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The four occupations (simplified Chinese: 士农工商; traditional Chinese: 士農工商; pinyin: Shì nóng gōng shāng), or "four categories of the people" (pinyin: sì mín),[1][2] was an occupation classification used in ancient China by either Confucian or Legalist scholars as far back as the late Zhou dynasty and is considered a central part of the fengjian social structure (c. 1046–256 BC).[3] These were the shi (gentry scholars), the nong (peasant farmers), the gong (artisans and craftsmen), and the shang (merchants and traders).[3] The four occupations were not always arranged in this order.[4][5] The four categories were not socioeconomic classes; wealth and standing did not correspond to these categories, nor were they hereditary.[1][6]
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Inheritance of Empire: The Middle Kingdom
After the rise of the foreign Manchu dynasty, the Han Chinese no longer remained the cultural hegemon of their nation. In the wake of this, other countries like Japan, Korea, and Vietnam claimed to be the heirs of Chinese civilization.
Korea: In the 17th century, when the Manchu-led Qing dynasty replaced the Han-led Ming dynasty as the ruling dynasty of China proper, the Joseon dynasty believed that the Qing dynasty was unworthy of succeeding the politico-cultural orthodoxy of "China". Instead, the Confucianist Joseon dynasty asserted itself as the legitimate heir to the Chinese civilization and termed itself "Little China". In 2010, scholar Brian Reynolds Myers stated in reference to the move that:
“The national identities of literate Koreans and Chinese [were] mutually indistinguishable. Believing their civilization to have been founded by a Chinese sage in China's image, educated Koreans subscribed to a Confucian worldview that posited their country in a position of permanent subservience to the Middle Kingdom. Even when Korea isolated itself from the mainland in the seventeenth century, it did so in the conviction that it was guarding Chinese tradition better than the Chinese themselves.”
Japan: “ Ogyū Sorai (1666–1728) expressed his passion for all things Chinese as follows: “I have been indulging in the study of Chinese classics and admiring Chinese civilization ever since I was a child.” The Chinese civilization that he admired was the way of the Sages of the Three Dynasties. He referred to China as Chūka (Central Efflorescence or Central Civilization) and Chūgoku (Central Kingdom), and to himself as a Nihonkoku ijin (barbarian of the nation of Japan) and tōi no hito (eastern barbarian). He regretted very much that he was not born in the land of the sages and that “no sages were born in the Eastern Sea.” Sorai was not alone with regard to his attitude toward Chinese culture. Basically, Tokugawa intellectuals from different Confucian schools all enthusiastically introduced Chinese morality and etiquette. What Tokugawa Japanese admired was not the Qing Dynasty ruled by the Manchus, but the Three Dynasties under the sage-kings and the great Han and Tang dynasties. Their tendency to emphasize the past and belittle the present was salient. Tokugawa Sinophiles demonstrated a high level of confidence and nativist consciousness, and some believed in the concept of kai hentai (the transformation from civilized to barbarian and vice versa), seeing Japan as the new center of Confucian order in East Asia.”
“Influenced by the concept of kai hentai, many Tokugawa Japanese believed that China had degenerated into a barbaric nation under the Manchu, and Japan had thus replaced China as the center of Confucianism.”
-Imagining China in Tokugawa Japan, Wai-ming Ng
Vietnam: In the Poems on the Way to Min, Lý Văn Phức (a descendent of Ming Chinese refugees) escorted some stranded Chinese sailors back to Fujian province. However, when he arrived there, the guesthouse where he was supposed to stay had a sign over it which indicated that it was for “barbarians.” Lý Văn Phức defended his position with an essay that highlighted that Vietnam followed the ways of China without the Manchurian influences of the 17th century and therefore should be considered "Hoa" (華).
