, magic, fertility, and motherhood , was crucial to ancient Egyptian religious beliefs. She is known today by her Greek name Isis; however, the ancient Egyptians called her Aset. Her name translates to “Queen of the Throne” which is reflected in her headdress, which is typically the empty throne of her murdered husband Osiris. She is also often depicted as a winged goddess who brought fresh air to the underworld when she went to meet her husband, wearing cow horns with a solar disk between them. Occasionally she was represented as a scorpion, a bird, a sow, or a cow.

Isis was the sister and wife of the god Osiris, ruler of the underworld. It is said that she and Osiris were in love with each other even in the womb. The most famous story of Isis begins when she marries the god Osiris, and the pair rule the world. The royal couple took their responsibilities so seriously that soon the humans had a paradise to live in with cool, rushing streams, plenty to eat, and a perfect climate. There was no injustice in the land, all women and men were equal, and everyone was at peace. But then Seth, the younger brother of Osiris, who was jealous of his brother’s power and prestige, conceived a plan to get rid of him and finally murdered him, dismembered the body and scattered it throughout Egypt. With his brother vanished, Seth became king of Egypt. Grieving Isis searched the world to collect the pieces of his husmand and put him back together. The ancient sacred stories say that the other deities were so impressed with Isis’s dedication to finding her beloved husband, that they helped her revive him. Transformed into a bird, and being helped by her sister, Nephthys, Isis was able to discover and reunite the parts of her dead husband’s body— with only his penis missing. But using her magical powers, she was able to make Osiris whole again. Bandaged, neither living nor dead, Osiris then revived as a mummy, but rather than being the lord of the living, he became lord of the dead. Nine months later Isis gave birth to Osiris’s son, Horus .Isis hid with Horus in the marshes of the Nile delta until her son was fully grown and could avenge his father and claim his throne. She defended the child against attacks from snakes and scorpions. And so Horus grew up to banish Set, restoring order to the world. But because Isis was also Seth’s sister, she wavered during the eventual battle between Horus and Seth. In one episode Isis took pity on Seth and was in consequence beheaded by Horus, with the beheading been reversed by magic later. Eventually she and Horus reconciled, and Horus was able to take the throne of Egypt.

Isis was loved by ancient Egyptians for her fierce devotion to her husband Osiris and her son Horus. She was the perfect traditional Egyptian wife and mother—content to stay in the background while things went well, but able to use her wits to guard her husband and son should the need arise. The shelter she afforded her child gave her the character of a goddess of protection. She is regularly portrayed as the selfless, giving, mother, wife, who places other’s interests and well-being ahead of her own. But also Isis was very important to the ancient Egyptians because she had so many different powers. Her chief aspect was that of a great magician, whose power transcended that of all other deities. She was both the protector of women and the bringer of magic, and though she began as a secondary figure to her husband Osiris, however after thousands of years of worship, she was transformed into the Queen of the Universe and the embodiment of Cosmic order. Known for her magic, her beneficent power encompassed both daily life and the afterlife. She and her husband and son replaced the Theban Triad of Amon, Mut, and Khons, who had been the most popular trinity of gods in Egypt. Osiris, Isis, and Horus are referred to as the Abydos Triad.

By: Anjel Lala