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Academic Perspectives

S. Mohamed, R. Northman, & L. Eskinazi

Portland State University

Leading Social Change

26 November 2020

Academic Perspectives

Dr. David C. Brotherton, professor of Sociology at John Jay College of Criminal Justice at the City University of New York describes a gang as follows:

A street organization is a group formed largely by youth and adults of a marginalized social class which aims to provide its members with a resistant identity, an opportunity to be individually and collectively empowered, a voice to speak back to and challenge the dominant culture, a refuge from the stresses and strains of barrio or ghetto life and a spiritual enclave within which its own sacred rituals can be generated and practiced. (Brotherton and Barrios, 2004: 23).

Brotherton posits that gangs are formed along the lines of social resistance to a dominant power structure that doesn't commonly include what ordinarily consists of many gang’s members’ demographics.

By all means, Brotherton’s sentiment is not shared by all scholars. Scott H. Decker opines his analysis of gangs as follows:

The serious involvement of gang members in violence, particularly retaliatory violence, makes them a public safety concern, as do their increased levels of offending while in the gang...the magnitude of the gang problem and gang offending makes the formation and use of police gang units a potentially important policy practice (Decker, 2007).

Decker approaches a gang as though it were purely problematic to greater society, and without giving any consideration to any cultural aspects of gangs or their legal rights to exist, he suggests that society simply arrest their way out of the so-called problem with expansion of police gang units.

The biggest problem with Decker’s so-called problem, is that if the only samples of gang members are drawn from those gang members who encounter the criminal justice system, i.e., law enforcement, then, of course, all gang members are likely to be criminals. Unless the police are involved with stopping and recording the affiliation of people who are not suspected of breaking the law. Sadly, that is exactly what’s been happening with regard to the use of gang databases by police.

Law enforcement surveys and data collected through other areas of the criminal courts, probation and parole, “gang investigators,” and other anti-gang organizations similarly rely on the single greatest flaw of sampling the poison and not the pool. There are far more gang members than those few who are encountered by law enforcement.

In conclusion, there generally appears to be disagreement on whether gangs are strictly criminal and deviant (Decker, 2007), or if they are resistance-based social vehicles and mere products of a toxic environment (Brotherton, 2008).

Contrary to what Decker has argued for expanding the use of police gang units, the government of the City of Portland decided in 2017 to disband the Portland Police Bureau’s own Gang Enforcement Team, the police gang unit for the city; additionally opting to rescind their policy on designating individuals as gang members--truly a first of its kind in the nation.

Given the stories discovered in the audits of gang databases in both Chicago and Los Angeles, we could all do better to question whether its good or bad that a particular social group should be pressed for additional scrutiny by law enforcement at a time when we should be looking for ways to bridge the gaps of understanding between those different cultures that make up the totality of the landscape we call America.

It’s about time that society accepts responsibility for curing the underlying problems which are the cause of gangs; rather than continuing down the path of suppression while blaming those same greater problems on gangs. Especially when it has become increasingly evident that gangs exist as societies, cultures, and, in some instances, a so-called ‘third space’ that sees gang members devoting themselves to their respective gangs in a quasi-religious manner.

We can all do better by tolerating everybody, no matter how popular or unpopular they may be. We should practice inclusion and look at things anew as we forge a path into the future. We should all look within and weigh our own differences in order to recognize that it is only right to treat everyone the same.

References

Brotherton, David C. (2008). Beyond social reproduction: bringing resistance back in gang theory. Theoretical Criminology, Vol. 12 (Issue 1), 55-77. Sage.

Decker, Scott H. (2007). Expand the use of police gang units. Journal of Criminology & Public Policy, Vol. 6 (Issue #4), 729-733. Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

Brotherton, David C. and Barrios, Luis (2004). The Almighty Latin King and Queen Nation: Street politics and the transformation of a New York gang. Columbia University Press.

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ogscholars · 5 years ago

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Babylon System, by Bob Marley, is a song aimed at institutional governments, who are otherwise referred to as ‘Babylon’ in Rastafarian ideology. This song relates to social change in that it discusses oppression, and calls out for rebellion against that oppression. Bob Marley sings,

We refuse to be what you wanted us to be; we are what we are, that's the way it's going to be; if you don't know, you can't educate I; for no equal opportunity; (talkin' 'bout my freedom) talkin' 'bout my freedom, people freedom and liberty!

After pointing out in the song’s chorus that the people have trodden on the winepress much too long, Bob Marley then cries out, “Rebel! Rebel!”

