#ISC CLASS 12 NOTES BIOLOGY | Explore Tumblr posts and blogs

loadluna313 · 3 years ago

Text

Vatsal Isc Handbook Of Physics Pdf

Vatsal Isc Handbook Of Physics Pdf Class

Vatsal Isc Handbook Of Physics Pdf Download

Vatsal Isc Handbook Of Physics Pdf Online

Every year CISCE (Council for Indian School Certificate Examination) conducts three types of examinations under its supervision, Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE) for Class X, Indian School Certificate (ISC) for Class XII, and Certificate in Vocational Education (CVE – YEAR 12). These exams are generally held in the month of February or March only in CISCE affiliated schools. The ISC class 12th is a board equivalent exam which is also the gateway to enter for higher studies.

Home / Search results for 'isc vatsal hand book pdf'. ISC Handbook Of Chemistry For Class - 12th. You save: ₹129.38. Comprehensive Physics. Pdf handbook of food chemistry researchgate. Arihant chemistry handbook pdf download pdf free download. Pdf download allen handbook for physics chemistry. Buy vatsal isc handbook of chemistry class 12 nageen. Handbook of chemistry amazon in arihant experts books. Read Book Crc Handbook Chemistry Physics 94th Vatsal ISC Handbook for Economics Physics Chemistry Biology Mathematics Chemistry practical solutions class 12th Experiment No. 10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17 (watch 720 pic) ARIHANT CHEMISTRY HANDBOOK REVIEW ¦¦ Best Handbook or Revision Book For CBSE, JEE and NEET ¦¦ Handbook of Chemistry and Physics ¦.

The exam plays a major role to get shortlisted for your desired colleges also ISC students are considered as well-skilled, communicative and participating as compared to CBSE or other state board which give them an advantage of preference in admission by universities and colleges, that’s why it becomes an important exam from both qualifying and for higher studies also.

So, if you are an ISC class 12th student who is preparing for this exam, then you should have a proper idea of the subjects, syllabus, and exam pattern of the exam. Therefore, in order to fulfill the requirement of students we have prepared a complete set of information which will show you an exact road map of preparation for facing the exam. So you are requested to read the article carefully.

ISC Syllabus For Class 12th 2021 PDF Download

Handbook (PDF) HANDBOOK FOR GRADUATE STUDENTS. DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY. UNIVERSITY OF KENTUCKY. ‹ Graduate Student Directory up Prospective Students ›.

Buy Vatsal ISC Handbook Of Physics Class 12 BookFlow A.N. Singh is the author of Vatsal ISC Handbook of Chemistry Class 12 Nageen Prakashan (3.77 avg rating, 31 ratings, 1.

CISCE had declared the syllabus for ISC 2019, consisting of a broad and variety of subjects. ISC offers three streams of learning i.e. Science, Commerce, and Art. Further, each stream comes with different choices of subjects including compulsory and elective subjects. Compulsory subjects are common to all stream, on the other hand, a candidate can choose the subject of their interest from the group of elective subjects.

ISC class 11th and ISC class 12th consist of the same subjects. You have to enter class 12th with the same subjects that you have already studied in the previous class. This means you cannot change or choose any new subject after you have done registration in class11th. So, here in class 11th, you are required to be careful in selecting the subjects, therefore, you are suggested to go with the subjects of your reach. Opting right subjects will benefit you to score good marks in the exam too.

It should be noted that all the candidates are required to enroll for the ISC class 12th exam with not more than six subjects including compulsory subject English. There are certain subjects which include practical paper, any candidate applying for such subject will have to go through practical examination also otherwise the paper will be considered as incomplete.

Download ISC Class 12th Syllabus PDF 2021 Subject Wise

According to the latest information about the council, ISC includes a total of 31 subjects which are divided into the category of compulsory and elective subjects. There is only one subject in the list of compulsory subjects that is English.

The CISCE board adopts the English pattern of learning that’s why English subject remains compulsory and common to all ISC students. Whereas, the list of Elective subjects contains a total of 30 subjects, out of which you have to hold with three, four, or five subjects. Now, the complete list of ISC subjects and syllabus in PDF format file is given below:

Mathematics Physics Chemistry Biology Computer Science

History Political Science Geography Sociology Psychology Home Science

English An Indian Language A Modern Foreign Language A Classical Language Elective English

Arts Fashion Designing Electricity & Electronics Engineering Science Geometrical & Mechanical Drawing Geometrical & Building Drawing Music (Indian or Western) Physical Education Environmental Science Biotechnology Mass Media & Communication Hospitality Management

ISC Class 12th Subjects Stream Wise

As discussed above ISC includes Science, Commerce, and Arts stream and each stream consist of different subjects. Now let’s discuss all streams and their subjects in detail.

ISC Science Stream:

ISC Science stream includes all those important subjects which are important to build a strong base for making a career in the field of Science and technology like Engineering, Medical, Technical services of defense, etc.

PHYSICS

CHEMISTRY

BIOLOGY

MATHEMATICS

ISC Commerce Stream:

Commerce stream opens a lot of Interesting careers after class 12th which includes important fields like Chartered Accountant, Corporate, Banking, Insurance, Finance sectors and many more. That’s why ISC commerce stream provides those subjects which will help candidates to make a career in the above-mentioned fields. ISC commerce stream consists of the following important subjects:

ACCOUNTS

COMMERCE

BUSINESS

MATHEMATICS

ECONOMICS

ISC Humanities or Arts Stream:

Art stream includes of a wide range of learning and information which deals with the study of historical facts and incidences, cultural and traditional values, matter of political and social interest, topics of national and international geographical condition, etc. Candidates Interested in any of such matters can also avail for various career options after class 12th. The Important subjects under ISC art stream are mention below:

HISTORY

POLITICAL SCIENCE

GEOGRAPHY

SOCIOLOGY

ECONOMICS

ISC Class 12th Syllabus and Exam Pattern

Vatsal Isc Handbook Of Physics Pdf Class

Science Stream

Physics & Chemistry

There will be the same exam pattern for both Physics and Chemistry. Each subject includes of two papers, paper I and paper II.

Paper I: It is a theory based paper consist of 70 marks for the 3-hour duration. There is given no overall choice of questions so you have to attempt all the questions, however, there will be provided an internal choice of 2 questions of 2 marks each, 2 questions of 3 marks each and all the 3 questions of 5 marks each.

