#specifically ABOUT weather or not introducing biological control species may or may not be a good idea

[lilacsandthistles]

"could we just introduce a natural predator to kill the catfish?"

Philza Minecraft

[landscapedesignfirm]

What You Need to Know About Japanese Beetles

As part of our ongoing series on invasive insects, this article focuses on Japanese beetles, a significant concern for homeowners and gardeners due to their destructive impact on over 300 species of ornamental plants. This article will discuss the characteristics, life cycle, and damage caused by Japanese beetles in Pennsylvania. We will also explore various control methods and offer tips for preventing infestations.

How Japanese Beetles Came to Pennsylvania

Japanese beetles (Popillia japonica) are invasive insects native to Japan, as the name implies. The Japanese beetle was introduced into the U.S. in 1916 near Riverton, New Jersey, and likely arrived in the United States on ornamental nursery stock. The pest soon spread throughout the eastern United States, being detected on the west coast as early as the 1940s. Since then, the pest has spread throughout much of North America, affecting most states and Canada.

Japanese Beetle Appearance

Adult Japanese beetles are about one-half of an inch long with a shiny metallic green body and copper-colored wing covers, and their neck, head, and legs are reddish-brown. The adult beetles also have two patches of white hairs at the tip of their abdomen and five tufts of white hairs on both sides of their abdomen. In addition, adult beetles often have orange wing tips, which show when they are flying to escape predators or when disturbed. The larvae, or grubs, are creamy-white with brown heads and three pairs of legs on the thorax region (where the wings and legs attach to the main body).

Beetle Life Cycle

The beetle’s life cycle is completed in approximately one year in Pennsylvania. Female beetles lay eggs in the soil under host plants in late June through mid-August. Then, the beetle larvae will hatch after two weeks and feed on grass roots until winter. Japanese beetles spend the winter buried in the ground, moving towards the surface as the spring season approaches and the weather gets warm. During this time, the larvae will continue to feed on grass roots until they mature, usually from late May through June.

From late June to July (around June 20 in the southern areas of Pennsylvania), the larvae will have matured into adult beetles and emerge from the ground. While Japanese beetles begin emerging from the soil around late June, the pests are most abundant during July. When mating, female beetles lay around 40-60 eggs in the soil, where the life cycle repeats.

As mentioned previously, the beetles feed on more than 300 species of host plants, from ornamental plants to even fruit and crops. The larvae only feed on grass roots, while the adult beetles feed on a much more extensive range of plants. Some common ornamental plants the pest feeds on include roses, flowering cherries, marigolds, and birch—adult beetles damage plants by “skeletonizing” the foliage. “Skeletonizing” means that the beetles consume only the leaf material between the veins. As a result, these leaves may turn brown and eventually fall off.

Adults feed during the day and tend to favor hot weather and plants growing with total exposure to the sun. The larvae, meanwhile, damage lawns by chewing grass roots, causing the turf to brown and die. The result is that the turf pulls up easily from the soil, or dead patches of grass form if the problem is severe.

Japanese Beetle Treatment & Management

Our plant health care specialists have a specific treatment program for managing the beetles and protecting your plants. For example, one pest management treatment method for Japanese beetle populations in a landscape is pesticide application.

Methods for controlling and eliminating Japanese beetles include:

Biological approaches: Introducing natural predators, such as parasitic wasps or flies, can help control beetle populations.

Chemical approaches: Pesticide applications by plant health care specialists can manage beetle infestations and protect plants.

Cultural approaches: Removing rotting tree fruit and maintaining a healthy lawn can help prevent beetle infestations.

Traps are also available, but the trapping method is used more as a monitoring tool to measure the extent of pest presence of the pest. Traps use floral lures or female pheromones to attract beetles, so the traps could attract more beetles to your landscape. Like the pesticides, these traps should be handled by a professional plant health care specialist to ensure that they are used correctly.

Contact Burkholder PHC for Japanese Beetle Treatment in Your Landscape

Japanese beetles can be a significant issue for homeowners, as the beetles negatively affect the appearance and health of their plants and lawn. If you have plants that show signs of the pest’s activity or want to keep your landscape safe from them, reach out to Burkholder PHC. Our team will conduct a plant health care evaluation and diagnosis of your landscape and inform you of your treatment options. We provide no-cost identification of the situation in addition to free testing, diagnostics, inspections, and evaluations. Contact us today for a free consultation.