In the next verse, the song then turns to the institutions of government (Babylon), churches, and universities, while Bob Marley points out how government, comparing them with vampires, sucks the blood of the children, while the churches continually deceive the people, and universities graduate thieves and murderers. This final verse is followed by Bob Marley repeatedly telling us to tell the children the truth, with more cries for rebellion. It sounds better when he says it though. You should just listen to the song.

#rebel #socialchange #nojusticenopeace

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ogscholars · 5 years ago

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Your Best Legal Defense podcast opens up on the issue of how gangs are treated wholly as “criminal enterprises” when, in fact, gangs are socio-cultures deserving of a closer look. Discussed: where individual gang members do appear to engage in a high-rate of criminal involvement, it does not appear that the criminal conduct of these individual gang members is set forth in furtherance of any gang-centered purpose.

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ogscholars · 5 years ago

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#2016 gang shootings #@breaking-news #@city-hall #@crime #@hp-top-stories

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ogscholars · 5 years ago

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ogscholars · 5 years ago

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I'm a parole officer in Multnomah County Oregon with OYA (Oregon Youth Authority); I work for the State of Oregon.

So, the first question is what is your background in dealing with gangs?

My background dealing with gangs well, I've been doing this work for over 20 years and my caseload focus is Latino youth--because I'm bilingual--who are normally gang related, that's only part of my experience. I also have my Master's in Social wWork, so I've done my studies in social work. I work with clients who have issues following directions. I'm from Los Angeles--East LA--born and raised in Boyle Heights, which people know as the “hood.” My experience is, I was raised in gang infested areas of Los Angeles, so I saw it all my life, so that's the other part of my experience.

Do you believe that Portland has a problem with gangs?

I do yes. I've been in Portland for about 50 years now. 50 years ago, I didn't notice it but I did know that some existed. As the years have gone by I have noticed that it has gotten worse. A lot of gangs from down south and back east have come to the Northwest because they find it's easier to avoid issues with the police because the police are not, excuse me, were not as prepared to deal with those issues.

How long do you believe Portland has had such a problem?

I believe it became very apparent about 25 to 30 years ago. It became apparent not very apparent but more apparent as the years went by. So, I think we started to really notice the problem was becoming serious about 25 years ago.

How long have you been working this job?

25 years; I've been working at this job.

Over the period of time you've noticed the problem, how has the problem changed or evolved over those years?

What I have noticed as far as the evolution of the gang issue here in Portland is that, one, it has become worse. More gangs have developed, the gang members are becoming younger--more young people are wanting to be involved--severity of gang issues have risen such as shootings, the drug problem, you're noticing more young people who are involved in gangs wearing the gang-attire, more violence on the streets.

Based on your own experiences, do you see yourself as having a personal interest in what the Portland area has experienced insofar as gang problems?

I do. I work with a lot of young people who think that it's very cool to become a gangster and I know the road they're going down that eventually where they're gonna land up. I've seen some clients that end up going to prison because of their involvement, their drug use, their aggressive behavior and how it destroyed their life and their family life so my investment is to try to help these young men, or youngsters, find a different way of life so that they can be successful and not go down that path.

How has the gang problem impacted you personally?

Personally, because of my upbringing, I see these young men going into directions that are not positive for their development and so it affects me in a way that I feel these young men are not going to be successful in life and they’re going to have many regrets in the future because of their involvement and I want to help them so that they can see a different lifestyle; some kind of hope in life.

Did growing up in East Los Angeles affect what position you wanted to be in in terms of being able to help?

Yes most definitely. I mean the reason I left LA was because I wanted to get away from that lifestyle. Because as a youngster I was going in that direction and realized that was not where I wanted to end up and I could see what the future was going to be like if I didn't find a way to get out.

Did that affect your decision to become a parole officer?

There were many decisions that affected my reason for ending up in this position, but ultimately, probably. Because I got to a point in my life I wanted to give back and I found working with children initially was what I wanted to do and then I realized that the position that I had first obtained was not where I wanted to be and then this position came open which I thought would be great and something that was worth me putting my time into and so, yes.

So, what is your position or view on the gang problem now?