Paper I: It is Practical based paper consist of 15 marks out of which there is a project work of 10 marks and a practical file of 5 marks.

Mathematics Paper

Mathematics paper includes 100 marks for a duration of three hours. The paper is classified into three sections of A, B, and C. Section A consists of compulsory questions however there will be the option of attempting questions from either Section B or Section C.

Section A: Will consist of 80 marks with including compulsory questions however there will be an internal choice in three questions of four marks each and also two questions of six marks each.

Section B/Section C: There is a choice for attempting either section B or Section C. There will be provided an internal choice in two questions of four marks each.

Commerce Stream

Commerce and Business Studies

The exam pattern for Commerce and Business Studies subject will be similar. Each subject will include two papers, Paper I (Theory-based) and paper II (Practical-based).

Paper I: Will include 80 marks for the duration of 3 hours and is further divided into two parts, part I and part II. Part I will cover 20 marks including compulsory short answer type questions designed to test the knowledge, application, and skill of elementary concept of the whole syllabus. Whereas Part II includes eight questions each carrying 12 marks and out of these you have to answer any five questions.

Vatsal Isc Handbook Of Physics Pdf Download

Paper-II: It is based on project work candidates have to submit two projects each carrying 10 marks and the topic will be from the theory syllabus. The project work will be held under the supervision of the subject teacher and a visiting Examiner appointed by the council.

Accounts

Account paper includes two papers, Paper 1 is a theory-based paper & Paper 2 is a practical based paper.

Paper I: Will consist of 80 marks for the duration of 3 hours. Paper 1 is further divided into three sections, A, B, and C.

Section A: Will cover 60 marks comprised of two parts, Part I and Part II. Both parts contain eight questions.

Part I: Includes 12 marks of section A including one compulsory short answer type question designed to examine the knowledge, application, and skills of fundamental characteristics of the whole syllabus. The question belongs to section A.

Part II:This part will cover 48 marks of section A including seven questions of 12 marks each out of which you have to attempt any four questions.

Section B/ Section C:

These are optional Sections which means you must have to attempt any one section from both the section. You have to answer any two questions out of three questions each of 10 marks from the section of your choice.

Humanities or Arts

History Paper

History paper consists of two papers, Paper I (Theory-based) & Paper-II (Practical based)

Paper I: The paper carries 80 marks for the duration of 3 hours and is further divided into two parts.

Part I: Will consist of 20 marks including compulsory short answer type questions designed to test fundamental factual learning and understanding of the whole syllabus.

Part II: The paper will be distributed into two sections, A and B and each section includes five questions of 12 marks each. You have to answer any two questions from each section and there is a choice of attempting one question from either section A or section B. Overall a total of five questions must be attempted from Part II.

Paper-II: The Paper consists of 20 marks and Includes submission of on project that may be based on the following topics:

A case study

A Field visit/investigation

A local history

Interview/oral evidence

Book review/ film review/ poster/ newspapers/ advertisements/ cartoon and arts.

Political Science Paper

The paper for political science will be classified into two papers, Paper I (Theory-based) and Paper-II (Project Work).

Paper I: It holds 80 marks with a maximum time period of three hours. The paper will be divided into two parts, Part I and Part II.

Part I: The part will cover 20 marks of paper I, comprising of compulsory short answer type questions to analyze the knowledge, application, and skills regarding the basic concepts of the whole syllabus.

Part II: The Part will cover 60 marks of paper I and is divided into two sections, A and B. You are needed to attempt any three questions out of a total of five questions from section A and two questions out of three questions from section B. Each question of part II will consist of 12 marks.

Paper-II: It is a project-based paper consisting of 20 marks. A candidate has to perform one project which will be based on the following topics.

A case study

Survey study with a questionnaire

Research-based on in-depth analysis.

Local/national/global political issue

Book review/ film review/ documentaries/poster/newspaper/ advertisements/ cartoons and art.

Economics paper

Economics paper will comprise of two papers, Paper I (Theory-based) and Paper-II (Project work).

Paper I: It will hold 80 marks with a maximum time limit of three hours. The paper is further divided into two parts, part I and Part II.

Part I: The part will cover 20 marks of paper I, including compulsory short answer type questions testing the knowledge, application, and skills regarding the basic concepts of the whole syllabus.

Part II: It will be 60 marks paper comprising of eight questions each of 12 marks and only five questions is needed to attempt.

ISC Important Rules & Regulations 2021.

The passing Marks for each subject is 40%.

Candidates are required to score a minimum of 40% marks in at least four subjects including English as a compulsory subject in class 11th for promotion to class 12th.

The attendance should not be less than 75% throughout the whole academic year.

Candidates are not allowed to enter with more than six subjects including English subject.

The council holds the power to alter, cancel results or certificates, etc. on being a candidate’s violating rules and regulation and holds the right to take strict action against him/her.

ISC Syllabus For Class 12th 2021 PDF Download

Download ISC Class 12th Syllabus PDF 2021 Subject Wise

Mathematics Physics Chemistry Biology Computer Science

History Political Science Geography Sociology Psychology Home Science

English An Indian Language A Modern Foreign Language A Classical Language Elective English

ISC Class 12th Subjects Stream Wise

As discussed above ISC includes Science, Commerce, and Arts stream and each stream consist of different subjects. Now let’s discuss all streams and their subjects in detail.

ISC Science Stream:

Vatsal Isc Handbook Of Physics Pdf Online

PHYSICS

CHEMISTRY

BIOLOGY

MATHEMATICS

ISC Commerce Stream:

ACCOUNTS

COMMERCE

BUSINESS

MATHEMATICS

ECONOMICS

ISC Humanities or Arts Stream:

HISTORY

POLITICAL SCIENCE

GEOGRAPHY

SOCIOLOGY

ECONOMICS

ISC Class 12th Syllabus and Exam Pattern

Science Stream

Physics & Chemistry

There will be the same exam pattern for both Physics and Chemistry. Each subject includes of two papers, paper I and paper II.

Paper I: It is Practical based paper consist of 15 marks out of which there is a project work of 10 marks and a practical file of 5 marks.

Mathematics Paper

Section A: Will consist of 80 marks with including compulsory questions however there will be an internal choice in three questions of four marks each and also two questions of six marks each.

Section B/Section C: There is a choice for attempting either section B or Section C. There will be provided an internal choice in two questions of four marks each.