Blog is originally published at: https://www.burkholderphc.com/what-you-need-to-know-about-japanese-beetles/

It is republished with the permission from the author.

[changing-the-paradigm]

Ecosystems, Services, and the Role of Humans

This week, the textbook chapters covered a wide range of topics from the basic laws of science to biodiversity principles on both land and water. Beginning with chapter 2, I found one of the most fundamental ideas to be that of the scientific method as a whole. It is the backbone of science itself, the same set of steps scientists across the globe use to discover and convey new information. In the words of Albert Einstein, the scientific method is simply “‘...nothing more than a refinement of everyday thinking’” (Miller 25), a sentiment I wholeheartedly agree with. 

Moving on to the following chapters, the core of the week’s first topic is introduced: ecosystems. On its own, the term “ecosystem” is a single word that covers a massive topic. It encompasses how organism populations, geographic location, and even weather work together as a community. The readings dive deeper into the specifics of ecosystems, discussing certain aspects such as food webs, soil, nutrient cycles, biomes, and weather patterns. Each of these subtopics makes up an important part of any ecosystem on its own, and, together, they keep the environment functioning. A key part of ecosystems is the varying niches of their organisms. Each ecosystem requires different roles, and thus different species are needed to help the community thrive. A major type of niche that many are likely familiar with already is that of a keystone species. One of the most famous examples of the importance of such species is the disappearance and reintroduction of Yellowstone wolves. After being driven to extinction, the necessity of the wolves of Yellowstone park was proven when the entire food chain broke down into chaos. Without a predator, the elk population exploded and pushed the carrying capacity of the ecosystem to its limit, which in turn disrupted the beaver population. In 1995, Yellowstone reintroduced wolves into its environment, and the ecosystem has since stabilized once more. 

In regards to services, one may argue that particularly sensitive species provide a service to humankind by alerting us of change. These organisms are called “indicator species”. Many frogs are sensitive to changes in their environment and can be observed for that reason, though, as the textbook points out, many amphibians are going extinct at an alarming rate. Another common example of an indicator species not mentioned by Miller and Spoolman is the classic canary in the coal mine. Since many birds are indicator species, miners would bring canaries with them to mining sites. If the bird died, it was an alert to the miners that there were dangerous levels of carbon monoxide in the cave that would poison them. Though this is a very controlled example, indicator species continue to be critical to our survival, and we must heed the warnings they are providing.

One of the most vital functions of every ecosystem is the process of biological evolution. Without it, species could not adapt to changing environments and would quickly die out. Moreover, none of the organisms seen on Earth today would exist at all. Because of evolution, biodiversity can flourish, and with biodiversity comes stability. Biodiversity is broken down into several components: species diversity, genetic diversity, ecosystem diversity, and functional diversity. A simple example used by the textbook to demonstrate the need for biodiversity is a forest. When it comes to the odds of anything surviving various detrimental events, a forest made up of different species is more likely to thrive than a forest made of one type. The reason behind this is simple: some species of organisms may be better equipped than others to survive different events; therefore, the odds of survival rise when there is greater biodiversity in an ecosystem. 

Though there are many problems posed in these chapters, I believe that the first step to solving them is improved education. More specifically, education about evolution is necessary. It remains true that an alarming number of people today still do not accept evolution as a fact despite scientists having documented the process countless times. To overcome obstacles, first, we must all be united in our goals and understanding. Proper knowledge of evolution would build the foundation for ecosystem-related education, which would in turn be the gateway to solving the major issues at hand. As for the problems themselves, the first I would like to address is the loss of biodiversity all over the world. There are many causes, but most of them are related to humans interfering with habitats, whether it be through forest clearing, habitat fragmentation, or other means. Thankfully, solutions already exist to solve one of these problems. Since undoing fragmentation would be extremely difficult in most cases, green corridors and fish ladders are easy ways to connect fragmented habitats and reintroduce populations for breeding. Since fragmentation limits habitats to small sections, genetic biodiversity within species is often compromised, and inbreeding is common. Green corridors provide an excellent way to solve this issue. To address the other causes, the best and perhaps only way to stop the crumbling of biodiversity is to stop destroying habitats in the first place. This would also help solve the issue of worsening air quality since a lack of trees has been shown to be linked. 