My view on the gang problem? Right now because of COVID and because a lot of the issues with the protesting against police is causing a problem for the police to continue to manage the issues in the community regarding gangs. And as a result I believe the gang issue is becoming more serious. With all the talk of defunding police, and there has been some defunding going on--one is the gang unit for the police which is a real helpful resource in the community for myself working with my clients, and actually keeping track of what's going on in the community with the gangs--because that has been defunded the gang issue has become less watched, and causing it to flourish. Where before they had some control, I mean, the gang issue has continued to get worse but there were some controls there which are not there anymore or not as much which is causing the gang issue to get worse.

What do you believe could help solve the problem?

Because of my position, I believe the police do help the situation. I agree that there are some, like in any organization, some bad apples and I think that some work has to be done with that to train police how to deal with folks in a different way, but we're talking about the gang problem. I think the police need more, or could benefit from more training. Training on mental health, one; gang issues, language issues, culture issues, because definitely gangs are a different culture--a different way of looking at life. I know I've worked with some police that really have an understanding of how that culture is and can talk to gang members and get some buy-in where other police, they just don't have a clue what's going on and it's almost like they're just fueling the fire.

Similarly to the way in which you say the police have some bad apples and that they could use some training and they could use some improvements, do you believe that the gangs too have just a few bad apples? Do you think that they might have some good apples in there, and do you think that they could benefit from better training, being given some knowledge given, some skills, as a group, as a culture, do you believe that's possible?

Do I believe that's possible? Yes. The gang culture primarily is focused on, at least from my experience, on criminality, drugs, and sometimes violence. And a form of bullying to get what they want. I believe finding other ways to train these young folks would be beneficial, yes. Yes, we need more resources to provide better treatment to these young folks. There's a lot of treatment out there. Some of the folks providing the treatment understand the problem and some are doing it by the books. So yes, those folks need more training to understand the gang issue, the gang culture. Some of it also has to do with when we talk about culture: racial culture. I have an example: my clients are bilingual, bi-cultural because they're mostly Latinos, Chicanos. The services I have for them are very limited here in the Northwest; like we used to have a treatment program down in Salem that was shut down and House of Umoja was another one but there were also other issues there too. I'm not saying that still the House of Umoja should not have existed. There should have been some work to keep that going some way. The point I’m trying to get across is that there are not enough resources put in that direction to provide for the cultural difference, whether it's gang, whether it's racial, you know, and I think that providers also need to be better trained and better aware of what the situation is.

Do you believe that a solution to the problem can ever realistically be achieved--meaning, the suppression strategy--do you think that gangs can just be wiped out? For example, do you believe if there were unlimited resources able to be thrown at the problem, do you believe that they can arrest their way out of this problem? Do you think they can just shut gangs down and stop the whole thing entirely?

No, no, I don't think they'll ever be able to stop the whole thing because gangs are not just a color, gangs are a way of believing. It's a community; it's camaraderie; it's a way of existing. I mean, we as human beings are community-based creatures. We need each other and however that is, whether it's gangs, whether it's clubs, it's a form of a community to exist. It's always gonna be there and the gangs are only an example of individuals who don't fit in anywhere else so they find where they do fit in and sometimes it's not positive. So I think to answer the question, I believe we as a society can bring that to fruition but we have to change our way of thinking. It's a social issue and our way of looking at society or people has to change. We look at each other as colors; I hate to say black and white, but that's part of it--also as male/female--that whole thing has to change and it hasn't changed in thousands of years. I mean, it's gotten better and and it's been talked about but it still has not changed. Now with all the protests that have come up, you have Black folk and White folk protesting together against the system saying it's wrong and then you have the Proud Boys, which is now another form of gang and now gangs they're dependent on what society accepts or rejects. I mean look at our president, he's accepted this whole Proud Boy situation, which is really sad. It's disgusting. Our way of thinking has to change this society. Our forefathers came up with a good contract but there was a lot of holes in it. The idea was good but they never followed through. The follow-through was okay for people who had money and people who were white yeah, but everybody else was off to the side.

For those who are not personally familiar with gangs, is there anything you’d like to add that you think could be helpful in understanding this problem?

That gang members are human just like you and me and they have feelings and they have needs. And if those needs are taken care of then usually they become a caring person like everybody else. They can become a caring person like everybody else. I think that because people look at them as a gangster and somebody who is to be feared and then that stigma or stereotype kind of becomes them, instead of them being seen as a person. I know it's hard because I deal with clients who get in my face; young gangsters get in my face and call me names and tell me what a jerk I am and okay, whatever, you know, let’s move on, you know.

Is there anything that you believe each individual gang member is capable of doing that could contribute to solving the overall problem?