Commerce Stream

Commerce and Business Studies

The exam pattern for Commerce and Business Studies subject will be similar. Each subject will include two papers, Paper I (Theory-based) and paper II (Practical-based).

Accounts

Account paper includes two papers, Paper 1 is a theory-based paper & Paper 2 is a practical based paper.

Paper I: Will consist of 80 marks for the duration of 3 hours. Paper 1 is further divided into three sections, A, B, and C.

Section A: Will cover 60 marks comprised of two parts, Part I and Part II. Both parts contain eight questions.

Part II:This part will cover 48 marks of section A including seven questions of 12 marks each out of which you have to attempt any four questions.

Section B/ Section C:

Humanities or Arts

History Paper

History paper consists of two papers, Paper I (Theory-based) & Paper-II (Practical based)

Paper I: The paper carries 80 marks for the duration of 3 hours and is further divided into two parts.

Part I: Will consist of 20 marks including compulsory short answer type questions designed to test fundamental factual learning and understanding of the whole syllabus.

Paper-II: The Paper consists of 20 marks and Includes submission of on project that may be based on the following topics:

A case study

A Field visit/investigation

A local history

Interview/oral evidence

Book review/ film review/ poster/ newspapers/ advertisements/ cartoon and arts.

Political Science Paper

The paper for political science will be classified into two papers, Paper I (Theory-based) and Paper-II (Project Work).

Paper I: It holds 80 marks with a maximum time period of three hours. The paper will be divided into two parts, Part I and Part II.

Paper-II: It is a project-based paper consisting of 20 marks. A candidate has to perform one project which will be based on the following topics.

A case study

Survey study with a questionnaire

Research-based on in-depth analysis.

Local/national/global political issue

Book review/ film review/ documentaries/poster/newspaper/ advertisements/ cartoons and art.

Economics paper

Economics paper will comprise of two papers, Paper I (Theory-based) and Paper-II (Project work).

Paper I: It will hold 80 marks with a maximum time limit of three hours. The paper is further divided into two parts, part I and Part II.

Part I: The part will cover 20 marks of paper I, including compulsory short answer type questions testing the knowledge, application, and skills regarding the basic concepts of the whole syllabus.

Part II: It will be 60 marks paper comprising of eight questions each of 12 marks and only five questions is needed to attempt.

ISC Important Rules & Regulations 2021.

The passing Marks for each subject is 40%.

Candidates are required to score a minimum of 40% marks in at least four subjects including English as a compulsory subject in class 11th for promotion to class 12th.

The attendance should not be less than 75% throughout the whole academic year.

Candidates are not allowed to enter with more than six subjects including English subject.

The council holds the power to alter, cancel results or certificates, etc. on being a candidate’s violating rules and regulation and holds the right to take strict action against him/her.

3 notes · View notes

educationcareernews · 5 years ago

Video

youtube

CISCE releases marking scheme for ICSE, ISC cancelled papers Subscribe - https://ift.tt/2BvgxbE Facebook - https://ift.tt/3hRxoWV Twitter - https://twitter.com/EducationCaree6 Pinterest - https://ift.tt/2YpDlCG Tumblr - https://ift.tt/2NmT92U Blog - https://ift.tt/2NhbzC6 #Exam #Recruitment #Result NEW DELHI: The Council for the Indian School Certificate Examination (CISCE) has released ICSE, ISC Marking Scheme 2020 for Class 10, 12 Board examination. The Council on June 26 had cancelled the remaining board papers which were scheduled to be conducted from July 1 to 14, 2020. The Council had promised the Supreme Court to come up with a formula on how to award marks to the students and would upload the same on its official website. The ICSE Board had postponed its class 10 and 12 examinations due to a coronavirus outbreak and they were to end on March 31. However, the nationwide lockdown to contain the spread of the coronavirus pandemic came into force from March 25. The CISCE in its affidavit had told the top court that the remaining papers in the ICSE (Class X) and ISC (Class XII) board examinations, scheduled from July 1-14, 2020 as per its notification of May 22, shall stand cancelled. It added that the results of all the candidates for the remaining papers in the ICSE and ISC Year 2020 Examinations will be declared as per methodology decided and adopted by CISCE. "If the situation is deemed conducive, in the near future, CISCE may give an option to candidates to write any or all of the remaining papers of the ICSE/ISC Year 2020 Examinations at a later date whereby the marks so obtained by the candidate in that written examination(s) shall be considered as their final marks," the affidavit had said. The marks imputation formulae for the remaining ISC Year 2020 Examination have been devised by reputed Statisticians from Premier Institutions in the Country. CISCE FORMULAE - ISCFACTORS USED IN THE COMPUTATIONS 1. Average of a candidate's best three subject marks in the board examination (A): The average of the best three percentage marks obtained from among the subjects the candidate has appeared for in the board examination. 2. Subject Project & Practical Work: Total marks obtained by the candidate in the Project & Practical Work of the subject. 3. Percentage subject Project & Practical Work (B): Percentage of marks obtained by the candidate in the Project & Practical Work of the subject. Note that it is the marks obtained for Project & Practical Work, expressed as a percentage. ALGORITHM TO BE USED For pending examinations having components of Project & Practical Work i.e. Geography, Sociology, Psychology, Business Studies, Biology and Home Science: a) Obtain the subject board marks percentage (percentage of marks obtained by the algorithm which may be awarded to the candidate for the board examination in the subject) by: SUBJECT BOARD MARKS PERCENTAGE = 0.7 A + 0.3 B b) Determine the board marks for the subject as: SUBJECT BOARD MARKS = SUBJECT BOARD MARKS PERCENTAGE × WEIGHTAGE FOR BOARD MARKS For the subjects Geography, Sociology, Psychology, Biology and Home Science, the board marks are out of 70, and hence the weightage for board marks should be 0.7. For the subject Business Studies the board marks are out of 80, and hence the weightage for board marks should be 0.8. c) Obtain the final marks as: SUBJECT FINAL MARKS = SUBJECT BOARD MARKS + SUBJECT PROJECT & PRACTICAL WORK 2. For candidates who have appeared in three subjects, take the best two, and for candidates who have appeared for two subjects, take the better one. For a candidate who has appeared in only one subject, that subject can be considered. 3. For Elective English, use the following formula: SUBJECT FINAL MARKS = AVERAGE PERCENTAGE SCORE OBTAINED IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE (PAPER 1) & LITERATURE IN ENGLISH (PAPER 2) For Art Paper 5 use the following formula: SUBJECT FINAL MARKS = AVERAGE PERCENTAGE SCORE OBTAINED IN THE OTHER ART PAPERS TAKEN BY THE CANDIDATE IN THE BOARD EXAMINATION. CISCE FORMULAE - ICSEFACTORS USED IN THE COMPUTATIONS 1. Average of a candidate’s best three papers marks in the board examination (A): The average of the best three percentage marks obtained from among the papers the candidate has appeared for in the board examination. 2. Subject internal assessment: Total marks obtained by the candidate in the internal assessment of the pa..

