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#The main source for this claim on wikipedia is from '99

asfaltics · 4 years

Text

un going aside

—Sound, instead of take an un going through the Narrows, the most usual and 1 If it be otherwise, I, an unlearned, an un going to 2 and an un going on, at the bottom of which 3 imagine an un going into 4 an un going at eventide to their narrow 5 sonnets he claimed; and there is an un going aside, says : doubted difficulty in understanding how a 6 book issued under such auspices would meet with an un going, singing 7 without going at an un going to the Convention 8 Secret drillings are the office, is it because I had an un going on there 9 and proved an un going by 10 and a steamer coming down the river, and An ungoing boat on the Ohio [ ] may attempting to cheer across [ ] the signal which side of the down boat she will tug 11 conscious of an un going to 12 Boole miles, [ ] almost an ungoing 20 or 25 miles to the port. If the line 13 if you are history I think we have to depart from an un going to assume 14 A trapper may suffer from an un going 15 style of play, for he is an un going along blithely figuring 16 an ungoing of the ships, but mostly intent 17 And then ensued an ungoing — ’m, if you’ve decided to jump emptory Again she thrilled him. Yet socially silent hour or 18 sanction, is not only an un going authorities are sound and should 19 an un going to the bow 20 no doors and windows. An ungoing in . It was 21 and closed the door behind her An un going to be 22 In this case, I hoped to mainexplain anything that did not pertain this reputation of getting results, fectly clear to me [ ] was an un going 23 be an un going 24 and a mystic intuition of an ungoing splurge be a poor substitute for the detailed work 25 in this city that was reported as an un going to make up 26 un going paragraphs 27 versial therapy and there is an ungoing 28

sources (nearly all cross-column misconstruals)

1 ex Willard Phillips. A Treatise on the Law of Insurance (1823) : 195 (Chapter 12, “Deviation and Change of the Risk”) unconnected errata (at p538, same volume) — Page 392, line 21 from botton, after ‘does’; read ‘not.’ 2 ex The History of Clarissa Harlowe, Letter 53 (To Miss Howe, containing a draft (from which this passage) to Mr James Harlowe), in The Novels of Samuel Richardson... in three volumes. (Ballantyne’s Novelist’s Library; London, 1824) : 634 3 ex “Reminiscences of a Tempest-tost Life” in Putnam’s Magazine 6 (October 1855) : 416-424 (419) 4 ex “Ground Game and Game Laws,” in The Farmer’s Magazine (London; December 1869) : 522-524 (523) 5 ex “On Gardening,” by “An Optimist,” The Living Age 115 (November 2, 1872) : 303-313 (310) (from The Cornhill Magazine (October 1872) : 424) 6 ex J. V. P., “Who wrote ‘Shakspere’?” in Fraser’s Magazine (August 1874) : 164-178 (167) 7 ex (via chaotic cross-column misreads), W. J. Patten (Bangor, Maine; June 10th, 1878). “A National Church Music.” In [John Sullivan] Dwight’s Journal of Music 38:6 (Boston; June 22, 1878) : 251 8 three-column OCR chaos involving a description of the upcoming The Cleveland Convention, and a report of a quick passage of an English troop-ship through the Suez Canal (fourteen hours, between the hours mentioned above), ex Engineering News (June 7, 1879) : 177 9 ex Mister Harrington’s address to the House (May 28, 1883) on the matter of Prevention of Crime (Ireland) Act, 1882—Seizure of the “Kerry Sentinel,” involving Messrs Parnell, Trevelyan, and (Edward) Harrington owner of “The Kerry Sentinel,” in The Parliamentary Debates (Authorized Edition; Great Britain, 1883) : 969-70 on Edward Harrington (c1852-1902), consult wikipedia; DIB (Dictionary of Irish Biography); and, for (fascinating) context, wikipedia on the Land War 10 ex Charles E. Clay, “History of the State Island Athletic Club,” in Outing (An illustrated monthly magazine of recreation) 11:4 (January 1888) : 340-351 (343) followed by C. Bowyer Vaux. “Aerial Messengers” (on use of pigeons in yacht races) 11 ex index (bottom of page), in The Federal Cases / comprising cases argued and determined in the Circuit and District Courts of the United States. Book 21 . Runaways—Shore, Case No. 12,137—Case No. 12,805 (St. Paul; 1896) : 1351 OCR misread of “upgoing”, “cheer” for printed “sheer” (which is likely a typographic error for “steer”) + OCR cross-column misread 12 ex Julie M. Lippmann (1864-1952), “Mrs. Chisholm’s Companion,” in The Smart Set : A Magazine of Cleverness 8:1 (September 1902) : 135-139 (137) author at wikipedia 13 ex South Australia. Parliament. Debates in the House of Assembly (First session of the Eithteeenth Parliament of South Australia) Booleroo Centre Railway Bill. (October 19, 1905) : 438 14 from preview snippet only (nothing on landing page), The Parliamentary Debates (official Report).: House of Commons, Contains the 4th session of the 28th Parliament through the 1st session of the 48th Parliament. Great Britain. 15 ex Raymond S. Spears. “Opportunities for Trappers Incomes, No. 1,” in Hunter-trader-trapper 22:5 (August 1911) : 27-30 (28) 16 ex Ed. A. Goewey. “An Old Fan Says:” (illustrated by “Zim”), in Leslie’s Illustrated Weekly Newspaper 118 (April 30, 1914) : 418 which led (on following page 419) to Chief Red Eagle (1885-1972) his “Chased by a Moose, A Vacation Story.” on Chief Red Eagle (Henry Perley) consult wikipedia 17 from preview snippet only (nothing on landing page), The Sunday at Home (Religious Tract Society, 1914) 18 snippet (nothing on landing page), Collier’s 56 (1916) : 23 the whole — “Will I ?” she retorted with mocking awkward reluctance at last , “are you manner were both pleading and per- curtness . And then ensued an ungoing — ’m , if you've decided to jump emptory Again she thrilled him . Yet socially silent hour or ...” 19 ex “Memphis St. Ry. Co. v. Rapid Transit Co.,” Supreme Court of Tennessee. Oct. 23, 1915 (appeal, finding reversed); in The Southwestern Reporter 179 / November 3 — December 15, 1915. (St. Paul, 1916) : 639 20 ex (preview snippet only, but found in different scan linked here) “Discovering the Union Label,” by P. J. Doyle (from The Carpenter), in The Shoe Workers’ Journal 18:8 (August 1917) : 8 21 ex Gertrude Henderson (with illustrations by O. F. Howard), “Scheherazade of the Factory,” The Century 99:3 (January 1920): 427-31 (428) 22 ex preview snippet, nothing on landing page (and title suspect), Heart’s International (1920) note — this magazine seems to have been a predecessor to Cosmpolitan 1911: Hearst’s International: “World To-Day”, a middling monthly magazine, was acquired to attack politicians against whom Hearst waged war, namely Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, and William Jennings Bryan. He renamed it “Hearst’s magazine” in Apr.1912, shortened it to “Hearst’s” in Jun.1914, and finally entitled it as “Hearst’s International” in May.1922. from wikicorporates timelines for Hearst Communications. scans of several numbers (as well as books published by a related entity) available via archive.org 23 ex “The Battle of Booby’s Bluffs,” By Major Single List, in Infantry Journal 19:4 (October 1921) : 427-433 the whole — “In this case , I hoped to mainexplain anything that did not seem pertain this reputation of getting results , fectly clear to me . and I felt that I stood an excellent I promptly saw that my battalion was chance , because Colonel R was an ungoing to [have the hardest nut to crack]” 24 ex Charles F. Howell, “Marine Insurance / Cuban Conditions Bad,” in The Weekly Underwriter 104:11 (March 12, 1921) : 428 aside — first page of each number features a spectacular photograph of a disaster (e.g., grain elevator explosion; train wreck; fire), together with monitory details. 25 misprint in this edition (corrected in later), John Dewey, Human Nature and Conduct: An Introduction to Social Psychology (1922) : 74 26 ex discussion following John J. Moren (Louisville), “Diagnosis and Treatment of Encephalitis,” and cross-column misread involving G. A. Hendon (Louisville), “Cancer of the Large Intestine,” in Kentucky Medical Journal (March 1922) : 204 27 ex High Egg Production by Individual Hens, Pens and Flocks (Reliable Poultry Journal, 1922) : 91 specifically, ex Part II, Chapter III, “A high-producing strain of barred rocks and how it was bred / Methods of breeding that have enabled J. W. Parks of Altoona, Pa., to develop a remarkably productive strain and to win financial independence — interesting examples of pen and flock production — Methods of line breeding and “Tracing Back” by pedigrees.” By Grant M. Curtiss, Editor of Reliable Poultry Journal 28 ex confused snippet preview (nothing at landing), Acta Chirurgica Scandinavica: Supplementum (most definltely not 1922, though so dated) in full : “of these facversial therapy and there is an ungoing debate tors .”

—

all tagged ungoings

#tercet #un #ungoings #The Land War #does not #Chief Red Eagle #per-curtness

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solsarin · 3 years

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what approximate percentage of the earth’s freshwater is groundwater

Hello dear friends, thank you for choosing us. In this post on the solsarin site, we will talk about ” what approximate percentage of the earth’s freshwater is groundwater “. Stay with us. Thank you for your choice.

Earth’s Freshwater

Most people have heard Earth referred to as “the water planet.” With that name comes the rightful image of a world with plentiful water.

In photographs taken from space, we can see that our planet has more water than land. However, of all the water on Earth,

more than 99 percent of Earth’s water is unusable by humans and many other living things – only about 0.3 percent of our fresh water is found in the surface water of lakes, rivers and swamps.

The teacher guide describes our current understanding of water cycling and freshwater issues that affect natural and human communities.

Freshwater Resources

This entry describes the unequal distribution of freshwater resources on Earth and how it impacts populations’ access to water, their economic development, and global geopolitics.

Access to Water

Because freshwater resources are unequally distributed across the globe, many human populations do not have access to clean, safe drinking water.

According to the United Nations, 2.1 billion people around the globe lacked access to safely managed drinking water in 2017.

Instead, they had access only to contaminated water, which can carry pollution and infectious diseases; populations drinking dirty water are at increased risk of diarrhea, cholera, dysentery, and other diseases.

Lack of access to clean drinking water leads to more than 3 million deaths every year.

As a result…

As a result, providing improved water sources to developing countries is an important goal for international organizations.

Between 1990 and 2015, 2.6 billion people worldwide gained access to improved water resources as a result of international efforts.

The remaining human populations still without access to clean water are concentrated mostly in Africa and Asia, representing nearly 1 billion people.

Economic Development

Access to fresh water is also important for economic development. For example, freshwater sources enable the development of fisheries.

People around the world harvest fish from these habitats, providing enough animal protein to feed 158 million people worldwide.

These fisheries are both a source of subsistence for local fishermen and a source of income for traders.

fresh water as a habitat

Beyond the use of fresh water as a habitat, fresh water is also an important resource in other economic activities, such as agriculture.

According to one estimate, about 70 percent of the world’s fresh water is used for agriculture.

Farmers around the world use irrigation to transport water from surface and ground water sources to their fields.

These agricultural activities involve over 1 billion people worldwide and generate over $2.4 trillion in economic value every year.

In the future, demand for agricultural fresh water will only increase as global populations grow.

freshwater demand

According to one estimate, freshwater demand will increase by 50 percent by 2050.

This increase in water use will put further strain on Earth’s limited freshwater supplies and make access to fresh water even more important.

Geopolitics

The fight over fresh water can already be seen today in international geopolitics.

For example, Ethiopia and Egypt have long fought over Nile water resources in the Horn of Africa. The Nile River is an important waterway that supplies nearly 85 percent of Egypt’s water.

However, approximately 85 percent of the Nile’s water originates in Ethiopia.

Ethiopia

Because Ethiopia is planning to dam part of the Nile river in order to generate electricity, Egypt is concerned that their access to the Nile’s waters will be adversely impacted.

Although the disagreement has not yet turned into open conflict, it is clear that securing this important freshwater resource will define Ethiopian-Egyptian relations for many years in the future.

These conflicts

These conflicts over water resources are common throughout the world. Even in the United States, where freshwater resources are relatively abundant, different populations fight over the use of fresh water.

One major debate that is currently being waged centers on the Colorado River system.

This water system

This water system supplies water to Arizona, California, Nevada, Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming, but due to a drought that has reduced water flow in this river system, these seven states need to decide how to reduce water usage in order to preserve the river for all the other users.

As populations grow

As populations grow, and as climate change alters precipitation patterns around the world, these conflicts over water will continue to occur, and with greater frequency, in the future.