“As for the laws for governing the kingdom, they are based on those of the Two Emperors and the Three Monarchs [of antiquity]. With regard to the transmission of the way, it takes as its root the Six Classics and the Four Books, the teachings of Confucius and Mencius, and those of Zhu Xi and Cheng Yi. As for learning, it springs forth from the Zuo Commentary and the “Odes of the States,” and can be traced back to Ban Zhao and Sima Qian. As for writing, poetry and rhapsodies, there is the Collected Writings of the Zhaoming [Reign], and reliance on Li Bo and Du Fu. For calligraphy, it is the six scripts in the Rites of Zhou, with Zhong You and Wang Xizhi taken as models. In employing worthies and selecting scholars, the Han-Tang exam system is employed, while sashes and caps follow the garments of the Song-Ming. How numerous are the examples. If all of this is called Barbaric, then I know not what it is that we call Efflorescent!”
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Confucianism
Foreign: policy Hua-Yi
“Huangdi”
Architecture:
Hip Roofs
Resting Hill Roofs
Hanging Hill Roofs
Hard Hill Roofs
Rice Farming
Hanfu
“Middle Kingdom”
Character Writing System: Hanzi
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Chosŏn Korea
從「尊明」到「奉清」 : 朝鮮王朝對清意識的嬗變 (1627-1910) = From "Honoring the Ming" to "Submitting to the Qing" : the transformation of Choson Korea's attitude towards Qing China, 1627-1910
Chapter 3 shows the popularity of Shrine for Lord Guan (Guanwang miao 關王廟) in Chosŏn and its relationship to Chosŏn’s efforts to consolidate its “Little China” identity. Koreans were introduced to the Chinese native religion of Lord Guan during the Imjin War in the 1590s, when Chinese troops of the Ming dynasty took Lord Guan, revered by the Chinese as legendary God of War, to Korea and built several shrines in his honor. At first, the Koreans were not interested in the imported cult, but in the postMing period the Koreans considered Lord Guan a good tool for propagating the message of loyalty. They viewed the shrines established by the Ming Chinese as perfect places and vehicles for commemorating the Ming and depreciating the Qing temporally, culturally, and psychologically. Those shrines to Lord Guan were thus closely connected with Chosŏn’s domestic activities honoring the Ming. From 1597 to the early twentieth century, Korea established twelve shrines to Lord Guan; in the eighteenth century, the image of Lord Guan was assimilated into Korean culture, or was Koreanized, indicating full acceptance of this Chinese native religion into Korean society. The chapter furnishes the literature of Sino-Korean studies with an excellent review of the history of shrines to Lord Guan in Chosŏn Korea and reveals the critical cultural and political messages behind Chosŏn’s endorsement of the shrines during the Qing period. In my opinion, it stands out as the best of the fourteen chapters. The chapter does not explain what happened to the shrines after the Japanese colonial period, but the postcolonial period is beyond the book’s scope.
, Da Ming qihao yu Xiao Zhonghua yishi: Chaoxian wangchao zun Zhou si Ming wenti yanjiu, 1637–1800 大明旗號與小中華意識: 朝鮮王朝尊周思明問題研究 (The Great Ming and the ideology of Little China: A study of the issue of revering the Zhou and honoring the Ming in Chosŏn Korea, 1637–1800).
화이론 (Hua Ei Ron), Hua–Yi distinction
It means respecting China and defeating barbarians, an idea that became the backbone of Joseon's foreign policy. Zonhwa Yang Theory and Zonju Theory.
[출처: 한국민족문화대백과사전(화이론 (Hua Ei Ron))]
Sojunghwa: The Korean word meaning “Little China.” Much like after the fall of Constantinople to the Latin Empire, the Bulgarians fashioned themselves as the heir to a greater civilization. In this East, the Koreans proclaimed themselves as the rightful inheritor of Chinese culture. This was due to the Han hegemony being toppled by the Barbaric Manchus.
Hanja: Korean Characters adopted from the Chinese “Hanzi.”