#Education and Career News

0 notes

juniperpublishersanatomy-blog · 5 years ago

Text

Anatomy Education in MBBS: Nepal’s Perspective and Challenges-Juniper publishers

Introduction: Although it is agreed that anatomy is the language of medicine, the 21st century medical curriculum has often shown to reduce the hours dedicated towards anatomy education. Presently TU, Kathmandu University (KU), BP Koirala Institute of Health Sciences (BPKIHS) and Patan Academy of health sciences (PAHS) are running the MBBS program. In designing an anatomy center, the principles of three curricular models may be considered: traditional, integrated problem-based and system-oriented. Anatomy has been given more emphasis in hours of instructions allotted in both institutions. KU has given a total of 472 hours for Anatomy whereas BPKIHS has given 396 hours for the same. It may be noted the teaching of Basic Medical Sciences in an integrated, system wise and with a problem solving approach is the stated objective of all the three curriculums of TU, BPKIHS and KU. It is felt that an efficient clinical anatomy curriculum can only lead to the success in developing an innovative anatomy center for teachers and students. Besides the curricular changes facing anatomy education in recent years, there is also a lack of anatomy teaching faculties in medical college of Nepal.

Keywords: Curriculum; Problem-based; Innovative; Anatomy education; Nepal

Abbreviations: KU: Kathmandu University; BPKIHS: BP Koirala Institute of Health Sciences; PAHS: Patan Academy of health sciences; TU: Tribhuvan University; IOM: Institute of Medicine; SLC: School Leaving Certificate; ISc.: Intermediate Science; AACA: American Association of Clinical Anatomists; MBBS: Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery; PBL: Problem Based Learning, CPC: Clinical Presentation Curriculum; CBLE: Community Based Learning and Education; TOHP: Over-Head Projector and Transparency; PPT: Power Point Presentation

Introduction

Although it is agreed that anatomy is the language of medicine, the 21st century medical curriculum has often shown to reduce the hours dedicated towards anatomy education. A medical school therefore should reevaluate its own curriculum what the students need to learn. Since anatomy is exposed to the students at the outset of a curriculum [1], medical schools, therefore, should be careful in planning students-directed anatomy objectives and how they are going to be delivered. This is important as the current pressure to reduce the hours devoted to learning anatomy may even complicate the entire planning [2,3]. Undergraduate anatomy education in medical colleges of Nepal is facing many of the same challenges as in other parts of the world, especially in Problem based learning approach [4,5]. Many claim that PBL curricula dilute basic science education, especially anatomy, with the reason that not all medical graduates will practice surgery [6,7].

Discussion

History of Medical Schools in Nepal

The Civil Medical School started in 1934 for training compounders and dressers. Then, during the seventies, Tribhuvan University (TU), Institute of Medicine (IoM) started certificate programs in Nursing, General Medicine, Health Laboratory, Pharmacy, Radiotherapy, Physiotherapy, Health Education and Sanitation for training such assistants. The credit of starting the MBBS program for the first time in the Kingdom of Nepal in 1978 goes to TU. At first, the admission consisted of School Leaving Certificate (SLC) with a Certificate of Medical Sciences of 2½ or 3 years duration. Afterwards the eligibility became Intermediate Science (ISc.) Higher Secondary Education (10+2), A-level or equivalent educational background. Now TU, Kathmandu University (KU), BP Koirala Institute of Health Sciences (BPKIHS) and Patan Academy of health sciences (PAHS) are running the MBBS program. Besides its own School of Medicine, nine other medical colleges are affiliated with KU. Tribhuvan University besides its own IOM has so far given affiliation to seven medical colleges. BPKIHS and PAHS, being a deemed university conducts its own programs only and has not given affiliation, to other institutions [8].

Suggested Content for an Optimal Modern Curriculum

Curricula on gross anatomy, fertilization, and organogenesis were proposed by the American Association of Clinical Anatomists (AACA) at the turn of the millennium [9]. The initiative to increase learning from a compact course can be categorized in the following sections in addition to the recommended national framework designed by the Education Committee of the Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland (ASGBI): (a) dissection/prosection, (b) multimedia, (c) practical procedures, (d) surface and clinical anatomy, and (e) radiological imaging [10].