Will There Be Enough Fresh Water?

Clean fresh water is a limited and valuable resource. In this module, students consider the question:

will there be enough fresh water?

Students explore the distribution and uses of fresh water on Earth. They explore models of porosity and permeability, run experiments with computational models, and hear from a hydrologist working on the same question.

Activity 1: Constructing an Argument: Water

Students will learn how to create a good scientific argument in the context of freshwater availability.

They will learn to develop scientific arguments through a series of questions that ask them to make a claim, explain their answer, rate their certainty with their answer, and explain that rating.

Activity 2: Availability of Fresh Water

Students explore how water moves above and below Earth’s surface by using interactive computational models.

Activity 3: Using Fresh Water

Activity 4: Groundwater Movement

Students explore how porosity and permeability of different sediments affect the way water flows through Earth’s layers.

Students use interactive computational models to explore the underground flow and deposition of water and determine the best places to access the water in a sustainable manner.

Activity 5: Groundwater and Surface Water

Students use interactive computational models to explore the underground flow of water and how it affects surface bodies of water.

They predict how the water table will be affected by the placement of wells around a gaining stream.

Finally, they explore the reasons the river dried up in a case study of the Santa Cruz River in Arizona.

Activity 6: Using Groundwater Wisely

Students use interactive computational models to explore the relationship between infiltration and recharge in natural and urbanized areas.

They investigate how human development has changed the natural flow of water.

Students explore the transfer of water from one aquifer to another and propose solutions to allow for water extracted from wells to recharge the aquifers from which they came.

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Informal Assessment

The Fresh Water Availability module includes pre and post-assessments. Use these to assess your students’ understanding of fresh water movement. In addition, you can use the real-time Class Dashboard to track students’ progress through the module and give students feedback on their responses.

Location (aquifers)Main article: Aquifer

An aquifer is a layer of porous substrate that contains and transmits groundwater.

When water can flow directly between the surface and the saturated zone of an aquifer, the aquifer is unconfined.

The deeper parts of unconfined aquifers are usually more saturated since gravity causes water to flow downward.

resource: wikipedia

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riichardwilson · 4 years

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Google now uses BERT to match stories with fact checks

Google announced and summarized a lot of the changes and updates the company made to Google Search over the past year. This announcement covers changes to Google Search, Google News, autocomplete, fact checking, through BERT and language processing.

At a high level, Google is aiming to provide search results that are not just as relevant as possible, but also as reliable as possible. And in some cases, like in the YMYL, your money your life sector, reliability is of a higher concern to Google, especially with the U.S. presidential election around the corner and health being of top concern during the pandemic.

What has changed? Pandu Nayak, Google Fellow and Vice President of Google Search, said today’s announcement was more about the ongoing changes Google has made over the years rather than a new product or feature launching. Here are recent tweaks and changes the company highlighted from the past year:

Auto-complete policy change around elections, specifically being more conservative and showing less vs more in this area.

Google BERT being used in full coverage news stories to better match fact checks with stories.

Fact check labels has been shown over 4 billion times in 2020.

Google works closer with Wikipedia to detect and remove vandalism that Google may use in knowledge panels.

Google is now able to detect breaking news queries in a few minutes versus 40+ minutes.

BERT and full coverage. Google is now leveraging BERT, one of its language AI models, to better understand if stories in the Google News full coverage area are reliable in terms of the facts on the web. So Google in a sense can see the connections between the articles and fact check database to better match fact checks with stories. In a sense help with understanding if the fact check is related to the main topic of stories.

Pandu wrote, “we also just launched an update using our BERT language understanding models to improve the matching between news stories and available fact checks. These systems can better understand whether a fact check claim is related to the central topic of a story, and surface those fact checks more prominently in Full Coverage — a News feature that provides a complete picture of how a story is reported from a variety of sources. With just a tap, Full Coverage lets you see top headlines from different sources, videos, local news reports, FAQs, social commentary, and a timeline for stories that have played out over time.”

Breaking news. Google said it can now detect breaking news queries within a few minutes of the news breaking. While in the past, it could take Google over 40 minutes. These types of breaking news queries in the past would sometimes surface inaccurate information. So now Google can detect breaking news queries much faster and thus turn up the lever on what types of sites it wants to show for those queries early on – in this case, more authoritative results that match on the E-A-T.

You should expect more accurate and reliable information from Google around breaking news topics.

Auto-complete policy changes. David Graff, Senior Director, Trust & Safety at Google, said around the elections specifically but also around some other areas, Google is going to take a more conservative approach with what suggestions it shows in auto-complete. Google rather not show a suggestion in auto-complete than show an inaccurate suggestion. So around elections and some other areas, Google may show less suggestions than more.

Pandu explained that Google has “expanded Autocomplete policies related to elections, and we will remove predictions that could be interpreted as claims for or against any candidate or political party.” “We will also remove predictions that could be interpreted as a claim about participation in the election—like statements about voting methods, requirements, or the status of voting locations—or the integrity or legitimacy of electoral processes, such as the security of the election,” he explained. One example given by David Graff was that a query like [you can vote by mail by texas], if that is true or not, might not be shown. One important note is that “whether or not a prediction appears, you can still search for whatever you’d like and find results,” David explained.

Fact check label shown 4 billion times. Google said that so far in 2020, the fact check label has been shown over 4 billion times in search. Google said this is already more than how many times Google showed this fact-check label in all of 2019. Google has expanded the fact check label across news, search, images and other areas over the past few years.

Knowledge graph and Wikipedia. Google has been investing a lot along side Wikipedia to detect and reduce vandalism within Wikipedia. Since Google sources Wikipedia very often for its knowledge panels and featured snippets, Google has an incentive to ensure those Wikipedia entries are reliable and accurate. Most issues are corrected within Wikipedia within minutes, Google said.

“To complement Wikipedia’s systems, we’ve added additional protections and detection systems to prevent potentially inaccurate information from appearing in knowledge panels. On rare occasions, instances of vandalism on Wikipedia can slip through. Only a small proportion of edits from Wikipedia are potential vandalism, and we’ve improved our systems to now detect 99 percent of those cases. If these issues do appear, we have policies that allow us to take action quickly to address them. To further support the Wikipedia community, we created the WikiLoop program last year that hosts several editor tools focused on content quality. This includes WikiLoop DoubleCheck, one of a number tools Wikipedia editors and users can use to track changes on a page and flag potential issues. We contribute data from our own detection systems, which members of the community can use to uncover new insights,” Google wrote.

Search quality raters and guidelines. Google explained that a lot of the benchmarks and criteria is listed in its Search Quality Raters Guidelines. Google clearly documents in there their goals for the search results, which types of queries require a higher level of authoritative and reliable sources, and which do not. In fact, Pandu explained that Google trains its query classifiers to understand if a query pertains to the YMYL category (we know this). So when new issues arise, Google’s systems are ready to handle those queries he said.

To understand what is reliable, particularly in areas of health and elections. Google had to define what reliable and high quality directly their search quality raters guidelines. Google uses the feedback from the quality raters guidelines and feeds this into machine learning models to send this feedback back to their engineers to improve search overall. Again, Google does not use these raters directly in search and these rating to not directly influence the search rankings of individual queries or sites.

Google has more than 10,000 raters around the world, including one in every single state in order to get a representative view of all searchers. These raters rate the search results based on those quality raters guidelines. Raters look at side by side experiments, Google did over 60,000 side-by-side experiments and almost 400,000 search quality tests, with over 1M over the past four years – that is about 1,000 tests per day.

Why we care. Google is constantly tweaking Google Search to improve search quality, relevancy, reliability and accuracy. That means that you need to constantly improve your web site to ensure you have the highest quality, more relevant, more reliable and accurate content and user experience.

Nothing specific is changing today with Google Search, but think about these changes in the long term and keep improving your web site.

About The Author

Barry Schwartz a Contributing Editor to Search Engine Land and a member of the programming team for SMX events. He owns RustyBrick, a NY based web consulting firm. He also runs Search Engine Roundtable, a popular search blog on very advanced SEM topics. Barry’s personal blog is named Cartoon Barry and he can be followed on Twitter here.

Website Design & SEO Delray Beach by DBL07.co

Delray Beach SEO

source http://www.scpie.org/google-now-uses-bert-to-match-stories-with-fact-checks/ source https://scpie.tumblr.com/post/628960043439718400

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scpie · 4 years

Text

Google now uses BERT to match stories with fact checks

Auto-complete policy change around elections, specifically being more conservative and showing less vs more in this area.

Google BERT being used in full coverage news stories to better match fact checks with stories.

Fact check labels has been shown over 4 billion times in 2020.

Google works closer with Wikipedia to detect and remove vandalism that Google may use in knowledge panels.

Google is now able to detect breaking news queries in a few minutes versus 40+ minutes.

You should expect more accurate and reliable information from Google around breaking news topics.

Nothing specific is changing today with Google Search, but think about these changes in the long term and keep improving your web site.

About The Author

Website Design & SEO Delray Beach by DBL07.co

Delray Beach SEO

source http://www.scpie.org/google-now-uses-bert-to-match-stories-with-fact-checks/

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laurelkrugerr · 4 years

Text

Google now uses BERT to match stories with fact checks

Auto-complete policy change around elections, specifically being more conservative and showing less vs more in this area.

Google BERT being used in full coverage news stories to better match fact checks with stories.

Fact check labels has been shown over 4 billion times in 2020.

Google works closer with Wikipedia to detect and remove vandalism that Google may use in knowledge panels.

Google is now able to detect breaking news queries in a few minutes versus 40+ minutes.

You should expect more accurate and reliable information from Google around breaking news topics.

Nothing specific is changing today with Google Search, but think about these changes in the long term and keep improving your web site.

About The Author

Website Design & SEO Delray Beach by DBL07.co

Delray Beach SEO

source http://www.scpie.org/google-now-uses-bert-to-match-stories-with-fact-checks/ source https://scpie1.blogspot.com/2020/09/google-now-uses-bert-to-match-stories.html

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micaramel · 4 years

Link

Artist: Sung Tieu

Venue: Nottingham Contemporary

Exhibition Title: In Cold Print

Date: February 8 – May 3, 2020

Note: A sound work by Sung Tieu is available here.

Click here to view slideshow

Full gallery of images, press release and link available after the jump.

Images:

Images courtesy of Nottingham Contemporary, Nottingham

Press Release:

The media theorist Friedrich Kittler once claimed, in an essay about Pink Floyd’s song “Brain Damage” (1973), that “the history of the ear is always a history of madness.”(1) For the past couple of years, the relationship between memory, belief and hearing has been one of Sung Tieu’s main concerns. The Vietnam-born and London/Berlin-based artist researches the use of sound in the context of warfare, developing sound installations interwoven with architectural interventions, sculptural components, writing and video. In one recent project, she focused on “Ghost Tape 10”, a sound-weapon deployed by the US Army’s psychological operations unit (or PSYOP)(2) during the Vietnam War.(3)

Tieu’s exhibition at Nottingham Contemporary, her first institutional solo show in the UK, further expands on the intersection between sound weaponry, brain damage, international relations and information circulation. Titled In Cold Print, this new commission focuses on the so-called Havana Syndrome.(4)

In late 2016, a number of US embassy staff based in Cuba (5) started to complain about persistent headaches, tinnitus and dizziness. Unable to identify the cause, a rumour – supported by Donald Trump – of a sound weapon devised by the Cuban government quickly spread. Although no proof of such weapons could be found, and doubts began to surface, most of the US embassy staff were repatriated. Two years later, in July 2019, researchers at the University of Pennsylvania published the results of their tests on subjects who had experienced this “high-pitched cricket sound”.(6) Neuroscientists defined the after effects as “concussions without concussions”. The cause is still being debated.

At Nottingham Contemporary, the gallery is treated as a surveilled space – in between an underground carpark and a buffer zone. It also acts as an auditorium, a complex theatre of operations connected to a new sound work developed with the support of scientists from Nottingham Trent University and composer Ville Haimala (one half of the Berlin-based music duo Amnesia Scanner).(7) Interspersed within a structure of fences and cruciform pillars are stainless-steel seats and engraved mirrors.(8) These disparate components manifest the underlying violence of the purportedly neutral designs disseminated by the state apparatus (prison, asylum, military).

On another level, the information communicated through the advertising billboards (9) triggers shifts in the perception of the space and what can be heard within it, thus highlighting the correlation between the perception of sound and its translation into information through vision, memory and language.

A publication, devised in collaboration with Haus der Kunst, Munich (where Tieu presents Capsule 11: Zugzwang until 21 June 2020), and Mousse Publishing, will be available from Nottingham Contemporary in late April 2020.