Question: though I’ve identified a way to help solve decreasing levels of biodiversity, how does human society balance prioritizing the environment with maintaining economies?

Word count: 891

Works Cited

“Canary in the Coal Mine.” ; - Wiktionary, https://s.wsj.net/public/resources/images/ON-CQ948_Canary_B620_20180911125616.jpg. Accessed 20 September 2022.

Farquhar, Brodie. “Wolf Reintroduction Changes Yellowstone Ecosystem.” Yellowstone National Park, https://www.yellowstonepark.com/things-to-do/wildlife/wolf-reintroduction-changes-ecosystem/. Accessed 20 September 2022.

Miller, G. Tyler, and Scott Spoolman. Living in the Environment. Cengage Learning, 2019.

9/20/22

[rosietheechidna-roleplay]

Raptor the Dragon Profile

"Sometimes you just got shut out what other people think and let your heart do the talking!" ~*Basic Info*~

Name: Raptor Ignis Pyron Alignment Raptor's moral's and resolve fall within the Lawful Good alignment. He respects the rules of the area he's in, hates evil and immoral deeds and is quick to speak out against what isn't right, not matter how people view him. Age: 18 Gender: Male Species Raptor is a Winged Regal Dragon from the Hidden Emerald Dimension. His kind is a rare species that share a few similar traits with bats, such as big ears, and are well known for their great loyalty for their loved ones and for taking charge of areas in the Dragon Canyon area of the dimension. Winged Regal Dragons are bulky, fast in the air and wield magical power, based on their attribute. Also, like all Hidden Emerald Dimension inhabitants, they possess impenetrable skin, an indestructible skeleton, and are able to achieve their True Potential through plenty of martial arts training. Physical Appearance

Raptor is three feet and seven inches tall, weighing in at an approximate ninety-five pounds. He has purple fur, yellow skin and muzzle, and emerald green eyes. As a Winged Regal Dragon, Raptor shares common traits with his species such as big, bat-like ears, large, purple wings and a purple tail with yellow spots. Attire

Raptor doesn't wear much clothing, normally being seen in his blue shorts and boots. His upper body is usually bare since he doesn't really like wearing shirts due to his wings being in the way. Personality Raptor's very intelligent and compassionate, being the one who is always willing to listen to another's problems and try to find a solution, even at his own expense. He's very loyal to Team Wonder Warriors and does everything he can to contribute to his allies, even if it means putting his life on the line. Raptor may appear to be fully matured but he's still a baby dragon since Winged Regal Dragons reach adulthood at the age of one hundred. Meaning, he can be emotional sometimes.

Likes

When he's not busy assisting his team, Raptor enjoys discovering new things and learning about the world around him. He often spends time researching different aspects Mobius, both the Hidden Emerald Dimension and the mainworld, such as different natural phenomena, ancient history, and even health science for different species. He also likes to collect ancient artifacts with plenty of historical background and/or sentimental value, like scrolls and old swords. Raptor even has a bit of artistic side, leading to a pleasure in creating different things. He's always trying to practice with his magical abilities to create new attributal spells as well as crafting different potions and medicine. He even loves to bask in the art of cooking. With all of that in mind, Raptor has a lot of different hobbies but it never seems to deter him from spending time from his best friend, as he always likes a nice training session with Rosie whenever the opportunity rises.