Curricula of TU, KU, BPKIHS and PAHS

In designing an anatomy center, the principles of three curricular models may be considered: traditional, integrated problem-based and system-oriented [11]. The Institute of Medicine (lOM) initiated the Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS) course in July 1978. The curriculum was designed in such a way the teaching learning experiences integrate basic medical sciences with clinical disciplines. Integrated Basic Medical Science I (General Concepts, Musculoskeletal System, Neurosensory System and special senses); Integrated Basic Medical Science II (Respiratory System, Cardiovascular System, Gastrointestinal and Hepatobilitary System) and Integrated Basic Medical Science III (Renal & Electrolyte System and Reproductive-Endocrine System).The Degree awarded is Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery, MBBS. MBBS is an undergraduate course. It is a five-and a half year long course which includes one year of internship [12]. The KUMS MBBS program has been divided into three parts: the first two years of study consist of basic medical sciences. These years also include an introduction to clinical sciences. Over the next two and half years, students learn the principles and skills of clinical medicine by rotating through various medical specialties. The final one year consists of an internship [13]. The MBBS curriculum of BPKIHS is thoroughly integrated and community-oriented and partially problem based incorporating the organ system and need based approach. In first two year of MBBS, it consists of Unit 0 (Basic Concepts), Unit 1(Growth, Development and Genetics; Blood and Immunology), Unit 2( Respiratory, Environment including Autonomic Nervous System and Cardiovascular System), Unit 3 (Gastrointestinal System, Hepatobilitary System, Nutrition and Metabolism), Unit 4 (Endocrine and Reproductive Systems, Kidney and Fluid Balances and Integumentary Systems), Unit 5 (Musculoskeletal System, Nervous system and Special Senses) and Unit 6 ( Multisystem seminars) [14]. Patan Academy of Health Sciences (PAHS) is a public, autonomous, not-for-profit, Health Science University established in 2064 B.S. (2008 A.D.) with the charter granted by the Parliament of Nepal. The total duration of PAHS MBBS curriculum is six years. During the two years long Basic Sciences Course, students is introduced to fundamental concepts about the structure and function of the human body in health and disease as well as the principles of using medicine to treat disease according to organ-systems of the body in an integrated manner rather than disciplinary approach. Among these methods, Problem Based Learning (PBL), Clinical Presentation Curriculum (CPC) with small group sessions, as well as Community Based Learning and Education (CBLE) are the principal teaching learning methods adopted for PAHS MBBS program [15] It is worthwhile looking at the curriculum of the MBBS courses in Nepal. When BP Koirala Institute of Health Sciences (BPKIHS) and Kathmandu University (KU) curriculum were compared in their Phase I and Part I respectively it was found that 887 hours of theory and 793 hours of practical classes are allotted by BPKIHS whereas 1194 hours of theory classes and 963 hours of practical classes are allotted by KU. Besides KU has allotted 80 hours of other classes for clinical orientation, 30 hours for Medical Informatics and 336 hours for self-study in this curriculum in Part I [12,13,16-17].

Anatomy Education in Nepal

Anatomy in undergraduate education has been in decline for many years. Some suggest that it has fallen below a safe level. Balances between detail and safety, and assimilation and application of anatomy have yet to be established as the methods of teaching undergo another metamorphosis [18]. The medical curriculum may be said to have evolved during the 20th Century. What had initially been an apprenticeship for professional training for a few years was replaced by a course of study, to enter which the candidate had to be adequately versed in Biology and Chemistry. A medical curriculum makes up the institutional goals, objectives, subject content, learning experiences and assessment techniques [19]. For Nepal though Gray’s Textbook of Anatomy was translated into Parbatiya as far back as 1909 it was only in 1978 the first medical course in Nepal was started by the Institute of Medicine [20]. Anatomy has been given more emphasis in hours of instructions allotted in both institutions. KU has given 472 hours for Anatomy whereas BPKIHS has given 396 hours for the same. It may be noted the teaching of Basic Medical Sciences in an integrated, system wise and with a problem solving approach is the stated objective of all the three curriculums of TU, BPKIHS and KU. The degree of implementation varies from institution to institution and this is more because of unfamiliarity with the methods rather than opposition by the implementers. Perhaps the reason the NMC has not brought out a printed format of the MBBS curriculum is because the question has been raised at its own meetings whether it is suitable for the NMC to be involved in such details. Members felt that what was being taught was also the responsibility of the universities concerned [20]. The anatomy teaching has also shown some changes as the other part of the world. Anatomy teaching about the content and method has undergone major changes in the recent time constraints, scarcity of cadavers, rapid advances in information technology, and challenges in the demands of the medical profession. Besides, there has been a major pattern shift in medical education from passive, didactic, and teacher-centered approach to active, clinical-based, and student-centered approach [21].

Challenges in Anatomy Education

It has been shown earlier that simply covering the material within anatomy objectives with didactic lectures followed by dissection may fail to produce a long lasting understanding of the subject. The students are also unable to understand the importance of clinical anatomy integrated within various medical disciplines. However, it is felt that an efficient clinical anatomy curriculum can only lead to the success in developing an innovative anatomy center for teachers and students [22]. In Indian medical colleges, Lectures are still the most common method used for teaching and learning and are here to stay; therefore, it is extremely important that they must be as effective as possible. The most common lecture delivery methods include usage of overhead projector and transparency (TOHP), Power point Presentation (PPT) besides the conventional ‘Chalk and talk’ method. Various studies have been conducted to compare both methods. The main reasons for liking lectures using chalk and board are: a) the students have adequate time to take down notes and draw diagrams and b) the pauses and breaks during writing and drawing allow the student to follow the material. This Scenario seems to be true in Nepal also [23]. However, there is a continuing debate concerning how much to teach, when to teach, and how to teach gross anatomy. More ever, the planning of best approach to teach anatomy is further complicated by the fact that the time spent for studying anatomy is reduced and on the other and, there is an exponential increase in the wealth of information to be learned [24]. Dissection caters to cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains of medical students by providing three dimensional perspectives on the topography of the structures but also give opportunity to confirm their learning [25]. Amadio reported that the cadeveric dissection is the only tool that gives the students an appreciation of natural variety of human structures as opposed virtual cadevers [26]. Moore in his work” To dissect or not to dissect” delineated the various disadvantages associated with non-cadever-based curriculum [27]. Some of the chalanges faced in cadaver-based teaching include difficulty in procuring cadevrs, emotional impact on some students on exposure to the cadevrs, and health and safety issues associated with the use of cadevers [28]. Much has been written on PBL in the particular context of learning medicine and anatomy. Overall, about basic science teaching, non-PBL courses seem to be slightly favored, although PBL courses seem to produce more confident, practically-minded doctors [29- 31]. Recent rapid advances in information and communication technology have changed the pattern of medical education. Computer networks, web based learning, and portable network devices are becoming a fundamental component of the learning environment in medical education, having an impact on design, and reshaping the medical curriculum. Instead of classical textbooks, students now use e-books on laptops or tablet computers. In core courses, such as first year anatomy many medical schools don’t use dissection anymore; professionally dissected palastinated specimens and virtual 3D body systems are used instead. Simulation or imitation using technology of real life circumstances, such as anatomical regions or clinical procedures is useful. For those who must learn or relearn human anatomy without access to cadavers, there’s a critical need for learning tools that present images of the real human body in three dimensions. There are two different approaches in the presentation of three-dimensional images: stereoscopic vision and rotation. Stereoscopic vision is used for everyday depth perception, and it’s the basis for all 3D images and movies. These visual aids all require special equipment (3D glasses and screens). There is another way - rotation of the object. Object rotation is what we do without thinking, every time we’re curious to learn something about a solid object. Many medical apps focus on anatomy and physiology and other subjects, some address medical problem solving, diagnosis, and treatment. Further social media such as Facebook, Twitter and other applications allow students to connect and schedule tutorial sessions, group study sessions and facilitate sharing information and peer-topeer learning [32].