(1) Friedrich A. Kittler, “The God of Ears”, translated by Paul Feigelfeld and Anthony Moore in Kittler Now: Current Perspective in Kittler Studies, edited by Stephen Sale and Laura Salisbury, Polity Press, 2015 (p. 99)

(2) “Psychological operations (PSYOP) are operations to convey selected information and indicators to audiences to influence their emotions, motives, and objective reasoning, and ultimately the behaviour of governments, organizations, groups, and individuals.” (Wikipedia)

(3) Playing on the traditional Vietnamese belief that a soul can only find peace if buried in its homeland, ghostly voices were played from loudspeakers mounted on helicopters and backpacks. Voices urged soldiers to surrender and find their relatives, or else risk forever being wandering souls. The name given to the larger propaganda campaign was “Operation Wandering Soul”.

(4) Adam Entous and Jon Lee Anderson, “The Mystery of the Havana Syndrome”, The New Yorker, 9 November 2018.

(5) The diplomatic relationship between the two countries resumed in 2015 under the initiative of the Obama administration and Raúl Castro, putting an end to more than 50 years of diplomatic crisis which peaked during the Cold War.

(6) Ragini Verma and Randel L. Swanson, “Neuroimaging Findings in US Government Personnel with Possible Exposure to Directional Phenomena in Havana, Cuba”, The Journal of the American Medical Association, 23 July 2019.

(7) In Cold Print, 2020, five-channel sound, 31:24 minutes. Emitted via a range of high-end portable speakers and subwoofers whose presence is hidden from plain sight, this sound piece comprises various elements: a reconstruction of the Caribbean cricket sound, which has been likened to the alleged sound weapon; recordings of Nottingham Contemporary’s water-pump system; and apparent fragments of dystopian advertising jingles. Another key element of this sound piece are brain waves turned into sound. Subjecting herself to a battery of tests, the artist had her brain scanned while listening to the reconstruction of the sound weapon. The recorded electric activity was then translated into music from the help of neuroscientists. The bags and clothes presented, which hold the speakers, have been made based on military uniforms and accessories with patterned fabric sourced in Vietnam.

(8) Exposure to Havana Syndrome, 2020, brain scan on stainless steel mirror. These brain scans refer to those published in The Journal of the American Medical Association in July 2019, where a research unit based at the University of Pennsylvania led tests on the Havana Syndrome victims. Outlines of these scans (which resemble camouflage pattern and geological maps) are engraved onto a number of stainless-steel mirrors (the type commonly installed in prison cells). The scans are of the artist’s brain, produced as she exposed herself to a reconstitution of the sound weapon during an MRI exam. The results were later analysed in collaboration with scientists from Nottingham Trent University, to emphasise details that would manifest the reactions to the exposure to the sonic weapon.

(9) Newspaper 1969 – ongoing, 2020, five images on 75-inch LED screens. A continuation of the Newspaper 1969 – ongoing series that Tieu has been developing for some years, they present an anchor point for this project, providing both the substance of the research material and its fictional set-up. Usually printed onto newsprint, here they are displayed on the kind of LED screens typically used for advertising billboards.

Link: Sung Tieu at Nottingham Contemporary

from Contemporary Art Daily https://bit.ly/350TWOJ

#micaramel

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thelmasirby32 · 4 years

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The role of SEO in online reputation management (ORM)

Before anybody does business with you, they’d have Googled your name. The links and information that appear on the first few pages of Google when your name is searched for are what potential partners perceive you are. That’s why online reputation management is key.

According to Eric Schmidt, “Identity will be the most valuable commodity for citizens of the future and it will exist primarily online.”

Curating a positive online reputation is no longer optional. Successful online reputation management (ORM) and search engine optimization (SEO) companies help their clients achieve results through proactively coordinating content, websites, and search engine results pages (SERPs).

In this article, I will share how the right SEO-driven content strategy will boost your digital reputation.

Why online reputation is important to your business’ existence

1. Consumers trust user-generated content more

Research by TurnTo revealed that 99% of consumers would consider user-generated content before making a purchase decision. At Blue Ocean Global Tech, we consistently receive emails from executives, entrepreneurs, and lawyers who have realized too late how one comment or negative link adversely impacts their revenue and bottom line.

2. Your online reputation affects your business offline too

Yes, this is important. Prospective patrons research a restaurant before walking into the physical venue to experience the real thing. According to BrightLocal consumer survey research, 82% of consumers read online reviews for a local business before booking an appointment.

3. Talents will only work with a business that has a great reputation

Businesses may view their online reputation from a customer-acquisition standpoint. However, digital presence affects almost everything, including the perception of potential employees.

How to augment your online reputation by building on SEO efforts

1. Optimize content for a successful ORM campaign

People are influenced by what they read about you. This is where it is necessary to ensure positive content ranks higher for your names or brand keywords.

What is the difference between SEO and ORM, then? Since highlighting your positive content alone does not guarantee that your potential customers or partners will see the most representative information, you need effective SEO to rank and feature the strengths of your brand. Consistently publishing content without implementing effective SEO tactics is a common practice, which we refer to as “spray and pray”.

Keep in mind that the most successful reputation management campaigns rank specific articles, videos, blogs, and websites that highlight your expertise.

An effective SEO strategy will accomplish the following areas:

Optimize pages of your website to appear atop of SERPs and rank for target keyword phrases.

Feature your genuine social profiles representing your company or brand name.

Optimize company-hosted and third-party review website pages to populate when an interested person Googles “your brand name + reviews.”

Influence search engines to highlight positive content and simultaneously push negative or irrelevant content down beyond the third or fourth page.

2. How to optimize content for better discovery on the internet

2a. Types of content to optimize for optimal results

What type of content is best optimized for optimal results? Authentic and concise writing attracts back-links from credible websites. Naturally, optimizing these digital assets insulates you from defamatory content and suppresses negative or erroneous links. Below are several examples of concentrated SEO content.

A guide or tutorial article: Guides are content that takes the reader through the process of understanding a subject. Guides may be harder to create but will rank higher for keyphrases over time. They earn backlinks easily.

Video review of your product/company/industry: According to a study by Forrester Research, video is 50 times more likely to achieve organic page rank in Google than plain text. With video content, you can easily rank positive content for targeted phrases. Additionally, the best offense is a strong defense. Authentic video digital assets inoculate your brand against future malicious or defamatory posts, whether anonymous or not.

Whitepapers: Releasing an original-content white paper is a widely accepted strategy for positively impacting search results. Similar to an actionable guide, the white paper can offer in-depth forecasts and developed arguments, which will further establish you as a reputable authority.

Website bearing your name with a press page: If you do not already have a website bearing your name, now is the time you should create one. Nourish this cornerstone digital asset with SEO-rich content about yourself and your brand. Begin with the end in mind so that you eventually rank on multiple keywords organically. Even if someone wants to do business with Blue Ocean Global Technology, whether through a referral, email outreach, or direct phone call from me, they often Google “Sameer Somal” because I am the CEO. Investing the time to create SameerSomal.com pays ongoing dividends in credibility and trust. Prospects and new friends often thank me for that website because they were able to read so much about me in one place.

An author page or brand page on an authority publication: Publications and sites such as Wikipedia, Forbes, Entrepreneur, and Inc.com often rank on page one for your name in search results. Individuals can have author bylines in Inc.com while companies can be listed on the Inc. 5000 list. Since these high-domain-authority websites allow you to have a biography of yourself on your author page, they are compelling options for concentrated SEO content.

2b. Scores to target for achieving higher content discovery

Connect your goals with the creation of authoritative SEO content to best support your online reputation management campaign. While originating SEO-rich content will rank favorably with Google, consider these benchmarks to drive measurable results:

Aim for depth: You want your content to be as in-depth as possible, giving your readers all the necessary summary information they would want on a single page. Supplement the main points with detailed content that includes technical details and action steps for implementation. Google’s algorithm will understand the depth and subsequently rank the comprehensive material higher for target keywords.

Link to credible sources: With in-depth content, you will notice that you’re making claims that would need to be backed by sources. More so, when you’re attempting to win readers over to your side, ensure your facts and data are referenced from credible sources.

Break your content into digestible formats: You do not want your content to be skimmed over and abandoned because it is difficult to read. Aside from the fact that in-depth SEO content would help you dominate search results, it’s an opportunity to have all of your positive sides ingrained in the minds of your readers, helping you to earn their trust once more.

3. Where brands should focus on when optimizing content for reputation enhancement

To ensure your content performs well, make sure you’re publishing them on high-authority websites. This goes for both visual and text-based content.

For the content hosted on your personal or company website, ensure that all of your website properties are optimized and maintained and update plug-ins monthly. SEO and reputation campaigns will yield relatively marginal results if users are driven back to a website that is not functional or responsive. Furthermore, foundational opportunities to rank on Google and reach people who want your help are missed when you don’t perform regular technical maintenance on your website.

After optimizing your website to perform highly in search results, you should also level up your reputation campaign and promote best-performing content. The next step is to identify positive pillar content sources.

3a. Identifying positive content – Best practices

You want to make sure you’re not only creating rich SEO-driven content but are actually putting your optimal effort into promoting the type of content that highlights your strengths. To identify positive content that may benefit your brand image, consider these milestones you may overlook:

Received congratulatory wishes when they were released – Such as completing a successful acquisition, receiving an award, reaching a new industry milestone, getting featured in an important publication, and so on.

Celebrated the fulfillment of a personal goal – Such as hitting a weight-loss goal, completing a book you’ve been working on, hiring that star employee you’ve always dreamed of working with, and others.

Documented a partnership goal – Has your brand always dreamed of working with another brand, and have you always talked openly about this? Such content could augment your brand’s reputational image by investing SEO efforts into it.

Documented the process it took to achieve a huge goal – Completing your major office headquarters or complex would fall into this category, as would the content that documents the process it took to develop your flagship product from scratch to finish.

4. How to use image search ranking to augment online reputation efforts

Images are often ignored in ORM efforts by marketers because it’s assumed that it is difficult to rank images. Images still provide many opportunities to claim your branded keywords, create authentic back-links, and build a strong reputation within search engines.

Consider this: Why is it that most of the time, when you run a query of a famous person’s name in Google, images of them usually rank at the top of the results? And images often dominate the Knowledge Graph area for popular names such as celebrities, brands, or popular destinations.

Below are some techniques for using images to dominate search results for your online reputation repair campaign.

4a. Optimize alt tags and keywords

Alt tags in images are strings of connected texts that help search engine crawlers to understand what an image is about. When adding images to your content, always include your branded keywords in the alt text area of the images. For the most effective results, keep the texts connected to each other by adding the underscore sign “_” after every string of text. So, say I was to add an image of myself in content, I’d add the following text to the alt text area: “Sameer_Somal_CEO_of_Blue_Ocean_Global_Tech”, instead of just including random text or just barely adding my name to it.

4b. Name the image after the branded keywords

If you’re uploading an image to your website as a part of your SEO content, you’ll be missing out on keyword ranking opportunity if you’re saving such images with random texts, or, in some scenarios, with numbers. Instead, use the branded keywords you want to rank for as the name of the images. This means you’d have to locate the image file destination on your local storage—that is, your computer or hard drive – and change the name of the image to the branded keyword you want it to rank for. Again, you can use the alt tags approach to optimize it by linking the texts together.

Conclusion

The ORM process helps aligns your sales, marketing, and technology efforts. SEO content is a key pillar for achieving the results you seek on the internet. By learning the top-performing SEO strategies to rank atop search results for your branded keywords, you’ll be able to maintain a clean image on the internet and create opportunities.

Sameer Somal is the Co-Founder and CEO of Blue Ocean Global Technology, a global leader in online reputation management. He is a recognized international keynote speaker and an internet defamation subject matter expert witness. Sameer can be reached on LinkedIn.

The post The role of SEO in online reputation management (ORM) appeared first on Search Engine Watch.

from Digital Marketing News https://www.searchenginewatch.com/2020/01/09/role-of-seo-in-online-reputation-management/

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azealousstudentcreation-blog · 7 years

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5 Best Bank Websites

It addresses the methods through which people or families acquire, price range, save, and spend monetary sources over time, bearing in mind numerous monetary risks and future life occasions. The life has evolved from minute microbes, bacteria, so on to life in water, amphibians, mammals. Hence, students have a bonus over the rate of curiosity. College students that seem to have probably the most credit woes? Another method to add cash to your card with no reload fees is to add money online from a bank, credit score union, or different financial establishment through an digital cash switch. And the same burnt car was found along with three folks lifeless with same mark on the pinnacle and money that have been burnt too. Offshore accounts can be as sound and safe as any dwelling primarily based account, with the same inherent risk profit scales. You should check the services they offer and the fees they cost for a similar. Most retail banks, with a number of exceptions, supply every day shift instances and allow most staff to enjoy free time on weekends, evenings, and holidays. The main page ought to offer simply sufficient info to get them interested after which they must fill in the opt-in type to get more.