Dislikes

Raptor has a pretty rough past and often does not like being reminded of what happened to him when he was a younger child. Because of what happened to him way back then, he tends to be very empathic and hates to see other children abandoned or orphaned, without a family to look after them. He views his family and friends as personal treasures and doesn't like to see any harm befall upon any of them. Backstory Raptor was raised in the Hidden Emerald Dimension, born into a royal family in a mystical mountainous region, primarily run by dragons, known as Dragon Valley. He was quite shy as a young lizard and spent most of his time with his father, King Dracon, and his mother, Queen Taria. His life was pretty normal until his jealous, evil uncle, Mange, barged into his home to steal his father's throne. After a long battle, Dracon was defeated Mange took the throne, resulting in Dracon and Taria being imprisoned and Raptor banished to barren, arid Badlands, seen as useless. Raptor soon found himself all alone, left to die in the desert area, until his cousin, Veloci, who was exploring the area for a travel guide, found him and helped him out of the Badlands. The young dragon was desperate and told Veloci about how his parents were robbed of their throne and how he was cast away to die. Not wanting things to end like this, Veloci took Raptor under her wing, taught him how to fight through Wrestling, Judo, and Kung Fu, as well as introducing him magic. After several months of training, Raptor decided to go back to Dragon Valley, accompanied by Veloci, and face his evil uncle in a final duel to save his family. Thanks to all that he learned from his cousin, Raptor was able to defeat his evil uncle and free his parents, bringing the family back together again and winning back the throne. A few years later, Raptor wanted to step away from Dragon Valley for a while and see the outside world. He left the comforts of his home and traveled to a cool spring near Aura Town, where he met Rosie the Echidna, who was training near the water. Having admired the young, martial artist echidna's dedication and persistence in her practice, Raptor decided to say hello to her and soon the two in locked into a long, pleasant conversation. The two realized they had a lot in common and spent the whole day together, strolling through the town, stopping for sushi and, eventually, spending the night in Rosie's family dojo. The day after, while taking a short flight over a forest region, Raptor spotted Rosie again but this time, instead of a peaceful encounter, she was attacked and ganged up on by members of a rogue dojo. He knew how it felt to be all alone in a troubled situation so he took action immediately and dove into the fight, scaring off the attackers and saving his new friend. He didn't waste any time taking her back to her home and helping her recover, using a healing spell. As much as she and her sister were grateful for the young dragon's help, Rosie felt powerless and began to give lose hope in herself, having gone through many years, beaten by other martial artists and being viewed as the weakest fighter around. Raptor didn't want to leave his new friend in this state so, with the help of Rosie's sisters, he used his magic to jumpstart the energy deep within her body and help her achieve her True Potential. From that day forward, the two have been the best of friends and did almost everything together. Through the following years, Raptor created a giant tower of clouds in the sky to serve as his home, the Sky Tower, above Aura Town so he could remain in close vicinity with Rosie, as well contribute to the area below, using his magic powers to resolve the problems of others. He made sure to maintain his friendship with Rosie and swoops in to visit her, from time to time. The two eventually forged a team together, Team Wonder Warriors, to protect the entire dimension from danger and help all individuals in need. Whatever the situation may be, Raptor always makes sure to offer his assistance to others. ~*Social Info*~ AffIliation Raptor is one of the founding members of a freedom-fighting team of the Hidden Emerald Dimension, known as the Wonder Warriors, led by his best friend, Rosie the Echidna. He is well-appreciated as the main head of intelligence of the group as well as the main source of transportation, being able to carry many passengers on his back while in the air. Relationship Status Raptor is single, not in a relationship with anyone yet. Love Interest Raptor had developed a crush with Sally Acorn after seeing how well she treated her biological niece, and his adopted sister, Vanill the Squirrel. While he was observing the two together, he began to notice the admirable traits of Sally such as her kindness and responsible nature and was even won over when she happily helps Vanill practice her martial arts, being a fighter herself. Raptor had grown feelings for her ever since. ~*Combat Info*~ Powers Pyrokinesis/Cryokinesis (in colder temperatures)

Fire is Raptor's primary attribute under normal conditions, allowing him to breathe powerful fire from his mouth and control flames at will. However, he is also among the few non-Water attribute HED Mobians that can actually change their primary type in accordance to the climate change. When the weather around him grows cold, especially in the winter, his attribute shifts to a Water attribute, giving him the ability to wield ice attacks and gives his techniques a cold touch.

Magical Abilities and Alchemy

While in exile, Raptor has been trained by his cousin, Veloci, in the art of necromancy, giving him the power to use his attribute to cast magic spells for various effects. He can use utilize alchemy, using it to summon many different objects, elements, and even transform certain items into different ones

Enhanced Durability

Raptor is brick tough.  Enough said.  Having developed enough endurance to put the rest of his family to shame, this dragon can tank viciously powerful blows and still stand back up for more.  Unless the attacks have a lot of force behind them or the opponent has enough speed to deal a bunch of successful blows at once, one is going to have a lot of trouble keeping Raptor down.