Conclusion

In addition to the curricular changes facing anatomy education in recent years, there is also lack of anatomy teaching faculties in medical college of Nepal. It now depends on the government of Nepal and universities to unite for promoting the significance of anatomy education and an optimal curriculum before it’s decline which can lead to unavoidable results for patient healthcare in Nepalese society.

Acknowledgment

The authors would like to thank the central library of B.P Koirala Institute of Health Sciences, Dharan, Nepal for providing access to literature searching for this article. The authors declare that they have no conflict of interests.

For more Open Access Journals in

Juniper Publishers

please click on:

https://juniperpublishers.com

For more articles in

Anatomy Physiology & Biochemistry International Journal

please click

on:

https://juniperpublishers.com/apbij/index.php

For more

Open Access Journals

please click on:

https://juniperpublishers.com

To know more about Juniper Publishers please click on:

https://juniperpublishers.business.site/

#anatomy #veins #Juniper Publishers #open access journals #Physiology

0 notes

amplewebsol · 5 years ago

Text

Medical Education in Ukraine (MBBS in Ukraine)

Medical Education in Ukraine is a hot favorite and popular among the medical aspirant’s community due to its systematic and disciplined pedagogy since 2005. For Indian students, MBBS in UKRAINE is prevalent for 3 major reasons:

Global recognition,

Accreditation and affiliation from world-renown organizations,

Quality education system.

Ukraine is a country that comprises a variety of world-class government medical universities that offer MBBS, MD and other courses in medicine and that too at an affordable price. Also, as these universities are completely owned by the government, loan facilities are also available to students via education loans.

Each Medical University in Ukraine welcomes a minimum of 120 to 150 Indian students every year for MBBS programs with a minimum of 50% in PCM in CBSE/ISCE/State Board. Also, 40% -45% criteria for Category students (OBC/SC/ST/PH)

Students completing their MBBS course from UKRAINE are eligible to apply for the job in any part of the world (As per those country eligibility guidelines). The duration of MBBS in Ukraine is for about 6 years comprising of :

Pre-clinical (3 years), and

Clinical (3 years).

Note: Ukraine doesn’t offer an internship to Medical students. But it is mandatory for Indian Students and after cracking MCI/FMGE/NEXT, students will have to complete a 1-year compulsory rotatory internship in the Indian government or private hospital (MCI recognized).

Medical education in UKRAINE enhances the student’s interpersonal skills and overall personality development. MBBS in Ukraine is worth studying as the medical universities offer world-class amenities ranging from great infra-to-awesome medical faculties-to-mixed community students-to-study pressure-to-research labs and that too at economical prices. The clinical rotations begin from the mid 3rd year till the 6th year during MBBS in UKRAINE is an outstanding aspect incorporated in the MBBS curriculum.

Advantages in a nutshell:

They deliver high-class medical education.

The literacy rate is 100%.

The universities have superior quality infrastructure.

The educational expenses of MBBS in Ukraine are lower.

Students get excellent accommodation facilities at more economical rates while studying MBBS in Ukraine.

Student security is taken care of by both the government and the universities.

Students get exposure to international seminars and conferences.

WHO and MCI recognize the universities.

No English test is required for MBBS admission in Ukraine.

The degree is valid in India and worldwide.

MBBS admission in Ukraine is easy and hassle-free.

Practical exposure is ensured.

The mode of teaching is English for MBBS in Ukraine.

Indian students will find their fellow peers there.

Safe for the girl students (Ukraine’s major population (70%) consist of females).

MCI Eligibility Criteria for MBBS in Ukraine:

They must be of 17 years of age minimum.

Indian students’ age must correspond with the NEET eligibility age.

They must have 50% in their class 12 board exams, including science subjects and English.OBC/SC/ST students must have 40%, including Physics, Chemistry, Biology, and English.

International students must have valid visas and passports.

Indian students must have valid MCI certificate i.e. NEET-UG qualified are eligible only.

Admission Procedure:

The students first have to fill the admission forms of their chosen Ukrainian medical university.

Submission of the filled-up forms along with required documents

Students will then receive their admission letter as well as the invitation letter.

After receiving the admission letter, visa work must be started

Get hold of your valid visa and passport

Fly to Ukraine to make your dream of becoming a doctor come true.

Documents required:

Mark sheets of the board exams.

NEET mark sheet.

Valid passport.

Passport size photos.

Migration certificate.

Bank statement.

Offer letter from the university.

Student Visa.

Medical reports (In extreme cases).

Universities you can trust:

Ivano Frankivsk National Medical University

Danylo Halitsky Lviv National Medical University

Bogomolets National Medical University (Kiev)

Sumy State University

Bukovinian State Medical University

Ternopil State Medical University

Last, but not least in a nutshell kindly make thorough research on every aspect before enrolling yourself in MBBS in Ukraine.

To Parents/Guardian, please consider the following things:

Ask about University/medical faculties/teaching/alumni.

Don’t ask silly questions like flooding/mess facilities. Every standard University has its own setup and acts in the best professional way. Also, international universities are well equipped with basic necessities. Let your son/daughter learn to do basic things in life i.e. cooking, cleaning, washing. After all, it will help in the overall development of your child.

#mbbs in ukraine #medical education in ukraine

0 notes

learnmor · 8 years ago

Text

School Education Boards In India

Indian educational system follows different types of boarding pattern. Students here have a great scope to choose between the syllabus and subjects. Most of the students are not aware of all the education boards and syllabus which are followed in India. In this article, we are going to talk about various governing boards and syllabus. Also note that LearnMor provides highly qualified private tutors for all these boards. So let’s get started.

Most of the Indian Education is carried over six major educational boards. These institutions are maintained under three levels ie., State, National and International, each of them has private and government funding.

1. STATE BOARD (SSC/SSLC)

2. CENTRAL BOARD OF SECONDARY EDUCATION (CBSE)

3. COUNCIL FOR THE INDIAN SCHOOL CERTIFICATE EXAMINATION (CISCE)

4. INTERNATIONAL BACCALAUREATE (IB)

5. INTERNATIONAL GENERAL CERTIFICATE FOR SECONDARY EDUCATION (IGCSE)

6. NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF OPEN SCHOOLING BOARD (NOS/NIOS)

1. STATE BOARD (SSC/SSLC):

Usually called as SSC/SSLC (secondary school certificate/secondary school leaving certificate) board, majority of the students in the country are enrolled in this board which is maintained by respective state governments. Almost every state has its own board examination. Most government schools and colleges prefer to teach in their own medium of instruction, but most private institutes follow English as a teaching medium.