Become educated. Understand society and the human condition better, and with that you have to become educated because that's how I learned. Once you understand the human condition, you're gonna start thinking about those things and in understanding the human condition you're becoming educated. A lot of the people that I know that were involved in gangs that have become educated have a better understanding how to make changes on the gang issue.

For those who are gang-involved, is there a message you’d like to resonate with them?

You have a future and you're the captain of your ship. What outcome do you want for your future? And that includes your children, because I have a lot of young men who have children who were and are involved in gangs and then I keep on pointing out to them, do you want that child to be where you're at when they get to your age? Because they're looking at you. You're the example. So: to think of their future.

(the interviewee requested his face not be shown)

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ogscholars · 5 years ago

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A Look at the Stakeholders

In examining gangs in Portland and the problems associated with them, it became clear there are no greater stakeholders than Portland’s minority communities where gangs have historically been embedded. Portland’s Black and Brown communities are often viewed by outsiders generally as just two cultures, but Black and Brown cultures have many subcultures and gang lifestyles are an example of some of those subcultures. The gang lifestyle, although deeply rooted in Black and Brown communities, are not subscribed to by everyone in their greater communities.

There are those in both the Black and Brown communities who deeply resent gangs and the members thereof, while there are others in those greater Black and Brown communities who sympathize with the gangs and the members thereof. Quite often, those who deeply resent the gangs and the members thereof were victims or witnesses of gang violence, or those who have otherwise been adversely affected by the presence of gangs in their communities. On the other hand, those who tend to be sympathetic towards gangs are often the family members, friends, and neighbors of gangs and the members thereof.

Our interviewee, Saul Ceballos, is a Mexican-American who has lived in Portland for a half a century. He was born and raised in the gang-renowned Boyles Heights section of East Los Angeles before moving to Portland in the 1970’s to escape potential involvement in gangs himself. Mr. Ceballos studied hard and earned his Bachelor's Degree and then a Master’s Degree in Social Work at University of Portland, and would eventually become a juvenile parole officer for the Oregon Youth Authority, where he has worked for over 25 years trying to steer young men away from poor decision-making here in Portland.

As an upstanding member of his community who has also been in close proximity to many gang-involved youth over such an extended period of time, our interviewee is uniquely situated to provide us with insightful perspective towards the gang issues here in Portland.

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ogscholars · 5 years ago

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ogscholars · 5 years ago

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One of the organizations we chose to highlight that’s directly taking action is Brothers Reaching Out or BROs. The article details what the organization has been doing to help current gang members understand the lifestyle they’re living and why it’s not ideal. They also work with law enforcement and city officials to help them understand gangs better.

#@hp-interact-olive #@topstories-olive #gangs #lamarcus branch #portland

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ogscholars · 5 years ago

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Gangs in Portland: Past & Present

S. Mohamed, R. Northman, & L. Eskinazi

Portland State University

UNST 242: Leading Social Change

Dr. Peter Chaille

October 25, 2020

Gangs in Portland: Past & Present

The history of gangs in Portland begins in the 1980’s when individual Crips and Bloods gang members from Los Angeles, California sought refuge in Portland from LAPD Chief Daryl Gates’ CRASH team and their harsh police tactics such as Operation Hammer. The LAPD’s response to the rise in gang violence during the 1980’s had been heavy-handed, and involved the deployment of militarized police units, including air support, used to campaign against the gangs (Murch, 2015).

The LAPD’s tactics appear to have resulted in a mass exodus of Crips and Bloods departing to other cities across the nation, fleeing what they may have viewed as racism and police oppression. Portland was one of the many cities across the United States where those Crips and Bloods gang members fled to. The Crips and Bloods that left L.A. did not do so in any organized, concerted effort as the Crips and Bloods from Los Angeles were not at all structured into a centralized organization with any common goals or purposes (p. 30, Howell & Griffith, 2015)(“Overdose,” 1989).

When various individual Crips and Bloods gang members arrived in Portland, they were welcomed and embraced by local-area youth. Some of these young people joined the individual L.A. gang members, mimicking them and becoming members of those L.A. gangs themselves. From the beginning, there were local Portland offshoots of infamous L.A. gangs such as the Four-Tray Gangster Crips, 107 Hoover Crips, Rollin 60’s Crips, Inglewood Family Bloods, West Side Pirus, and more (Holley, 2015).