Skills

Martial Arts Knowledge

As fellow HED Mobians, Veloci definitely made sure to train Raptor in hand-to-hand combat.  More specifically, in the art of Doragon Resuringu or Dragon Wrestling, which is basically the equivalent of Shootboxing developed by a clan of dragons in his homeland. It combined the hard-hitting techniques of Muay Thai with that of Wrestling, meaning Raptor knows how to strike and grapple well.  This trait only got better when he became friends with Rosie, for he was able to further his fighting skills and learn a few more fighting styles.

Swordsmanship

Martial arts and magic aren’t the only things that Veloci taught Raptor.  After many days of practicing with wooden swords, he is also trained in the art of Swordplay.  He is highly skilled with a blade and can hold his own in a sword fight.

Experienced Chemist

Raptor is competent and capable of handling many different liquid substances and chemicals in order to make something new. He often combines this skill with his magic to forge many different kinds of potions to aid his allies.

Omnilingualism

Raptor can understand and fluently speak almost any language spoken by mobians and humans, especially Latin which he uses to cast his magic spells.

Weapons/Tools Dragon Sword - A sharp and sturdy sword made from Raptor's magic. It has a solid, silver blade and blue handle, or tang, a red-orange and yellow fire-shaped tang shoulder with a fire-shaped emblem in the middle. Also, when he holds it aloft and says, "By the power of the dragon," his attributal power increases gradually.

Strengths Being a Winged Regal Dragon, Raptor's body is very tanky and tough, making him able to endure attacks very well and sometimes is capable of taking physical blows without even flinching. It takes someone with great strength to be able to damage him. He also possesses a great amount of physical strength, an acute sense of smell and excellent hearing, thanks to his bat-like ears.

Resistance

His attribute allows him to better shrug off plant-based and/or natural energy attacks without a problem, especially with his kind of endurance.  When his attribute changes in the winter time, he can, instead, endure pyrokinetic attacks a lot better.

Weaknesses

As a Fire attributer, Raptor is more vulnerable against water and earth attacks, meaning he's more easily harmed by said attributes,  When he shifts to a Water attributer from cold climate changes, he's no longer weak to water but is, instead, vulnerable to Plant-based energy, a.k.a. the Forest attribute.  Plus, as tough as he is, there’s only so much punishment he’s able to stand at once.  If his opponent is able to successfully land blow after blow on him, he’ll eventually start to feel the pressure. Invulnerablities

Raptor doesn't exactly have much in the Invulnerability department, besides a HED Mobian's naturally sturdy and impenetrable body.

Transformations/Forms

Attribute Shift/Winter Form

This is the internal change that happens within Raptor’s very being when the season eventually changes to winter.  Upon exposure to the colder climate change, his attribute silently shifts from the Fire Attribute to the Water Attribute.  He doesn’t experience a flashy appearance change nor does he feel a sudden energy change in his body but he eventually notices the form shift when his fire attack attacks shifted into cryokinetic ice attacks

Ancient Transformation/War Dragon Form

An ancient power that has blessed onto Raptor’s bloodline, awakened through the power of his sword when he first held it aloft in the Jade Tower, north of the Pyron Kingdom.  When he holds his sword up high and lets out spirited battle cry, the energy within the blade shrouds his entire body with a super-hot flame until his appearance changes, marking the shift into his enhanced form: War Dragon Raptor.  His fur changes from purple to black, his eyes turn bright red, and two red stripes appear on both ends of his muzzle, hot to the touch.  His already high endurance gets a big boost, as well as his strength and speed, and his firepower is drastically enhanced.  The intensity of his flames is so great, he can even neutralize the effect of weaker water/ice attacks, taking no damage from them at all!  Like all Legend transformations, his form is not completely invulnerable so if he actually happens to take too much damage and can’t fight anymore, it will disappear.

~*Other Information*~

Ideal Voice Portrayals

English: Josh Grelle

Japanese: Tomokazu Seki

Ranking Quotes

S: “WHOA!! I did amazing!!”

A:  ROAR!!!  Now that’s a real victory!

B: “Haha! Great work!”

C: “Not too bad! I'll take that!”

D: “I guess there's always room for improvement.”

E: “Grah... I can do better than that.”

Theme

Sky Tower Remix v.ll, originally from Pokemon Mystery Dungeon - Red/Blue Rescue Team, was picked for Raptor’s theme as it provides more of a medieval vibe that suits his character, as well as an energetic essence of hope.  Plus, the Sky Tower level was the main source of inspiration for Raptor’s own Sky Tower home.