SYLLABUS:

Syllabus is same throughout the whole state. Students can enrol themselves in regular schools which are run by private sector and in government schools which are maintained by the respective state governments, anyways the curriculum followed in both the sectors is same. Syllabus is designed according to the guidelines of NCERT. It is a lot more easier when compared with the other boards. Readymade material, question banks and guides are available in the market. Most of the syllabus will be on state level topics which helps students to prepare for the state level competitive exams and national level topics are also included to some extent.

There is a compulsory subject on regional language in both (private/government) institutions and there are extra 2-3 subjects (basic computer knowledge, general knowledge etc) in private schools which is an added advantage. Rest of the curriculum is very similar, only difference is the medium of teaching.

TYPES OF EXAMS:

Middle Standard Examination (earlier)

Secondary School Certificate (10 class/SSC)

Higher School Certificate (intermediate/+2/HSC)

After completing the intermediate examinations, students can choose among different streams like engineering, medicine, BSc, BBA, BCom, NDA, Air force, Navy, Military etc.

GRADING SYSTEM:

Most of them follows normal grading system. Marks are given in the form of percentage.

State board accommodates Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya’s (JNV’S) and Sainik Schools which falls under special category in which students are recruited based on their merit.

JNV’S specially focus on the rural areas and selects students who shows excellent problem solving skills. These students are provided free educational facilities from Class IV to X.

Sainik schools are run under the Ministry of Defence in which students are trained in military to make their entry into the Indian military and Indian navy in the future.

2. CENTRAL BOARD OF SECONDARY EDUCATION (CBSE)

CBSE is an apex board of education in India which is a national board and grants affiliation to schools upto higher secondary level. It was formed in 1952 by NCERT (National Council of Education Research And Training) especially for government employees who gets transferred frequently. But soon many private organizations also opted for this syllabus. Its main target is to operate group of central schools (Kendriya Vidyalaya’s) and finally amalgamated as CBSE by the Government of India.

SYLLABUS:

CBSE follows unique syllabus throughout the nation and many government examinations are conducted based on CBSE (national level exams). Curriculum is standard and helps students in the entrance examinations at later stages. Candidates from private institutions which are not affiliated to CBSE are also eligible for these entrance exams. Unlike state syllabus, CBSE focuses more on math and science as compared to languages. Syllabus is mainly for the students who wants to join engineering and medical services.

TYPES OF EXAMS:

CBSE conducts various exams at national level and it is also credited as the largest exam conducting body in the world.

It conducts board examinations for Class 10 and Class 12

All India Secondary School Examination for Class 10.

All India Senior School Certificate Examination for Class 12.

IIT-JEE Advanced and JEE mains.

All India Engineering Entrance Examination (AIEEE). However AIEEE is merged with IIT in 2013 and CBSE conducts two Exams ie JEE Mains and JEE Advanced.

All India Pre Medical Test (AIPMT) now replaced by National Eligibility and Entrance Test - UG (NEET-UG) - which is an entrance examination for medical colleges in India.

National Eligibility Test (eligibility for assistant professor).

Central Teacher’s Eligibility Test.

GRADING SYSTEM:

CBSE follows nine (9) point grading system on five (5) point scale (A-E), with 9 as the best. The qualifying mark in each subject is 33%.

Official website: http://cbse.nic.in/

WHAT IS NCERT (National Council For Education Research and Training)?

A lot of people get confused between CBSE and NCERT. It is assumed that NCERT is also a board like other boards, but the fact is that it is not a board. It is an organization which publishes books and materials for CBSE and ICSE boards. Students who enrolled in CBSE and ICSE boards will mostly follow the textbooks, study material published by NCERT.

3. COUNCIL FOR THE INDIAN SCHOOL CERTIFICATE EXAMINATION (CISCE)

It is the autonomous, private and non government body which conducts exams for Class 10, Class 12 and vocational courses. In 1952, the All India Certificate Examinations Conference was held under the chairmanship of Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad. The main aim was to replace the Cambridge School Certification by an All India Examination, thus a foundation was laid for the establishment of CISCE.

Official website: http://www.cisce.org/

It conducts 3 examinations for students who are affiliated to its board mainly:

The Indian Certificate for Secondary Education (ICSE) (Class X)

The Indian School Certificate Examination (ISCE) (Class XII)

The Certificate Of Vocational Education Examination (CVE) (Year 12)

INDIAN CERTIFICATE FOR SECONDARY EDUCATION (ICSE)

ICSE is an exam conducted by CISCE, a private non government board of education in India. Exam is conducted for Class X students and private students cannot appear for the examination. The medium of instruction is English except the language subject.

SYLLABUS:

The following are the subjects for Class X examinations:

Group I: Compulsory subjects

English

Second Language

History, Civics, Geography

Group II: (Any two of the following subjects)

Mathematics

Science (Physics, Chemistry, Biology)

Economics

Commercial Studies

A Modern Foreign Language

A Classical Language

Environmental Science

Group III (Any one of the following subjects)

Computer Applications, Economic Applications, Commercial Applications, Art, Performing Arts, Home Science, Cookery, Fashion Designing, Physical Education, Yoga, Technical Drawing Applications, Environmental Applications and A Modern Foreign Language

In addition to these, there are internal assessments, class work assignments, project work, practical work, etc. Internal assessments has 20% weightage in Group I and Group II and 50% weightage in Group III.

Officail website: http://www.cisce.org/

INDIAN SCHOOL CERTIFICATE EXAMINATION (ISCE)

ISC is the board exam conducted for Class 12 students after 2 year course which is after their secondary education (or its equivalent). Private students are not permitted to take the exam. It is treated as the equivalent examination to senior exam of the University of Scotland. Students will no longer be required to obtain “A” level certificate for seeking admissions into the Universities of UK, and other overseas universities in commonwealth. This is the only qualification which is granted special recognition.