Local-area youth that did not join the gang members from Los Angeles in joining their L.A. gangs, wasted no time in forming gangs of their own, loosely based on the style of the L.A. Crips and Bloods gangs. In the late-1980’s then, Portland saw the creation of several homegrown gangs that mimicked the L.A gangs they’d recently come into contact with. The Columbia Villa Crips, the Woodlawn Park Bloods, the Kerby Blocc Crips, and the Loc’ed Out Pirus, just to name a few (Holley, 2015). Portland was no exception as this same phenomenon of gang growth occurred in cities across the nation (Katz & Webb, 2004).

Although these new local gangs used the Crip and Blood names and styles, the youth that formed these gangs were from Portland and did so without any control, knowledge or say-so of L.A. Crips and Bloods. The Portland offshoots of the L.A. gangs were similarly independent with respect to their activities (p. 31, Howell & Griffith, 2015). In contrast to the violence taking place in L.A., these earlier Portland gang members were rarely violent in their formative years.

In the summer of 1988, Joseph Ray Winston, also known as “Ray Ray,” a 17 year-old Columbia Villa Crip gang member was gunned down in North Portland’s Columbia Villa public housing projects (Associated Press, 1988). The killing of “Ray Ray” triggered gang violence that erupted into all-out urban warfare, and, by the following summer, Oregon’s governor Neil Goldschmidt had to send National Guard troops into Northeast Portland to help Portland Police quell the gang violence (“The Nation,” 1989).

In the 1980’s and 1990’s, myths and stereo-types about gangs and gang members contributed to moral panic in America. In this state of moral panic, political and social leaders suddenly defined a specific group of people as a major threat to our values and behavioral standards. (Howell & Griffith, 2015)

Since 1988, police claim that gang feuds became the new norm for gangs in Portland and throughout the 1990’s, Portland had hundreds of murders which police attributed to gang violence. Portland Police would eventually adopt many of the same “tough” tactics implemented by the LAPD against gangs in Los Angeles (pp. 2-3, Katz & Webb, 2004), which subsequently resulted in a mass incarceration of these local gang members into Oregon prisons (“Overdose,” 1989).

The Portland Police formed a Gang Enforcement Team, and a multi-agency Gang Task Force. They also adopted a gang database and gang designation procedures intended to keep track of gang members. Passage of minimum-mandatory sentencing laws, and involvement of federal law enforcement agencies have also become new norms; however, Portland has not seen a decline in gang membership (Ch. 3, MCCGA, 2014).

As violent crime decreased throughout the end of the 1990’s, and remained low throughout the next decade, gang membership continued to rise both in Portland and nationally (Katz & Webb, 2004)(“NGTA,” 2011)(“Uniform crime report,” 2020).

In 2017, the Portland Police rescinded its policies with respect to the designation of gang members, and purportedly dissolved their gang database (Saul, 2017). The Gang Enforcement Team changed its name to the Gun Violence Reduction Team, but changed nothing about how they operated tactically (“Gang enforcement patrol,” 2018). The following year a city auditor’s review reported that the Gun Violence Reduction Team still maintained a gang database; only the new one provided no due-process, and the collection and maintenance of the data had no oversight or transparency (“Gang crime investigations,” 2018). The same audit also found that the Gun Violence Reduction Team was racially profiling those who they stopped.

After the murder of George Floyd by Minneapolis Police officers in May of 2020, the City of Portland announced it would be disbanding the Portland Police Bureau’s Gun Violence Reduction Team. In the months to follow, Portland Police have blamed the dismantling of the GVRT for a rise in Portland area shootings (“Police leaders tie recent shootings,” 2020).

In a 2011 interview with the Washington Journal, then FBI Assistant Deputy Director Robert Daniels was asked if it were illegal to be in a gang. Daniels’ reply was:

It is not. It is illegal to, um, be involved in criminal activity as a gang member, but, to just align yourself with a gang, if you’re not involved in any criminal activity, you know, that’s your First Amendment Right to do that.

Despite acknowledging this, The FBI, in their latest National Gang Threat Assessment (2011), which is nearly a decade-old, describes street gangs as “criminal organizations” and reports that there are 1.4 million gang members in the United States. In fact, the figure of 1.4 million is a 40% increase of gang members from the FBI’s 2009 estimates of only 800,000 just two years earlier. It’s no wonder why then that the Department of Justice has increasingly used the Racketeering Influenced Corrupt Organization (RICO) Act, a law enacted to fight organized crime, against street gangs (NGTA, 2011).