[aartisenblog]

GET THIS BOOK

Author:

C.R. Adams, K.M. Bamford and M.P. Early

Published in: Elseviers Release Year: 2008 ISBN: 978-0-7506-8694-5 Pages: 426 Edition: 5th File Size: 17 MB File Type: pdf Language: English

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Description of Principles of Horticulture

By studying the principles of horticulture, one is able to learn how and why plants grow and develop. In this way, horticulturists are better able to understand the responses of the plant to various conditions, and therefore to perform their function more efficiently. They are able to manipulate the plant so that they achieve their own particular requirements of maximum yield and/or quality at the correct time. The text therefore introduces the plant in its own right, and explains how a correct naming method is vital for distinguishing one plant from another. The internal structure of the plant is studied in relation to the functions performed in order that we can understand why the plant takes it particular form.  The environment of a plant contains many variable factors, all of which have their effects, and some of which can dramatically modify growth and development. It is therefore important to distinguish the effects of these factors in order to have precise control of growth. The environment which surrounds the parts of the plant above the ground includes factors such as light, day-length, temperature, carbon dioxide and oxygen, and all of these must ideally be provided in the correct proportions to achieve the type of growth and development required. The growing medium is the means of providing nutrients, water, air and usually anchorage for the plants. In the wild, a plant will interact with other plants, often to different species and other organisms to create a balanced community. Ecology is the study of this balance. In growing plants for our own ends we have created a new type of community which creates problems – problems of competition for the environmental factors between one plant and another of the same species, between the crop plant and a weed, or between the plant and a pest or disease organism.  These latter two competitive aspects create the need for crop protection . It is only by identification of these competitive organisms (weeds, pests and diseases) that the horticulturist may select the correct method of control. With the larger pests there is little problem of recognition, but the smaller insects, mites, nematodes, fungi and bacteria are invisible to the naked eye and, in this situation, the grower must rely on the symptoms produced (type of damage). For this reason, the pests are covered under major headings of the organism, whereas the diseases are described under symptoms. Symptoms (other than those caused by an organism) such as frost damage, herbicide damage and mineral deficiencies may be confused with pest or disease damage, and reference is made in the text to this problem.  Weeds are broadly identified as perennial or annual problems. References at the end of each chapter encourage students to expand their knowledge of symptoms. In an understanding of crop protection, the structure and life cycle of the organism must be emphasized in order that specific measures, e.g. chemical control, may be used at the correct time and place to avoid complications such as phytotoxicity, resistant pest production or death of beneficial organisms. For this reason, each weed, pest and disease is described in such a way that control measures follow logically from an understanding of its biology. More detailed explanations of specific types of control, such as biological control, are contained in a separate chapter where concepts such as economic damage are discussed. Principles of Horticulture book is not intended to be a reference source of weeds, pests and diseases; its aim is to show the range of these organisms in horticulture. References are given to texts which cover symptoms and life cycle stages of a wider range of organisms. Latin names of species are included in order that confusion about the varied common names may be avoided. Growing media include soils and soil substitutes such as composts, aggregate culture and nutrient film technique. Usually the plant’s water and mineral requirements are taken up from the growing medium by roots. Active roots need a supply of oxygen, and therefore the root environment must be managed to include aeration as well as to supply water and minerals. The growing medium must also provide anchorage and stability, to avoid soils that ‘ blow ’ , trees that uproot in shallow soils or tall pot plants that topple in lightweight composts.  The components of the soil are described to enable satisfactory root environments to be produced and maintained where practicable. Soil conditions are modified by cultivation's, irrigation, drainage and liming, while fertilizers are used to adjust the nutrient status to achieve the type of growth required. The use of soil substitutes, and the management of plants grown in pots, troughs, peat bags and other containers where there is a restricted rooting zone, are also discussed in the final chapter. The importance of the plant’s aerial environment is given due consideration as a background to growing all plants notably their micro climate , its measurement and methods of modifying it. This is put in context by the inclusion of a full discussion of the climate , the underlying factors that drive the weather systems and the nature of local climates in the British Isles.  There has been an expansion of the genetics section to accommodate the need for more details especially with regard to genetic modification (GM) to reflect the interest in this topic in the industry. The changes in the classification system have been accommodated and the plant divisions revised without losing the familiar names of plant groups, such as monocotyledon, in the text. Concerns about biodiversity and the interest in plant conservation are addressed along with more detail on ecology and companion planting. More examples of plant adaptions have been provided and more emphasis has been given to the practical application of plant form in the leisure use of plants. The use of pesticides has been revised in the light of continued regulations about their use. More details have been included on the use of inert growing media such as rockwool .