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The only property which aren't thought of are retirement funds, like IRA's, SEP's, 401k, and many others. You probably have funds in these type of accounts, they won't be counted in opposition to you. Love your stuff at eHow, and it appears to be like like you are the go-to particular person for Hubpages, too! If you actually love writing and blogging, this could be cool for you. Chronic Fatigue Syndrome claims have been made clearer by the adoption of Social Security Ruling 99-2p. This Ruling lastly acknowledges that CFS is a medically determinable impairment and describes the varied findings that can establish the prognosis. This could present you with a serious challenge when you have a bad credit rating. One of many extra well-liked bonuses that bank card firms give is airline travel rewards. The wire transfer is likely one of the oldest systems that was initiated by the world well-known cash transferor Western Union.

That implies, the bunch of folks who are aiming to manage the finance have to be knowledgeable sufficient and should be in a position to satisfy the money want of the organisation. To place it briefly these kinds of developments are normally collateral for Wikipedia - look at this website - gratis. If not, you have chosen a reward that value an excessive amount of money and you will have to adjust your alternative. How much does a locksmith cost? The federal government New Building Projects In Mumbai has a lot to do with the buoyant property market because of stricter contributing patterns equaling utilised to all Australian Banks. Which banks rule on-line? Bookkeepers will never exit of type as long as there are firms that herald cash. There's always strain to meet some deadline and beat the clock. An advantage of the web is that you simply don't require to move from door to doorway promoting a product. Nonetheless, put it within the flawed place and it'll wither away.

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grabfrom-blog · 7 years

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youtube

How to Download Videos to Your youtube

Are website to download youtube videos you like me who always looks forward to a weekend (Friday specifically so that you get to watch your favourite video website to download youtube videos to phone ?

If yes, you know that it is expensive to cover those video rental fees. Not so?

This is a scenario which I faced for some years until I decided that I should look for an option to paying those monthly charges so that I can get to shoot my movies home every Friday. And in addition to the monthly membership fee, I needed to pay every movie/video that I was carrying home.

So I went to Google and typed in "free video download"

! I received 358,000,000 results. Wow, that's a number.

This usually means that there are that number of something related to some more information on wikipedia video download or websites where you can get totally free video download.

So given that fact that there are free download software programs available to download free music videos and video games on the internet,before you use one of those absolutely free video download programs you might want to understand what you want to look for.

I have joined many video download websites and I have got the good and the bad experience about them. So below are the 6 most things that you need to look for in a video download website.

1- There should be no monthly charges or any per movie download fee. If any website claims to offer video downloads and then asks you for any fee of any type, I advise that you steer clear of it. However, the best free video download websites will ask for a one time monthly fee to help them keep there services and sources for these videos for you. That's okay. From my experience these are the websites that really give the videos you need of quality to you.

2- Quality of these videos downloaded: Here is some how related to the point. From my experience video sites that do not request a membership fee generally provide some blurred, quality videos and the likes. You see the most popular video website youtube, there are various videos, it is totally free to join but what about the character of the videos you get?

3-Download limitations: There ought to not be a download limits what so ever. Most websites limit the Number of videos you can download per day, some per others along with hour per

session. These aren't great and I would not advise that you join them.

Safety and the protection of your machine or computer. What I mean here is that you should be stress of most free download sites. Most have the ability to infect your computer with adware, viruses and spy ware. For your safety and the safety of your machine, you need to keep away from these. How can you know that this

Site will infect your machine with spyware and viruses? My response is that appearance for some one who has been there, seen it and experienced its recommendation, although that's a question. I've joined many of such free video download sites and an overview is provided by me in my website because you can see in my resource box.

5-How about the amount of movies? I think we all would require the website to get as many videos. It would be no great for you to join a Website which

Has only 10 million videos it is usually listed at the home and when you can get one with over 100 videos.Look outside for such Page of the website where you get to join and become a member of the website.

6-Variety: While websites will offer one type of videos like music videos, others will provide you access to music videos, movie videos, video games and other software which you could download. That is the variety I mean here. Search for download sites that could offer you such selection.

Well,there are lots of things I will talk about here such as the speed the customer support and more. But I hope the above can provide you a hint of what you should look for in a free video download website.

One day soon, kids won't even understand what there is a shop. Movies and all videos will be downloaded, creating a visit. Do not laugh. Next time you ask the chimney to roll down, and they inquire folks say that, you will know what I mean. They think exactly the same way.

The advantages for the customer are enormous, particularly in this time of high gasoline prices and terrible traffic. Who wants to drive anyplace to go when it can be downloaded get their content? There is A mouse click much more convenient. The times of the shop are numbered as their personal download instagram videos online free computer is viewed by more people as the center of the entertainment program. With the release of Microsoft's Vista operating system, which has entertainment abilities and tremendous integrated video, the user took another step in adopting their computer as the entertainment universe's center.

As millions of individuals bought iPODs and to a lesser extent Microsoft Zunes for video screening, they've become accustom to getting their articles downloaded, instead of forcing to receive it themselves or waiting for it to be sent. The generation of the release of this Zune at the previous quarter of 2006 and the iPOD http://www.grabfrom.net have proved incredibly successful. The launch of this video capable iPOD helped apple market 14 million units in the 4th quarter of 2005 alone. Sales has been undergone by the Zune, despite WiFi networking capability and a brighter full-color display, two attributes that have to have helped the gap closes with Apple.

A number of the reasons why the Zune has failed to sell on a level with the iPOD are because of Microsoft's marketing strategy for the participant. For instance, although the Zune comes from several colours, Microsoft has failed to adequately communicate this fact to the buying public. A second reason for the Zune's slow sales has to do with Microsoft's propensity to describe the Zune using marketingspeak, instead of clearly explaining to customers. Here is Microsoft talking about the Zune: "It's actually not a gadget. It's an entrant to the new connected entertainment marketplace for producing new shared and societal adventures based around content" Huh???

In May of 2007, Microsoft tried to reverse their failure to catch the imagination of customers with the Halo 3 variant of their Zune's introduction. This special edition is packed with special download youtube videos mp4 1080p online sound and video content, including a special episode of Red vs Blue accessible for your Zune , theatrical trailers, and Halo soundtracks. It's also emblazoned with Halo 3 images.

At press time, the Zune's Halo 3 variant is only available at Game Stop.

There are fewer technical explanations for the Zune has failed to topple the iPOD in the mobile video player marketplace. The main one has to do with their decision to exclude a scroll wheel Type the feature set of the Zune. It is actually a 4-way cursor button, such as on a TV remote control while it's a control that looks for all the world like a scroll wheel. A cursor is not many consumers want to dominate their mobile video players,

So they've voted with their dollars. That being said, that the Zune is a truly fantastic player, and the quality is good for a small mobile. For those users who have bought their components they have the ability to download and enjoy all sorts of TV shows, movies and films on a very nice platform.

The iPOD will permit the use of Apple's AAC codec, Apple Lossless, MP3, AIF, or WAV formats. Video content is supported in H.264, which is also known as MPEG-4 part 10. This is a standard for high quality, compressed video. The Zune utilizes, one guess here, Microsoft's WMA and WMV formats for both audio and published here video respectively. The Zune also supports H.264 for video and MP3 or AAC for audio. The two players will allow JPEG image formats. There are many file format converters available to allow video in different resolutions and formats to be converted and optimized for storage and use with the mobile players.

There are many areas to receive downloadable video content for the Zune and the iPOD. If you are an iPOD user, there's obviously iTunes, which offers music for $.99 per downloaded song. Although this is convenient and offers a huge variety of content that was available, customers should be ready to devote significant amounts of cash filling up a participant. You could fill your iPOD or even Zune with MP3 files ripped from CDs or downloaded from other online music providers.

Microsoft offers the Zune Marketplace, a subscription service with unlimited downloads for $14.99/ month because this is written. The unlimited option is known as the "Zune Pass" by Microsoft. Zune users are able to download complete albums or individual songs. In June of 2007, Microsoft started partnering with various artists to advertise their both their service and the Zune player itself.

A popular option chosen by consumers is just one of video download services that are boundless. With these solutions, you pay a 1 time fee and are able to obtain an unlimited quantity of video and music content. Obviously, many consumers feel that it makes sense to pursue this approach, instead of the subscription. A number of the networks have a tremendous amount of content available, and contain films and TV shows, in addition to music and music videos.

With the majority of these services, once the material is downloaded it is permanently accessible for use. With some of the subscription based unlimited download solutions instagram downloader online mp3 once the subscription is terminated, access to articles that was downloaded is denied. Only time will tell if the powers which are crack down on services.

Ipod is a must have gadget now and you are not updated with the newest technology should youn't own one. Ipod is not just for music, it is also a movie player and website to download youtube videos on android you can watch TV shows and play games too. As more and more people are purchasing this gadget there's also a demand for downloads for iPod. Below are some tips.

Video downloads for iPod.

You will find tons of free video downloads for iPod. You will never have a hard time seeing sites offering free video downloads However, the problem is...are these files safe to download? Websites are bombarded with banner advertisements and pop-ups which could harm your computer. Grabfrom instagram video downloader online Imagine if your computer becomes infected with spyware and adware? The files you downloaded are free if your computer melts on you personally but I suppose or your PC safety was hacked, you are in big trouble and there are.

Per download fees on video downloads for iPod.

It's possible to acquire downloads for iPod from online music stores with per download fees. Meaning you have to cover every single download. Payment generally in 99 cents and there are websites offering far Grabfrom higher charges per video downloads for your iPod. Documents are safe to get but if you wish to utilize your iPod's massive storage capacity and download as many videos as you need organize your pocket.

There are lots of music and movie stores to download videos for your iPod. The most famous is definitely iTunes. You get to download TV shows pictures and music . When you have missed an episode of your favourite TV series on national website to download youtube videos television, just go there and download this specific episode at $1.99. It's that convenient since the iPod video downloads are on the very next day it is screened. You also do not need to worry about having to buy the whole season.

You can try out a number of these sites if you're looking for complimentary iPod video downloads that are legal. my link They are set of videos uploaded by people like me and you or aspiring film manufacturers and domain videos. Sometimes you'll be amused by the type of iPod video downloads that exist on this world.

OVGuide: guide to movies that are online.

Watch Free Movies Online: If you are a fan of classic films, you'd love the video downloads.

Singingfish: This is a video search engine that archives videos, film clips and many films. Have a look at the hot favorites section.

SearchforVideo: Another video search engine. You will also find a variety of video clips Grabfrom Social Profile under different categories like news, movies, music, actors, health, TV stations, etc..

The Open Video Project: This is website with a huge collection of audio for sharing.

Vmix: One interesting and website where you will find tons of amusing and entertaining videos submitted by amateurs and professionals alike.

There is something you want to know. Video files are not exactly iPod video files but instead AVI, RM, DivX, WMV, ASF and VOB files. In these cases you would need to convert them into MPEG 4 or H.264 video format in order for your iPod to perform them. While some free, there are converters on the marketplace, some paid. Type in "free iPod video converters" from the search engines and you should be able to find a couple good free video to iPod converters.

Read more about iPod video downloads and which are the most well-known websites fans are currently using to get high quality video to their iPod at prices even teenagers can manage.

The content of this guide is provided for the use of education and case only and is in no way associated with any company or subsidiary, iTune, or Apple of Apple. This article may be freely facebook private video downloader reprinted or distributed in its entirety in any ezine, newsletter, website or site. The authorbio's name and website links must stay intact and be included with each reproduction.