Zhongguo (middle kingdom, center of the world)
According to the History of the Three Kingdoms, Silla adopted the clothing and customs of the Tang dynasty as a way of transforming its people from "barbarians" into "Hwa" (華):
[...] Gim Chun-chu entered the Tang dynasty, requested for [the right to] adopt Tang customs. The Emperor Taizong [of Tang] issued an edict in approval and bestowed [upon Gim Chun-chu] clothes and belts. [Gim Chun-chu] thus returned [to Silla] and enforced [Tang clothing and customs], thereby transforming barbarians into Hwa. Four years into the reign of King Munmu [of Silla], the clothing [style] of women was once again adjusted. The clothing and headwear [of Silla] became the same as those of Jungguk ever since.[12]
In the Ten Articles for Instruction, the King Taejo of Goryeo expressed his wish for the Goryeo dynasty to follow the example of the Emperor Yao and highlighted the influence of the Tang dynasty on Korea:
[...] while succession to the throne by one's eldest legitimate issue should be the rule, Yao abdicated in favor of Shun, for Danzhu was unworthy [of the throne]; this was indeed putting the interests of the state [ahead of one's personal feelings]. If the eldest legitimate son is unworthy [of the throne], let the second eldest succeed to the throne; if the second eldest, too, is unworthy [of the throne], select the brother the people consider the best qualified for the throne.[13][14]
[...] we the Orient, for our admiration for the ways of the Tang dynasty, have emulated its writings, objects, rites and music.[15][16]
The King Injong of Goryeo once issued an edict that urged the Koreans to discard the ways of the Khitan "barbarians" in favor of Chinese traditions:
[...] replicate and follow the ways of Hwaha, forbid the traditions of the Khitan barbarians [...][17]
The Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty labelled Korea as "Sojunghwa" (小中華) and highlighted the relations between China and Korea:
Ever since Jizi arrived in the East, [his] enlightenment became widespread; males exhibited the qualities of martyrs, while females were chaste and upright; [hence Korea is] known in historiography as 'Sojunghwa'.[18]
"Ever since Jizi was enfeoffed, every [Korean] dynasty has been regarded as part of the realm [of China]. The Han dynasty established four commanderies [on the Korean Peninsula], while the Tang dynasty established an additional Fuyu Commandery. During the [extant] Ming dynasty, all eight provinces [of the Joseon dynasty] are placed under [the administration of] Liaodong; all [Joseon] clothing, headwear, writings and objects follow the style of Hwa; [the Ming dynasty] conferred upon the [Joseon] king a seal, appointing him [the responsibility of] governance [...][19]
The court-commissioned Comprehensive Mirror of the Eastern State by Seo Geo-jeong highlighted the Chinese influence on Korea:
All [Joseon] clothing and institutions mirror that of Jungguk, thus [the Joseon dynasty] is known as 'the state of poetry, books, rites and music', and 'the state of benevolence and righteousness'; these were introduced by Jizi, so how could these be untrue![20]
In the 17th century, when the Manchu-led Qing dynasty replaced the Han-led Ming dynasty as the ruling dynasty of China proper, the Joseon dynasty believed that the Qing dynasty was unworthy of succeeding the politico-cultural orthodoxy of "China". Instead, the Confucianist Joseon dynasty asserted itself as the legitimate heir to the Chinese civilization and termed itself "Little China".[1] In 2010, scholar Brian Reynolds Myers stated in reference to the move that:
[T]he national identities of literate Koreans and Chinese [were] mutually indistinguishable. Believing their civilization to have been founded by a Chinese sage in China's image, educated Koreans subscribed to a Confucian worldview that posited their country in a position of permanent subservience to the Middle Kingdom. Even when Korea isolated itself from the mainland in the seventeenth century, it did so in the conviction that it was guarding Chinese tradition better than the Chinese themselves.[21]
Korean Hanbok vs Chinese Hanfu
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https://www.hani.co.kr/arti/culture/book/308279.html
The theory of hwai (華夷論) is a word that is in line with the theory of honor and esteem (尊周論), which claims to support China and defeats enemies, and the theory of respect and dignity (尊周論), which is the backbone of Joseon's worldview and foreign policy. is an idea
[출처: 한국민족문화대백과사전(Pytheory (華夷論))]
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Chinese characters (Hanzi) became locally adapted in Japan as Kanji, Korea as Hanja, and Vietnam as Chữ Hán.
Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism.
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Yanhuang, Yan Huang Zisun (Chinese: 炎黃子孫; lit. 'Descendants of Yan[di] and Huang[di]')
Hua Xia
Han
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Penu
Hua Xu
Three soverigns
nuwa and fuxi, create humans
Shennong
Fiver Emperors
Yu the great
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