Even right here in Portland, the U.S. Attorney’s Office for the District of Oregon is currently prosecuting the local Hoover gang for murders, drug offenses, and other crimes for which the government claims the Hoovers have committed as agreed-upon gang centered purposes, rather than as individuals (Bernstein, 2019).

Scholars disagree. Malcom Klein, as quoted by Howell & Griffith (2015), pointed out, “gangs are not committees, ball teams, task forces, production teams, or research teams. They do not gather to achieve a common, agreed-upon end.”

Also noted by Howell & Griffith (2015), was that, “street gangs are a product of U.S. history and are homegrown.” They go on to state, “the myths and stereotypes, coupled with a lack of research to address their validity, contribute to our lack of ability to address the gang problem effectively.”

Could it be that changes are needed to the ways in which we address the problems we describe as “gang problems”?

In conclusion, it has been established that:

· Gangs are legal, and members have a First Amendment Right to be in a gang;

· Gangs are not going to be eradicated and are likely to grow in number (NGTA, 2011);

· Much of what is thought to be true with respect to gangs are myths and stereotypes (p.30, Howell & Griffith, 2015);

· Since the early 1990’s, although gang membership in Portland and nationally has risen, crime has steadily decreased in Portland and nationally (UCR, 1985-2019)(NGTA, 2011) (“UCR,” 2020).

With these facts established, it seems that the past and current approaches to gangs are outdated and perhaps should be reconsidered. The reality is that gangs are likely to continue to be blamed for the lack of societal and political remedies. While society and politicians ignore their role in the problem, it only continues to worsen—not only for society and government—but for the gangs too, and the individual members who are not involved with any criminal activity who suffer from mere guilt-by-association.

References:

Murch, D. (2015). Crack in Los Angeles: Crisis, militarization, and black response to the late twentieth-century war on drugs. The Journal of American History, 162-173. https://academic.oup.com/jah/article/102/1/162/686732

“Portland Police increase presence after gang leader shot” (1988, August 18). Associated Press. https://apnews.com/article/ad3c61d74dd79fd2cd9a8ee3cc91e97a

“The Nation” (1989, July 13). The Los Angeles Times. https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-07-13-mn-4567-story.html

“Overdose: cocaine and crime in Portland” (1989, September 10). The Oregonian. https://www.mentalhealthportland.org/overdose-cocaine-and-crime-in-portland/

Saul, J. (2017, September 15). In a first for the nation, Portland Police end gang list to improve relations with Blacks and Latinos. Newsweek. https://www.newsweek.com/2017/10/06/gang-violence-portland-police-tear-gang-member-list-effort-rebuild-community-665374.html

Holley, S. (2015, March 22). Is Portland’s gang problem getting worse? Vice. https://www.vice.com/en/article/jmbymd/is-portland-oregons-gang-problem-getting-worse-322

“2011 National Gang Threat Assessment” (2011). Federal Bureau of Investigation. https://www.fbi.gov/stats-services/publications/2011-national-gang-threat-assessment

Katz, C., & Webb, V. (2004, April) Police response to gangs: a multi-site study. Arizona State University. https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/205003.pdf

Howell, J., & Griffith, E. (2015). Gangs in America’s communities. Sage. https://us.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/93052_Chapter_2_Myths_and_Realities_of_Youth_Gangs.pdf

“Gang crime investigations: lack of accountability and transparency reduced the community’s trust in police” (2018, March). Portland City Auditor. https://www.portlandoregon.gov/auditservices/article/677594

“Gang enforcement patrol: The Police Bureau must show that traffic stops are effective” (2018, March). Portland City Auditor. https://www.portlandoregon.gov/auditservices/article/677598

“Uniform Crime Report” (2020). Federal Bureau of Investigation. Department of Justice. https://crime-data-explorer.fr.cloud.gov/explorer/national/united-states/crime

Bernstein, M. (2019, November 7). Alleged Hoover gang members accused of 3 murders, other crimes in racketeering conspiracy indictment. The Oregonian. https://www.oregonlive.com/crime/2019/11/federal-prosecutors-to-unseal-new-racketeering-indictment-against-alleged-hoover-gang-members.html

“Multnomah County Comprehensive Gang Assessment” (2014, June 30). Lore Joplin Consulting. https://multco.us/lpscc/multnomah-county-comprehensive-gang-assessment-and-implementation-plan

“Police leaders tie recent shootings to end of Portland’s Gun Violence Reduction Team” (2020, August 5). Oregon Public Broadcasting. https://www.opb.org/article/2020/08/06/gun-violence-portland-reduction-police-lovell-turner/

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