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senpai-elsa-blog · 7 years

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Recycling

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The three chasing arrows of the international recycling logo. It is sometimes accompanied by the text "reduce, reuse, and recycle". Recycling is the process of converting waste materials into new materials and objects. It is an alternative to "conventional" waste disposal that can save material and help lower greenhouse gas emissions (compared to plastic production,[1][2] for example). Recycling can prevent the waste of potentially useful materials and reduce the consumption of fresh raw materials, thereby reducing: energy usage, air pollution (from incineration), and water pollution (from landfilling). Recycling is a key component of modern waste reduction and is the third component of the "Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle" waste hierarchy. There are some ISO standards related to recycling such as ISO 15270:2008 for plastics waste and ISO 14001:2004 for environmental management control of recycling practice. Recyclable materials include many kinds of glass, paper, and cardboard, metal, plastic, tires, textiles, and electronics. The composting or other reuse of biodegradable waste--such as food or garden waste--is also considered recycling.[2] Materials to be recycled are either brought to a collection centre or picked up from the curbside, then sorted, cleaned, and reprocessed into new materials destined for manufacturing. In the strictest sense, recycling of a material would produce a fresh supply of the same material--for example, used office paper would be converted into new office paper or used polystyrene foam into new polystyrene. However, this is often difficult or too expensive (compared with producing the same product from raw materials or other sources), so "recycling" of many products or materials involves their reuse in producing different materials (for example, paperboard) instead. Another form of recycling is the salvage of certain materials from complex products, either due to their intrinsic value (such as lead from car batteries, or gold from circuit boards), or due to their hazardous nature (e.g., removal and reuse of mercury from thermometers and thermostats). Contents 1 History 1.1 Origins 1.2 Wartime 1.3 Post-war 2 Legislation 2.1 Supply 2.2 Government-mandated demand 3 Recyclates 3.1 Quality of recyclate 3.2 Quality recyclate action plan (Scotland) 4 Recycling consumer waste 4.1 Collection 4.1.1 Curbside collection 4.1.2 Buy-back centers 4.1.3 Drop-off centers 4.1.4 Distributed Recycling 4.2 Sorting 4.3 Rinsing 5 Recycling industrial waste 5.1 E-waste recycling 5.2 Plastic recycling 5.2.1 Physical recycling 5.2.2 Chemical recycling 5.2.3 Waste plastic pyrolysis to fuel oil 6 Recycling codes 7 Economic impact 8 Cost-benefit analysis 8.1 Trade in recyclates 9 Criticisms and responses 9.1 Energy and material flows 9.2 Costs 9.3 Working conditions 9.4 Environmental impact 9.5 Possible income loss and social costs 10 Public participation rates 11 Related journals 12 See also 13 References 14 Further reading 15 External links History Origins Recycling has been a common practice for most of human history, with recorded advocates as far back as Plato in 400BC. During periods when resources were scarce and hard to come by, archaeological studies of ancient waste dumps show less household waste (such as ash, broken tools, and pottery)--implying more waste was being recycled in the absence of new material.[3]

An American poster from World War II In pre-industrial times, there is evidence of scrap bronze and other metals being collected in Europe and melted down for perpetual reuse.[4] Paper recycling was first recorded in 1031 when Japanese shops sold repulped paper.[5][6] In Britain dust and ash from wood and coal fires was collected by "dustmen" and downcycled as a base material used in brick making. The main driver for these types of recycling was the economic advantage of obtaining recycled feedstock instead of acquiring virgin material, as well as a lack of public waste removal in ever more densely populated areas.[3] In 1813, Benjamin Law developed the process of turning rags into "shoddy" and "mungo" wool in Batley, Yorkshire. This material combined recycled fibers with virgin wool. The West Yorkshire shoddy industry in towns such as Batley and Dewsbury lasted from the early 19th century to at least 1914. Industrialization spurred demand for affordable materials; aside from rags, ferrous scrap metals were coveted as they were cheaper to acquire than virgin ore. Railroads both purchased and sold scrap metal in the 19th century, and the growing steel and automobile industries purchased scrap in the early 20th century. Many secondary goods were collected, processed and sold by peddlers who scoured dumps and city streets for discarded machinery, pots, pans, and other sources of metal. By World War I, thousands of such peddlers roamed the streets of American cities, taking advantage of market forces to recycle post-consumer materials back into industrial production.[7] Beverage bottles were recycled with a refundable deposit at some drink manufacturers in Great Britain and Ireland around 1800, notably Schweppes.[8] An official recycling system with refundable deposits was established in Sweden for bottles in 1884 and aluminum beverage cans in 1982; the law led to a recycling rate for beverage containers of 84-99 percent depending on type, and a glass bottle can be refilled over 20 times on average.

British poster from World War II Wartime New chemical industries created in the late 19th century both invented new materials (e.g. Bakelite (1907) and promised to transform valueless into valuable materials. Proverbially, you could not make a silk purse of a sow's ear--until the US firm Arhur D. Little published in 1921 "On the Making of Silk Purses from Sows' Ears", its research proving that when "chemistry puts on overalls and gets down to business . . .new values appear. New and better paths are opened to reach the goals desired."[9] Recycling was a highlight throughout World War II. During the war, financial constraints and significant material shortages due to war efforts made it necessary for countries to reuse goods and recycle materials.[10] These resource shortages caused by the world wars, and other such world-changing occurrences, greatly encouraged recycling.[11] The struggles of war claimed much of the material resources available, leaving little for the civilian population.[10] It became necessary for most homes to recycle their waste, as recycling offered an extra source of materials allowing people to make the most of what was available to them. Recycling household materials meant more resources for war efforts and a better chance of victory.[10] Massive government promotion campaigns were carried out in the home front during World War II in every country involved in the war, urging citizens to donate metals and conserve fiber, as a matter of patriotism. Post-war A considerable investment in recycling occurred in the 1970s, due to rising energy costs.[12] Recycling aluminum uses only 5% of the energy required by virgin production; glass, paper and other metals have less dramatic but very significant energy savings when recycled feedstock is used.[13] Although consumer electronics such as the television have been popular since the 1920s, recycling of them was almost unheard of until early 1991.[14] The first electronic waste recycling scheme was implemented in Switzerland, beginning with collection of old refrigerators but gradually expanding to cover all devices.[15] After these schemes were set up, many countries did not have the capacity to deal with the sheer quantity of e-waste they generated or its hazardous nature. They began to export the problem to developing countries without enforced environmental legislation. This is cheaper, as recycling computer monitors in the United States costs 10 times more than in China. Demand in Asia for electronic waste began to grow when scrap yards found that they could extract valuable substances such as copper, silver, iron, silicon, nickel, and gold, during the recycling process.[16] The 2000s saw a large increase in both the sale of electronic devices and their growth as a waste stream: in 2002, e-waste grew faster than any other type of waste in the EU.[17] This caused investment in modern, automated facilities to cope with the influx of redundant appliances, especially after strict laws were implemented in 2003.[18][19][20][21] As of 2014, the European Union has about 50% of world share of the waste and recycling industries, with over 60,000 companies employing 500,000 persons, with a turnover of EUR24 billion.[22] Countries have to reach recycling rates of at least 50%, while the lead countries are around 65% and the EU average is 39% as of 2013.[23] Legislation Supply For a recycling program to work, having a large, stable supply of recyclable material is crucial. Three legislative options have been used to create such a supply: mandatory recycling collection, container deposit legislation, and refuse bans. Mandatory collection laws set recycling targets for cities to aim for, usually in the form that a certain percentage of a material must be diverted from the city's waste stream by a target date. The city is then responsible for working to meet this target.[2] Container deposit legislation involves offering a refund for the return of certain containers, typically glass, plastic, and metal. When a product in such a container is purchased, a small surcharge is added to the price. This surcharge can be reclaimed by the consumer if the container is returned to a collection point. These programs have been very successful, often resulting in an 80 percent recycling rate.[24] Despite such good results, the shift in collection costs from local government to industry and consumers has created strong opposition to the creation of such programs in some areas.[2] A variation on this is where the manufacturer bears responsibility for the recycling of their goods. In the European Union, the WEEE Directive requires producers of consumer electronics to reimburse the recyclers' costs.[25] An alternative way to increase supply of recyclates is to ban the disposal of certain materials as waste, often including used oil, old batteries, tires, and garden waste. One aim of this method is to create a viable economy for proper disposal of banned products. Care must be taken that enough of these recycling services exist, or such bans simply lead to increased illegal dumping.[2] Government-mandated demand Legislation has also been used to increase and maintain a demand for recycled materials. Four methods of such legislation exist: minimum recycled content mandates, utilization rates, procurement policies, and recycled product labeling.[2] Both minimum recycled content mandates and utilization rates increase demand directly by forcing manufacturers to include recycling in their operations. Content mandates specify that a certain percentage of a new product must consist of recycled material. Utilization rates are a more flexible option: industries are permitted to meet the recycling targets at any point of their operation or even contract recycling out in exchange for tradeable credits. Opponents to both of these methods point to the large increase in reporting requirements they impose, and claim that they rob industry of necessary flexibility.[2][26] Governments have used their own purchasing power to increase recycling demand through what are called "procurement policies." These policies are either "set-asides," which reserve a certain amount of spending solely towards recycled products, or "price preference" programs which provide a larger budget when recycled items are purchased. Additional regulations can target specific cases: in the United States, for example, the Environmental Protection Agency mandates the purchase of oil, paper, tires and building insulation from recycled or re-refined sources whenever possible.[2] The final government regulation towards increased demand is recycled product labeling. When producers are required to label their packaging with amount of recycled material in the product (including the packaging), consumers are better able to make educated choices. Consumers with sufficient buying power can then choose more environmentally conscious options, prompt producers to increase the amount of recycled material in their products, and indirectly increase demand. Standardized recycling labeling can also have a positive effect on supply of recyclates if the labeling includes information on how and where the product can be recycled.[2] Recyclates

Glass recovered by crushing only one kind of beer bottle Recyclate is a raw material that is sent to, and processed in a waste recycling plant or materials recovery facility which will be used to form new products.[27] The material is collected in various methods and delivered to a facility where it undergoes re-manufacturing so that it can be used in the production of new materials or products. For example, plastic bottles that are collected can be re-used and made into plastic pellets, a new product.[28] Quality of recyclate The quality of recyclates is recognized as one of the principal challenges that needs to be addressed for the success of a long-term vision of a green economy and achieving zero waste. Recyclate quality is generally referring to how much of the raw material is made up of target material compared to the amount of non-target material and other non-recyclable material.[29] Only target material is likely to be recycled, so a higher amount of non-target and non-recyclable material will reduce the quantity of recycling product.[29] A high proportion of non-target and non-recyclable material can make it more difficult for re-processors to achieve "high-quality" recycling. If the recyclate is of poor quality, it is more likely to end up being down-cycled or, in more extreme cases, sent to other recovery options or landfilled.[29] For example, to facilitate the re-manufacturing of clear glass products there are tight restrictions for colored glass going into the re-melt process. The quality of recyclate not only supports high-quality recycling, but it can also deliver significant environmental benefits by reducing, reusing and keeping products out of landfills.[29] High-quality recycling can help support growth in the economy by maximizing the economic value of the waste material collected.[29] Higher income levels from the sale of quality recyclates can return value which can be significant to local governments, households, and businesses.[29] Pursuing high-quality recycling can also provide consumer and business confidence in the waste and resource management sector and may encourage investment in that sector. There are many actions along the recycling supply chain that can influence and affect the material quality of recyclate.[30] It begins with the waste producers who place non-target and non-recyclable wastes in recycling collection. This can affect the quality of final recyclate streams or require further efforts to discard those materials at later stages in the recycling process.[30] The different collection systems can result in different levels of contamination. Depending on which materials are collected together, extra effort is required to sort this material back into separate streams and can significantly reduce the quality of the final product.[30] Transportation and the compaction of materials can make it more difficult to separate material back into separate waste streams. Sorting facilities are not one hundred per cent effective in separating materials, despite improvements in technology and quality recyclate which can see a loss in recyclate quality.[30] The storage of materials outside where the product can become wet can cause problems for re-processors. Reprocessing facilities may require further sorting steps to further reduce the amount of non-target and non-recyclable material.[30] Each action along the recycling path plays a part in the quality of recyclate. Quality recyclate action plan (Scotland) The Recyclate Quality Action Plan of Scotland sets out a number of proposed actions that the Scottish Government would like to take forward in order to drive up the quality of the materials being collected for recycling and sorted at materials recovery facilities before being exported or sold on to the reprocessing market.[30] The plan's objectives are to:[31] Drive up the quality of recyclate. Deliver greater transparency about the quality of recyclate. Provide help to those contracting with materials recycling facilities to identify what is required of them Ensure compliance with the Waste (Scotland) regulations 2012. Stimulate a household market for quality recyclate. Address and reduce issues surrounding the Waste Shipment Regulations. The plan focuses on three key areas, with fourteen actions which were identified to increase the quality of materials collected, sorted and presented to the processing market in Scotland.[31] The three areas of focus are:[30] Collection systems and input contamination Sorting facilities - material sampling and transparency Material quality benchmarking and standards Recycling consumer waste Collection

A three-sided bin at a railway station in Germany, intended to separate paper (left) and plastic wrappings (right) from other waste (back) A number of different systems have been implemented to collect recyclates from the general waste stream. These systems lie along the spectrum of trade-off between public convenience and government ease and expense. The three main categories of collection are "drop-off centers," "buy-back centers", and "curbside collection."[2] Curbside collection Main article: Curbside collection Curbside collection encompasses many subtly different systems, which differ mostly on where in the process the recyclates are sorted and cleaned. The main categories are mixed waste collection, commingled recyclables, and source separation.[2] A waste collection vehicle generally picks up the waste.