Syllabus

You can view the official syllabus by visiting the following link:

http://www.cisce.org/divisions.aspx

GRADING:

Grading and allocation of marks are similar to ICSE system but the only difference is the exams are conducted as 70:30 ratio, that means internal assessment is conducted for 30 marks weightage and external examination for 70 marks. The pass mark for each subject is 40%

Official website: http://www.cisce.org/

CERTIFICATE OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION EXAMINATION (CVE)

It is conducted for Class 12 students in accordance with the recommendation with the Human Resource Development through the Joint Council of Vocational Education (JCVE) who wants to take up professional courses.

There are several departments from which student can choose the subject in which he wants to pursue his career, such as the following

Pre School management, Offset Printing Technician, Graphic Designing Technician, Telecommunication and Electronic Technician, Mechanical Engineering Technician, Exterior and Interior Design, Hospitality Management, Computer Theory and System Analyst, Civil Engineering Technician, Physical Education, Business Studies, Air Conditioning And Refrigeration Technician, Office Assistant.

Research Development And Consultancy Division (RDCD).

Some of the activities undertaken by RDCD include curriculum development, ISC and CVE syllabi, development of material for teachers and students, updating council website, preparation of the documents regarding performance of the pupil in ICSE and ISC levels. etc

4. INTERNATIONAL BACCALAUREATE (IB)

IB programme was founded in 1968 by the International Baccalaureate Organization, a non-profit educational organization based in Geneva, Switzerland. IBO is not associated with any particular country . This programme is more practical and application based. It tests students knowledge rather than testing memory and speed. IB mostly focuses on ‘how to learn’ rather than ‘what to learn’. It is more challenging compared to CBSE & ICSE.

There are three main programs in IB which include:

Primary Year Programme (PYP)

Middle Year Programme (MYP)

Diploma Programme (DP)

Primary Year Programme (PYP):

Followed for classes (Kindergarten to Class 5)

There are no exams till MYP

Normal curriculum is followed (maths, science, social, physical education, languages)

Middle Year Programme (MYP):

Followed for Class 6 to Class 10

Exams are conducted as per the syllabus

In addition to the PYP syllabus, Humanities (History and geography), Technology (Computers) and one more language (second language) is included.

Diploma Programme (DP):

DP is followed for Class 11 to Class 12.

Students have to choose 1 subject from each of the following six ‘Subject Groups’:

Group 1: First Language (English)

Group 2: Second Language (French, German, Hindi, etc)

Group 3: Individuals and Societies ((History, Economics, Business and Management, etc)

Group 4: Sciences (Biology, Chemistry, Physics and Environmental Systems)

Group 5: Mathematics and Computer Science

Group 6: Electives (either Visual Arts or one subject from Group 3,4 or 5)

In addition to these, students must also go through a two-year program which includes -

Theory of Knowledge (TOK):

An essay of 1600 words is written on a given topic chosen from a group of 10 topics, followed by a ten-min presentation.

Extended Essay (EE):

It involves original independent research by the DP student to produce an essay of 4000 words.

Creativity, Action and Service (CAS):

Student should complete at least 150 hours of work in one-and-a-half years by participating in sports or other physical action, creativity and social service.

Generally, higher subjects are more rigorous than Standard level.

Official website: http://www.ibo.org/

5. INTERNATIONAL GENERAL CERTIFICATE FOR SECONDARY EDUCATION (IGCSE)

It is an internationally accepted syllabus and the exams are conducted by Cambridge International Examinations (CIE). The Cambridge IGCSE curriculum offers a variety of routes for learners with a wide range of abilities, including those whose first language is not English. There are over 70 subjects, including 30 languages and schools can offer them in any combination. Cambridge IGCSE is the world’s most popular international qualification for 14 to 16 year olds

The Cambridge Programme is divided into the following four stages:

1. Cambridge Primary (for 5 to 11 years)

At this stage, students develop skills and understanding in English, maths and science.

2. Cambridge Secondary 1 (for 11-14 years)

At the second stage, students develop further their skills and understanding in English, maths and science

3. Cambridge Secondary 2 (for 14-16 years)

Here, the students follow Cambridge O Level or Cambridge IGCSE courses, leading to globally recognised qualifications. They build a broad learning programme from a wide range of subjects.

4. Cambridge Advanced (16-19 years)

At this stage, students develop deep understanding and thinking skills. These include Cambridge International AS & A Level qualifications providing the students with a choice to specialise from a range of 50 diverse subjects.

IGCSE CORE:

The core curriculum is within the ability range of larger majority of students. It provides a full overview of the subject and is targeted at students expected to achieve grades C to G.

IGCSE EXTENDED:

The extended curriculum has been designed for more academically able students. It is targeted at those expected to achieve grades A* to E.

Exams are conducted twice a year in June and November and the results are announced in August and January respectively.

GRADING SYSTEM

Graded on 8 point scale from A* to G; A^ is another grade for those who sustained performance in higher level maths skills such as reasoning and problem solving.

The overlap of three grades (C, D and E) is designed to accommodate students who perform either better or worse than their teachers expect. “U” is another grade called as “UNGRADED” equivalent to “FAIL”.

For more information:

http://www.cie.org.uk/programmes-and-qualifications/cambridge-secondary-2/cambridge-igcse/

6. NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF OPEN SCHOOLING BOARD (NOS/NIOS)

It is similar to CBSE and ICSE and believed to be the largest open school in the world, which provides vocational education and training (VET). It is a initiative from Government Of India and operated in 26 countries. People who benefit from NIOS are sports person, people who have learning disabilities, who are in psychiatric conditions and physically handicapped condition.

NIOS is established by Human Rights Department of Indian Government in November 1989 which is established as an autonomous body.

EXAM PATTERN:

Exams are conducted twice a year in April-May and October-November.

Every student is given nine chances and 5 years to complete their subjects and each student has flexibility to chose their own subjects. If they fail to complete their subjects in nine chances, they were given one more chance to complete.

Pass percentage in exam is 33%.

Student can take exam at any time they want and no pressure is put on them.

Students are permitted to write exams as often as they want if they wants to improve their performance. This is called on-demand examination system which is currently only available at NIOS headquarters in NOIDA.

SYLLABUS:

Student should study minimum 5 and maximum 7 subjects. They are also allowed to change the subjects in midway if they are not interested in them.

Visit NIOS website for more information:

http://www.nos.org/

#icse #cbse #ib #igcse #cambridge igcse #education boards #learnmor

0 notes