A recycling truck collecting the contents of a recycling bin in Canberra, Australia At one end of the spectrum is mixed waste collection, in which all recyclates are collected mixed in with the rest of the waste, and the desired material is then sorted out and cleaned at a central sorting facility. This results in a large amount of recyclable waste, paper especially, being too soiled to reprocess, but has advantages as well: the city need not pay for a separate collection of recyclates and no public education is needed. Any changes to which materials are recyclable is easy to accommodate as all sorting happens in a central location.[2] In a commingled or single-stream system, all recyclables for collection are mixed but kept separate from other waste. This greatly reduces the need for post-collection cleaning but does require public education on what materials are recyclable.[2][4] Source separation is the other extreme, where each material is cleaned and sorted prior to collection. This method requires the least post-collection sorting and produces the purest recyclates, but incurs additional operating costs for collection of each separate material. An extensive public education program is also required, which must be successful if recyclate contamination is to be avoided.[2] Source separation used to be the preferred method due to the high sorting costs incurred by commingled (mixed waste) collection. Advances in sorting technology (see sorting below), however, have lowered this overhead substantially--many areas which had developed source separation programs have since switched to co-mingled collection.[4] Buy-back centers Buy-back centers differ in that the cleaned recyclates are purchased, thus providing a clear incentive for use and creating a stable supply. The post-processed material can then be sold. If this is profitable, this conserves the emission of greenhouse gases; if unprofitable, it increases the emission of greenhouse gasses. Government subsidies are necessary to make buy-back centres a viable enterprise. In 1993, according to the U.S. National Waste & Recycling Association, it costs on average US$50 to process a ton of material, which can be resold for US$30.[2] In the US, the value per ton of mixed recyclables was US$180 in 2011, US$80 in 2015, and $US$100 in 2017.[32] In 2017, glass is essentially valueless, because of the low cost of sand, its major component; low oil costs thwarts plastic recycling.[32] In 2017, Napa, California was reimbursed about 20% of its costs in recycling.[32] Drop-off centers Drop-off centers require the waste producer to carry the recyclates to a central location, either an installed or mobile collection station or the reprocessing plant itself. They are the easiest type of collection to establish but suffer from low and unpredictable throughput. Distributed Recycling For some waste materials such as plastic, recent technical devices called recyclebots[33] enable a form of distributed recycling. Preliminary life-cycle analysis (LCA) indicates that such distributed recycling of HDPE to make filament of 3-D printers in rural regions is energetically favorable to either using virgin resin or conventional recycling processes because of reductions in transportation energy.[34][35] Sorting

Play media Recycling sorting facility and processes Once commingled recyclates are collected and delivered to a central collection facility, the different types of materials must be sorted. This is done in a series of stages, many of which involve automated processes such that a truckload of material can be fully sorted in less than an hour.[4] Some plants can now sort the materials automatically, known as single-stream recycling. In plants, a variety of materials is sorted such as paper, different types of plastics, glass, metals, food scraps, and most types of batteries.[36] A 30 percent increase in recycling rates has been seen in the areas where these plants exist.[37] Initially, the commingled recyclates are removed from the collection vehicle and placed on a conveyor belt spread out in a single layer. Large pieces of corrugated fiberboard and plastic bags are removed by hand at this stage, as they can cause later machinery to jam.[4]

Early sorting of recyclable materials: glass and plastic bottles in Poland Next, automated machinery such as disk screens and air classifiers separate the recyclates by weight, splitting lighter paper and plastic from heavier glass and metal. Cardboard is removed from the mixed paper and the most common types of plastic, PET (#1) and HDPE (#2), are collected. This separation is usually done by hand but has become automated in some sorting centers: a spectroscopic scanner is used to differentiate between different types of paper and plastic based on the absorbed wavelengths, and subsequently divert each material into the proper collection channel.[4] Strong magnets are used to separate out ferrous metals, such as iron, steel, and tin cans. Non-ferrous metals are ejected by magnetic eddy currents in which a rotating magnetic field induces an electric current around the aluminum cans, which in turn creates a magnetic eddy current inside the cans. This magnetic eddy current is repulsed by a large magnetic field, and the cans are ejected from the rest of the recyclate stream.[4]

A recycling point in New Byth, Scotland, with separate containers for paper, plastics, and differently colored glass Finally, glass is sorted according to its color: brown, amber, green, or clear. It may either be sorted by hand,[4] or via an automated machine that uses colored filters to detect different colors. Glass fragments smaller than 10 millimetres (0.39in) across cannot be sorted automatically, and are mixed together as "glass fines."[38] This process of recycling as well as reusing the recycled material has proven advantageous because it reduces amount of waste sent to landfills, conserves natural resources, saves energy, reduces greenhouse gas emissions, and helps create new jobs. Recycled materials can also be converted into new products that can be consumed again, such as paper, plastic, and glass.[39] The City and County of San Francisco's Department of the Environment is attempting to achieve a citywide goal of generating zero waste by 2020.[40] San Francisco's refuse hauler, Recology, operates an effective recyclables sorting facility in San Francisco, which helped San Francisco reach a record-breaking diversion rate of 80%.[41] Rinsing Food packaging should no longer contain any organic matter (organic matter, if any, needs to be placed in a biodegradable waste bin or be buried in a garden[42]). Since no trace of biodegradable material is best kept in the packaging before placing it in a trash bag, some packaging also needs to be rinsed.[43] Recycling industrial waste

Mounds of shredded rubber tires are ready for processing Although many government programs are concentrated on recycling at home, a 64% of waste in the United Kingdom is generated by industry.[44] The focus of many recycling programs done by industry is the cost-effectiveness of recycling. The ubiquitous nature of cardboard packaging makes cardboard a commonly recycled waste product by companies that deal heavily in packaged goods, like retail stores, warehouses, and distributors of goods. Other industries deal in niche or specialized products, depending on the nature of the waste materials that are present. The glass, lumber, wood pulp and paper manufacturers all deal directly in commonly recycled materials; however, old rubber tires may be collected and recycled by independent tire dealers for a profit. Levels of metals recycling are generally low. In 2010, the International Resource Panel, hosted by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) published reports on metal stocks that exist within society[45] and their recycling rates.[45] The Panel reported that the increase in the use of metals during the 20th and into the 21st century has led to a substantial shift in metal stocks from below ground to use in applications within society above ground. For example, the in-use stock of copper in the USA grew from 73 to 238kg per capita between 1932 and 1999. The report authors observed that, as metals are inherently recyclable, the metal stocks in society can serve as huge mines above ground (the term "urban mining" has been coined with this idea in mind[46]). However, they found that the recycling rates of many metals are very low. The report warned that the recycling rates of some rare metals used in applications such as mobile phones, battery packs for hybrid cars and fuel cells, are so low that unless future end-of-life recycling rates are dramatically stepped up these critical metals will become unavailable for use in modern technology. The military recycles some metals. The U.S. Navy's Ship Disposal Program uses ship breaking to reclaim the steel of old vessels. Ships may also be sunk to create an artificial reef. Uranium is a very dense metal that has qualities superior to lead and titanium for many military and industrial uses. The uranium left over from processing it into nuclear weapons and fuel for nuclear reactors is called depleted uranium, and it is used by all branches of the U.S. military use for armour-piercing shells and shielding. The construction industry may recycle concrete and old road surface pavement, selling their waste materials for profit. Some industries, like the renewable energy industry and solar photovoltaic technology, in particular, are being proactive in setting up recycling policies even before there is considerable volume to their waste streams, anticipating future demand during their rapid growth.[47] Recycling of plastics is more difficult, as most programs are not able to reach the necessary level of quality. Recycling of PVC often results in downcycling of the material, which means only products of lower quality standard can be made with the recycled material. A new approach which allows an equal level of quality is the Vinyloop process. It was used after the London Olympics 2012 to fulfill the PVC Policy.[48] E-waste recycling Main article: Computer recycling

Microprocessors retrieved from waste stream E-waste is a growing problem, accounting for 20-50 million metric tons of global waste per year according to the EPA. It is also the fastest growing waste stream in the EU.[17] Many recyclers do not recycle e-waste responsibly. After the cargo barge Khian Sea dumped 14,000 metric tons of toxic ash in Haiti, the Basel Convention was formed to stem the flow of hazardous substances into poorer countries. They created the e-Stewards certification to ensure that recyclers are held to the highest standards for environmental responsibility and to help consumers identify responsible recyclers. This works alongside other prominent legislation, such as the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive of the EU the United States National Computer Recycling Act, to prevent poisonous chemicals from entering waterways and the atmosphere. In the recycling process, television sets, monitors, cell phones, and computers are typically tested for reuse and repaired. If broken, they may be disassembled for parts still having high value if labor is cheap enough. Other e-waste is shredded to pieces roughly 10 centimetres (3.9in) in size, and manually checked to separate out toxic batteries and capacitors which contain poisonous metals. The remaining pieces are further shredded to 10 millimetres (0.39in) particles and passed under a magnet to remove ferrous metals. An eddy current ejects non-ferrous metals, which are sorted by density either by a centrifuge or vibrating plates. Precious metals can be dissolved in acid, sorted, and smelted into ingots. The remaining glass and plastic fractions are separated by density and sold to re-processors. Television sets and monitors must be manually disassembled to remove lead from CRTs or the mercury backlight from LCDs.[49][50][51] Plastic recycling Main article: Plastic recycling

A container for recycling used plastic spoons into material for 3D printing Plastic recycling is the process of recovering scrap or waste plastic and reprocessing the material into useful products, sometimes completely different in form from their original state. For instance, this could mean melting down soft drink bottles and then casting them as plastic chairs and tables.[52] Physical recycling Some plastics are remelted to form new plastic objects; for example, PET water bottles can be converted into polyester destined for clothing. A disadvantage of this type of recycling is that the molecular weight of the polymer can change further and the levels of unwanted substances in the plastic can increase with each remelt. Chemical recycling For some polymers, it is possible to convert them back into monomers, for example, PET can be treated with an alcohol and a catalyst to form a dialkyl terephthalate. The terephthalate diester can be used with ethylene glycol to form a new polyester polymer, thus making it possible to use the pure polymer again. Waste plastic pyrolysis to fuel oil Another process involves conversion of assorted polymers into petroleum by a much less precise thermal depolymerization process. Such a process would be able to accept almost any polymer or mix of polymers, including thermoset materials such as vulcanized rubber tires and the biopolymers in feathers and other agricultural waste. Like natural petroleum, the chemicals produced can be used as fuels or as feedstock. A RESEM Technology[53] plant of this type in Carthage, Missouri, USA, uses turkey waste as input material. Gasification is a similar process but is not technically recycling since polymers are not likely to become the result. Plastic Pyrolysis can convert petroleum based waste streams such as plastics into quality fuels, carbons. Given below is the list of suitable plastic raw materials for pyrolysis: Mixed plastic (HDPE, LDPE, PE, PP, Nylon, Teflon, PS, ABS, FRP, etc.) Mixed waste plastic from waste paper mill Multi-layered plastic Recycling codes Main article: Recycling codes

Recycling codes on products In order to meet recyclers' needs while providing manufacturers a consistent, uniform system, a coding system was developed. The recycling code for plastics was introduced in 1988 by the plastics industry through the Society of the Plastics Industry.[54] Because municipal recycling programs traditionally have targeted packaging--primarily bottles and containers--the resin coding system offered a means of identifying the resin content of bottles and containers commonly found in the residential waste stream.[55] Plastic products are printed with numbers 1-7 depending on the type of resin. Type 1 (polyethylene terephthalate) is commonly found in soft drink and water bottles. Type 2 (high-density polyethylene) is found in most hard plastics such as milk jugs, laundry detergent bottles, and some dishware. Type 3 (polyvinyl chloride) includes items such as shampoo bottles, shower curtains, hula hoops, credit cards, wire jacketing, medical equipment, siding, and piping. Type 4 (low-density polyethylene) is found in shopping bags, squeezable bottles, tote bags, clothing, furniture, and carpet. Type 5 is polypropylene and makes up syrup bottles, straws, Tupperware, and some automotive parts. Type 6 is polystyrene and makes up meat trays, egg cartons, clamshell containers, and compact disc cases. Type 7 includes all other plastics such as bulletproof materials, 3- and 5-gallon water bottles, and sunglasses.[56] Having a recycling code or the chasing arrows logo on a material is not an automatic indicator that a material is recyclable but rather an explanation of what the material is. Types 1 and 2 are the most commonly recycled. Economic impact Critics dispute the net economic and environmental benefits of recycling over its costs, and suggest that proponents of recycling often make matters worse and suffer from confirmation bias. Specifically, critics argue that the costs and energy used in collection and transportation detract from (and outweigh) the costs and energy saved in the production process; also that the jobs produced by the recycling industry can be a poor trade for the jobs lost in logging, mining, and other industries associated with production; and that materials such as paper pulp can only be recycled a few times before material degradation prevents further recycling.[57] The National Waste and Recycling Association (NWRA), reported in May 2015, that recycling and waste made a $6.7 billion economic impact in Ohio, U.S., and employed 14,000 people.[58] Cost-benefit analysis Environmental effects of recycling[59] Material Energy savings Air pollution savings Aluminium 95%[2][13] 95%[2][60] Cardboard 24% -- Glass 5-30% 20% Paper 40%[13] 73%[61] Plastics 70%[13] -- Steel 60%[4] -- There is some debate over whether recycling is economically efficient. It is said that dumping 10,000 tons of waste in a landfill creates six jobs while recycling 10,000 tons of waste can create over 36 jobs. However, the cost effectiveness of creating the additional jobs remains unproven. According to the U.S. Recycling Economic Informational Study, there are over 50,000 recycling establishments that have created over a million jobs in the US.[62] Two years after New York City declared that implementing recycling programs would be "a drain on the city," New York City leaders realized that an efficient recycling system could save the city over $20 million.[63] Municipalities often see fiscal benefits from implementing recycling programs, largely due to the reduced landfill costs.[64] A study conducted by the Technical University of Denmark according to the Economist found that in 83 percent of cases, recycling is the most efficient method to dispose of household waste.[4][13] However, a 2004 assessment by the Danish Environmental Assessment Institute concluded that incineration was the most effective method for disposing of drink containers, even aluminium ones.[65] Fiscal efficiency is separate from economic efficiency. Economic analysis of recycling does not include what economists call externalities, which are unpriced costs and benefits that accrue to individuals outside of private transactions. Examples include: decreased air pollution and greenhouse gases from incineration, reduced hazardous waste leaching from landfills, reduced energy consumption, and reduced waste and resource consumption, which leads to a reduction in environmentally damaging mining and timber activity. About 4,000 minerals are known, of these only a few hundred minerals in the world are relatively common.[66] Known reserves of phosphorus will be exhausted within the next 100 years at current rates of usage.[67][68] Without mechanisms such as taxes or subsidies to internalize externalities, businesses may ignore them despite the costs imposed on society. To make such nonfiscal benefits economically relevant, advocates have pushed for legislative action to increase the demand for recycled materials.[2] The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has concluded in favor of recycling, saying that recycling efforts reduced the country's carbon emissions by a net 49 million metric tonnes in 2005.[4] In the United Kingdom, the Waste and Resources Action Programme stated that Great Britain's recycling efforts reduce CO2 emissions by 10-15 million tonnes a year.[4] Recycling is more efficient in densely populated areas, as there are economies of scale involved.[2]

Wrecked automobiles gathered for smelting Certain requirements must be met for recycling to be economically feasible and environmentally effective. These include an adequate source of recyclates, a system to extract those recyclates from the waste stream, a nearby factory capable of reprocessing the recyclates, and a potential demand for the recycled products. These last two requirements are often overlooked--without both an industrial market for production using the collected materials and a consumer market for the manufactured goods, recycling is incomplete and in fact only "collection".[2] Free-market economist Julian Simon remarked "There are three ways society can organize waste disposal: (a) commanding, (b) guiding by tax and subsidy, and (c) leaving it to the individual and the market". These principles appear to divide economic thinkers today.[69] Frank Ackerman favours a high level of government intervention to provide recycling services. He believes that recycling's benefit cannot be effectively quantified by traditional laissez-faire economics. Allen Hershkowitz supports intervention, saying that it is a public service equal to education and policing. He argues that manufacturers should shoulder more of the burden of waste disposal.[69] Paul Calcott and Margaret Walls advocate the second option. A deposit refund scheme and a small refuse charge would encourage recycling but not at the expense of fly-tipping. Thomas C. Kinnaman concludes that a landfill tax would force consumers, companies and councils to recycle more.[69] Most free-market thinkers detest subsidy and intervention because they waste resources. Terry Anderson and Donald Leal think that all recycling programmes should be privately operated, and therefore would only operate if the money saved by recycling exceeds its costs. Daniel K. Benjamin argues that it wastes people's resources and lowers the wealth of a population.[69] Trade in recyclates Certain countries trade in unprocessed recyclates. Some have complained that the ultimate fate of recyclates sold to another country is unknown and they may end up in landfills instead of reprocessed. According to one report, in America, 50-80 percent of computers destined for recycling are actually not recycled.[70][71] There are reports of illegal-waste imports to China being dismantled and recycled solely for monetary gain, without consideration for workers' health or environmental damage. Although the Chinese government has banned these practices, it has not been able to eradicate them.[72] In 2008, the prices of recyclable waste plummeted before rebounding in 2009. Cardboard averaged about 53/tonne from 2004-2008, dropped to 19/tonne, and then went up to 59/tonne in May 2009. PET plastic averaged about 156/tonne, dropped to 75/tonne and then moved up to 195/tonne in May 2009.[73] Certain regions have difficulty using or exporting as much of a material as they recycle. This problem is most prevalent with glass: both Britain and the U.S. import large quantities of wine bottled in green glass. Though much of this glass is sent to be recycled, outside the American Midwest there is not enough wine production to use all of the reprocessed material. The extra must be downcycled into building materials or re-inserted into the regular waste stream.[2][4] Similarly, the northwestern United States has difficulty finding markets for recycled newspaper, given the large number of pulp mills in the region as well as the proximity to Asian markets. In other areas of the U.S., however, demand for used newsprint has seen wide fluctuation.[2] In some U.S. states, a program called RecycleBank pays people to recycle, receiving money from local municipalities for the reduction in landfill space which must be purchased. It uses a single stream process in which all material is automatically sorted.[74] Criticisms and responses Much of the difficulty inherent in recycling comes from the fact that most products are not designed with recycling in mind. The concept of sustainable design aims to solve this problem, and was laid out in the book Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things by architect William McDonough and chemist Michael Braungart. They suggest that every product (and all packaging they require) should have a complete "closed-loop" cycle mapped out for each component--a way in which every component will either return to the natural ecosystem through biodegradation or be recycled indefinitely.[4] Complete recycling is impossible from a practical standpoint. In summary, substitution and recycling strategies only delay the depletion of non-renewable stocks and therefore may buy time in the transition to true or strong sustainability, which ultimately is only guaranteed in an economy based on renewable resources.[75]:21 -- M.H. Huesemann, 2003 While recycling diverts waste from entering directly into landfill sites, current recycling misses the dissipative components. Complete recycling is impracticable as highly dispersed wastes become so diluted that the energy needed for their recovery becomes increasingly excessive. "For example, how will it ever be possible to recycle the numerous chlorinated organic hydrocarbons that have bioaccumulated in animal and human tissues across the globe, the copper dispersed in fungicides, the lead in widely applied paints, or the zinc oxides present in the finely dispersed rubber powder that is abraded from automobile tires?"[76]:260 As with environmental economics, care must be taken to ensure a complete view of the costs and benefits involved. For example, paperboard packaging for food products is more easily recycled than most plastic, but is heavier to ship and may result in more waste from spoilage.[77] Energy and material flows

Bales of crushed steel ready for transport to the smelter The amount of energy saved through recycling depends upon the material being recycled and the type of energy accounting that is used. Correct accounting for this saved energy can be accomplished with life-cycle analysis using real energy values. In addition, exergy, which is a measure of useful energy can be used. In general, it takes far less energy to produce a unit mass of recycled materials than it does to make the same mass of virgin materials.[78][79][80] Some scholars use emergy (spelled with an m) analysis, for example, budgets for the amount of energy of one kind (exergy) that is required to make or transform things into another kind of product or service. Emergy calculations take into account economics which can alter pure physics based results. Using emergy life-cycle analysis researchers have concluded that materials with large refining costs have the greatest potential for high recycle benefits. Moreover, the highest emergy efficiency accrues from systems geared toward material recycling, where materials are engineered to recycle back into their original form and purpose, followed by adaptive reuse systems where the materials are recycled into a different kind of product, and then by-product reuse systems where parts of the products are used to make an entirely different product.[81] The Energy Information Administration (EIA) states on its website that "a paper mill uses 40 percent less energy to make paper from recycled paper than it does to make paper from fresh lumber."[82] Some critics argue that it takes more energy to produce recycled products than it does to dispose of them in traditional landfill methods, since the curbside collection of recyclables often requires a second waste truck. However, recycling proponents point out that a second timber or logging truck is eliminated when paper is collected for recycling, so the net energy consumption is the same. An Emergy life-cycle analysis on recycling revealed that fly ash, aluminum, recycled concrete aggregate, recycled plastic, and steel yield higher efficiency ratios, whereas the recycling of lumber generates the lowest recycle benefit ratio. Hence, the specific nature of the recycling process, the methods used to analyse the process, and the products involved affect the energy savings budgets.[81] It is difficult to determine the amount of energy consumed or produced in waste disposal processes in broader ecological terms, where causal relations dissipate into complex networks of material and energy flow. For example, "cities do not follow all the strategies of ecosystem development. Biogeochemical paths become fairly straight relative to wild ecosystems, with very reduced recycling, resulting in large flows of waste and low total energy efficiencies. By contrast, in wild ecosystems, one population's wastes are another population's resources, and succession results in efficient exploitation of available resources. However, even modernized cities may still be in the earliest stages of a succession that may take centuries or millennia to complete."[83]:720 How much energy is used in recycling also depends on the type of material being recycled and the process used to do so. Aluminium is generally agreed to use far less energy when recycled rather than being produced from scratch. The EPA states that "recycling aluminum cans, for example, saves 95 percent of the energy required to make the same amount of aluminum from its virgin source, bauxite."[84][85] In 2009, more than half of all aluminium cans produced came from recycled aluminium.[86] Every year, millions of tons of materials are being exploited from the earth's crust, and processed into consumer and capital goods. After decades to centuries, most of these materials are "lost". With the exception of some pieces of art or religious relics, they are no longer engaged in the consumption process. Where are they? Recycling is only an intermediate solution for such materials, although it does prolong the residence time in the anthroposphere. For thermodynamic reasons, however, recycling cannot prevent the final need for an ultimate sink.[87]:1 -- P.H. Brunner Economist Steven Landsburg has suggested that the sole benefit of reducing landfill space is trumped by the energy needed and resulting pollution from the recycling process.[88] Others, however, have calculated through life-cycle assessment that producing recycled paper uses less energy and water than harvesting, pulping, processing, and transporting virgin trees.[89] When less recycled paper is used, additional energy is needed to create and maintain farmed forests until these forests are as self-sustainable as virgin forests. Other studies have shown that recycling in itself is inefficient to perform the "decoupling" of economic development from the depletion of non-renewable raw materials that is necessary for sustainable development.[90] The international transportation or recycle material flows through "...different trade networks of the three countries result in different flows, decay rates, and potential recycling returns."[91]:1 As global consumption of a natural resources grows, its depletion is inevitable. The best recycling can do is to delay, complete closure of material loops to achieve 100 percent recycling of nonrenewables is impossible as micro-trace materials dissipate into the environment causing severe damage to the planet's ecosystems.[92][93][94] Historically, this was identified as the metabolic rift by Karl Marx, who identified the unequal exchange rate between energy and nutrients flowing from rural areas to feed urban cities that create effluent wastes degrading the planet's ecological capital, such as loss in soil nutrient production.[95][96] Energy conservation also leads to what is known as Jevon's paradox, where improvements in energy efficiency lowers the cost of production and leads to a rebound effect where rates of consumption and economic growth increases.[94][97]

A shop in New York only sells items recycled from demolished buildings Costs The amount of money actually saved through recycling depends on the efficiency of the recycling program used to do it. The Institute for Local Self-Reliance argues that the cost of recycling depends on various factors, such as landfill fees and the amount of disposal that the community recycles. It states that communities begin to save money when they treat recycling as a replacement for their traditional waste system rather than an add-on to it and by "redesigning their collection schedules and/or trucks."[98] In some cases, the cost of recyclable materials also exceeds the cost of raw materials. Virgin plastic resin costs 40 percent less than recycled resin.[99] Additionally, a United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) study that tracked the price of clear glass from July 15 to August 2, 1991, found that the average cost per ton ranged from $40 to $60[100] while a USGS report shows that the cost per ton of raw silica sand from years 1993 to 1997 fell between $17.33 and $18.10.[101] Comparing the market cost of recyclable material with the cost of new raw materials ignores economic externalities--the costs that are currently not counted by the market. Creating a new piece of plastic, for instance, may cause more pollution and be less sustainable than recycling a similar piece of plastic, but these factors will not be counted in market cost. A life cycle assessment can be used to determine the levels of externalities and decide whether the recycling may be worthwhile despite unfavorable market costs. Alternatively, legal means (such as a carbon tax) can be used to bring externalities into the market, so that the market cost of the material becomes close to the true cost. Working conditions

People in Brazil who earn their living by collecting and sorting garbage and selling them for recycling The recycling of waste electrical and electronic equipment in India and China generates a significant amount of pollution. Informal recycling in an underground economy of these countries has generated an environmental and health disaster. High levels of lead (Pb), polybrominated diphenylethers (PBDEs), polychlorinated dioxins and furans, as well as polybrominated dioxins and furans (PCDD/Fs and PBDD/Fs) concentrated in the air, bottom ash, dust, soil, water, and sediments in areas surrounding recycling sites.[102] Environmental impact Economist Steven Landsburg, author of a paper entitled "Why I Am Not an Environmentalist,"[103] claimed that paper recycling actually reduces tree populations. He argues that because paper companies have incentives to replenish their forests, large demands for paper lead to large forests while reduced demand for paper leads to fewer "farmed" forests.[104] When foresting companies cut down trees, more are planted in their place. Most paper comes from pulp forests grown specifically for paper production.[105][106][107] Many environmentalists point out, however, that "farmed" forests are inferior to virgin forests in several ways. Farmed forests are not able to fix the soil as quickly as virgin forests, causing widespread soil erosion and often requiring large amounts of fertilizer to maintain while containing little tree and wild-life biodiversity compared to virgin forests.[108] Also, the new trees planted are not as big as the trees that were cut down, and the argument that there will be "more trees" is not compelling to forestry advocates when they are counting saplings. In particular, wood from tropical rainforests is rarely harvested for paper because of their heterogeneity.[109] According to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change secretariat, the overwhelming direct cause of deforestation is subsistence farming (48% of deforestation) and commercial agriculture (32%), which is linked to food, not paper production.[110] Possible income loss and social costs In some countries, recycling is performed by the entrepreneurial poor such as the karung guni, zabbaleen, the rag-and-bone man, waste picker, and junk man. With the creation of large recycling organizations that may be profitable, either by law or economies of scale,[111][112] the poor are more likely to be driven out of the recycling and the remanufacturing market. To compensate for this loss of income, a society may need to create additional forms of societal programs to help support the poor.[113] Like the parable of the broken window, there is a net loss to the poor and possibly the whole of a society to make recycling artificially profitable e.g. through the law. However, in Brazil and Argentina, waste pickers/informal recyclers work alongside the authorities, in fully or semi-funded cooperatives, allowing informal recycling to be legitimized as a paid public sector job.[114] Because the social support of a country is likely to be less than the loss of income to the poor undertaking recycling, there is a greater chance the poor will come in conflict with the large recycling organizations.[115][116] This means fewer people can decide if certain waste is more economically reusable in its current form rather than being reprocessed. Contrasted to the recycling poor, the efficiency of their recycling may actually be higher for some materials because individuals have greater control over what is considered "waste."[113] One labor-intensive underused waste is electronic and computer waste. Because this waste may still be functional and wanted mostly by those on lower incomes, who may sell or use it at a greater efficiency than large recyclers. Some recycling advocates believe that laissez-faire individual-based recycling does not cover all of society's recycling needs. Thus, it does not negate the need for an organized recycling program.[113] Local government can consider the activities of the recycling poor as contributing to property blight. Public participation rates Changes that have been demonstrated to increase recycling rates include: Single-stream recycling Pay as you throw fees for trash "Between 1960 and 2000, the world production of plastic resins increased 25-fold, while recovery of the material remained below 5 percent."[117]:131 Many studies have addressed recycling behaviour and strategies to encourage community involvement in recycling programmes. It has been argued[118] that recycling behaviour is not natural because it requires a focus and appreciation for long-term planning, whereas humans have evolved to be sensitive to short-term survival goals; and that to overcome this innate predisposition, the best solution would be to use social pressure to compel participation in recycling programmes. However, recent studies have concluded that social pressure is unviable in this context.[119] One reason for this is that social pressure functions well in small group sizes of 50 to 150 individuals (common to nomadic hunter-gatherer peoples) but not in communities numbering in the millions, as we see today. Another reason is that individual recycling does not take place in the public view. In a study done by social psychologist Shawn Burn,[120] it was found that personal contact with individuals within a neighborhood is the most effective way to increase recycling within a community. In his study, he had 10 block leaders talk to their neighbors and persuade them to recycle. A comparison group was sent fliers promoting recycling. It was found that the neighbors that were personally contacted by their block leaders recycled much more than the group without personal contact. As a result of this study, Shawn Burn believes that personal contact within a small group of people is an important factor in encouraging recycling. Another study done by Stuart Oskamp[121] examines the effect of neighbors and friends on recycling. It was found in his studies that people who had friends and neighbors that recycled were much more likely to also recycle than those who didn't have friends and neighbors that recycled. Many schools have created recycling awareness clubs in order to give young students an insight on recycling. These schools believe that the clubs actually encourage students to not only recycle at school but at home as well. Related journals See also: Category:Waste management journals Environment and Behavior International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management Journal of Applied Social Psychology Journal of Environmental Psychology Journal of Environmental Systems Journal of Socio-Economics Journal of Urban Economics Psychology and Marketing Recycling: North America's Recycling and Composting Journal Resources, Conservation and Recycling Waste Management & Research Journal of Industrial Ecology See also 2000s commodities boom Bureau of International Recycling E-Cycling Greening Index of recycling articles List of waste management acronyms Nutrient cycle Optical sorting USPS Post Office Box Lobby Recycling program References ^ "PM's advisor hails recycling as climate change action.". Letsrecycle.com. November 8, 2006. Archived from the original on 11 August 2007. Retrieved April 15, 2014. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v The League of Women Voters (1993). The Garbage Primer. 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). ^ Environmental Protection Agency Frequently Asked Questions about Recycling and Waste Management Archived 27 September 2006 at the Wayback Machine.. Retrieved October 18, 2006. ^ "ITP Aluminum: Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Aluminum Industry" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 August 2011. Retrieved November 6, 2012. ^ "The Recycling of Aluminum Cans Versus Plastic". Retrieved October 21, 2011. ^ Brunner, P.H. (1999). "In search of the final sink". Environ. Sci. & Pollut. Res. 6 (1): 1. doi:10.1007/bf02987111. ^ Landsburg, Steven E. The Armchair Economist. p. 86. ^ Selke 116 ^ Grosse, F. (2010). "Is recycling 'part of the solution'? The role of recycling in an expanding society and a world of finite resources". S.a.p.i.e.n.s. 3 (1): 1-17. ^ Sahni, S.; Gutowski, T. G. (2011). "Your scrap, my scrap! The flow of scrap materials through international trade" (PDF). 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Environmental Impact Get Social with Cloud Ninjas Assessment Review. 30: 28-41. doi:10.1016/j.eiar.2009.04.001. ^ Steven E. Landsburg. "Why I Am Not An Environmentalist: The Science of Economics Versus the Religion of Ecology Excerpt from The Armchair Economist: Economics & Everyday Life" (PDF) (PDF). Retrieved July 6, 2016. ^ Landsburg, Steven A. The Armchair Economist. p. 81. ^ The Free Market Don't Recycle: Throw It Away!. Retrieved November 4, 2006. ^ Regulatory Policy Center WASTING AWAY: Mismanaging Municipal Solid Waste Archived 14 April 2008 at the Wayback Machine.. Retrieved November 4, 2006. ^ Jewish World Review The waste of recycling. Retrieved November 4, 2006. ^ Baird, Colin (2004) Environmental Chemistry (3rd ed.) W. H. Freeman ISBN 0-7167-4877-0. ^ de Jesus, Simeon (1975). "How to make paper in the tropics". Unasylva. 27 (3). ^ UNFCCC (2007). "Investment and financial flows to address climate change" (PDF). unfccc.int. UNFCCC. p.81. Retrieved 2016-07-07. ^ "Too Good To Throw Away - Appendix A". NRDC. June 30, 1996. Retrieved November 6, 2012. ^ Mission Police Station Archived 13 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine. ^ a b c PBS NewsHour, February 16, 2010. Report on the Zabaleen ^ Medina, M. (2000). "Scavenger cooperatives in Asia and Latin America.". Resources. 31: 51-69. doi:10.1016/s0921-3449(00)00071-9. ^ "The News-Herald - Scrap metal a steal". Zwire.com. Retrieved November 6, 2012. ^ "Raids On Recycling Bins Costly To Bay Area". NPR. July 19, 2008. Retrieved November 6, 2012. ^ Moore, C. J. (2008). "Synthetic polymers in the marine environment: A rapidly increasing, long-term threat". Environmental Research. 108 (2): 131-139. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2008.07.025. PMID18949831. ^ [Schackelford, T.K. (2006) "Recycling, evolution and the structure of human personality". Personality and Individual Differences 41 1551-1556 ] ^ "Pratarelli, M.E. (2010) "Social pressure and recycling: a brief review, commentary and extensions". S.A.P.I.EN.S. 3 (1)". Sapiens.revues.org. Retrieved November 6, 2012. ^ Burn, Shawn. "Social Psychology and the Stimulation of Recycling Behaviors: The Block Leader Approach." Journal of Applied Social Psychology 21.8 (2006): 611-629. ^ Oskamp, Stuart. "Resource Conservation and Recycling: Behavior and Policy." Journal of Social Issues 51.4 (1995): 157-177. Print. Further reading Ackerman, Frank. (1997). Why Do We Recycle?: Markets, Values, and Public Policy. Island Press. ISBN 1-55963-504-5, ISBN 978-1-55963-504-2 Ayres, R.U. (1994). "Industrial Metabolism: Theory and Policy", In: Allenby, B.R., and D.J. Richards, The Greening of Industrial Ecosystems. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, pp.23-37. Braungart, M., and W. McDonough (2002). Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things. North Point Press, ISBN 0-86547-587-3. Huesemann, Michael H., and Joyce A. Huesemann (2011).Technofix: Why Technology Won't Save Us or the Environment, "Challenge #3: Complete Recycling of Non-Renewable Materials and Wastes", New Society Publishers, Gabriola Island, British Columbia, Canada, ISBN 0-86571-704-4, pp.135-137. Porter, Richard C. (2002). The Economics of Waste. Resources for the Future. ISBN 1-891853-42-2, ISBN 978-1-891853-42-5 Tierney, John (October 3, 2015). "The Reign of Recycling". The New York Times. Sheffield, Hazel. Sweden's recycling is so revolutionary, the country has run out of rubbish (December 2016), The Independent (UK) External links

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Commons v t e Biosolids, waste and waste management Major types Agricultural wastewater Biodegradable waste Brown waste Chemical waste Construction waste Demolition waste Electronic waste by country Food waste Green waste Hazardous waste Heat waste Industrial waste Litter Marine debris Biomedical waste Mining waste Municipal solid waste Open defecation Post-consumer waste Radioactive waste Scrap metal Sewage Toxic waste Wastewater

Processes Anaerobic digestion Biodegradation Composting Garden waste dumping Illegal dumping Incineration Landfill Landfill mining Mechanical biological treatment Mechanical sorting Open dump Photodegradation Recycling Resource recovery Sewage treatment Waste collection Waste picking Waste sorting Waste trade Waste treatment Waste-to-energy Countries Armenia Bangladesh Brazil Hong Kong India Kazakhstan New Zealand Russia Switzerland Taiwan Thailand Turkey UK US Agreements Bamako Convention Basel Convention EU directives batteries landfills RoHS framework incineration waste water WEEE London Convention Oslo Convention OSPAR Convention Other topics Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future Cleaner production Downcycling Eco-industrial park Extended producer responsibility High-level radioactive waste management History of waste management Landfill fire Sewage regulation and administration Upcycling Waste hierarchy Waste legislation Waste minimisation Zero waste

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