[foresthillsirisgardens-blog]

Neonicotinoids: What home gardeners need to know The pesticides work on an array of insects — including the good guys.

There has been a lot of buzz in recent years about a group of chemicals known as "neonicotinoids." These pesticides affect the central nervous systems of insects, and are a suspected link to colony collapse disorder in domesticated honeybees as well as the rapid decline of many wild pollinator species.

About 85 percent of Earth's flowering plants rely on pollination by bees and other pollinators, according to the Xerces Society, a nonprofit that protects wildlife through invertebrate conservation. Bees also pollinate more than 30 percent of all plants that produce foods and beverages consumed by humans around the world.

"Neonicotinoids are one of the most serious causes of downward negative pressure on pollinators," according to Keith Delaplane, a professor of entomology and director of the Honey Bee Program at the University of Georgia. In fact, he rates neonicotinoids as the second-leading cause of decline in the nation's honeybees, reserving the top spot for the parasitic varroa destructor mite.

What are neonicotinoids?

"Neonicotinoids are a broad-spectrum pesticide that get their name from their basic chemistry, because it is close to that of nicotine," said Delaplane, emphasizing that "neonics," as they are often called, are not the same as nicotine. The neonicotinoid family includes specific pesticides such as acetamaprid, imidacloprid, dinotefuran, clothianidin and thiamethoxam. They gained popularity in agricultural and commercial ornamental production because they are effective against a wide range of insect pests, and are considered less hazardous to humans and other vertebrates than many insecticides.

"The hallmark of neonicotinoids is that they are systemic," Delaplane added. That means they travel throughout a plant via its vascular system and distribute the chemical to all parts of the plant tissue 24/7, including its nectar and pollen.

"Neonicotinoids just hammer insects," Delaplane said. While there are many target insects, such as whitefly, Japanese beetles, emerald ash borer and others, neonicotinoids are used in general to control sucking and chewing insects and beetles. But some of the insects they "hammer" are important pollinators such as honeybees, bumblebees and solitary bees.

How neonicotinoids became a cause of concern

In a 2014 report, David Smitley — a professor of entomology at Michigan State University who works with horticulture industries on solving insect pest problems — included neonics in a timeline tracing the decline of honeybees.

According to Smitley, honeybee decline began in the 1950s and sharply increased when parasitic mites were introduced into the United States around 1987. The neonicotinoid class of pesticides were introduced in 1994, but the rate of honeybee decline, while continuing, did not immediately get worse.

A turning point for neonicotinoid awareness occurred in June 2013, when 50,000 bees died in the parking lot of a Target store in Wilsonville, Oregon, near the Xerces Society headquarters. Scott Hoffman Black, executive director of the Xerces Society, said he confirmed the bees died from being sprayed with an insecticide that contained the neonicotinoid dinotefuran. He claimed the label instructions weren't followed.

In 2014, a Harvard School of Public Health study linked low doses of neonicotinoids to colony collapse disorder. Additional studies produced mixed results regarding pesticides' impact on bee declines, and also pointed to other factors such as the varroa mite and insufficient food sources.

Citrus plants, like this lemon tree, can contain high levels of imidacloprid residue. (Photo: Larisa Blinova/Shutterstock)

In 2016, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued a "preliminary risk assessment" warning that bee colonies could be in danger from imidacloprid, a pesticide the agency had approved 22 years earlier. In hives exposed to more than 25 parts per billion of imidacloprid, the EPA reported a higher chance of "decreases in pollinators as well as less honey produced." A few months later, a study in the journal Nature reported that bees who frequent neonicotinoid-treated crops have suffered worse population declines than species who forage on other plants.

And while domesticated honeybees tend to get more attention, an array of wild native bees may also be at risk from neonics. In a 2017 study, for example, researchers found thiamethoxam dramatically reduces egg-laying by queen bumblebees, which were 26 percent less likely to lay eggs after being exposed to it.

As lead researcher Nigel Raine told the Guardian, this could have a disastrous effect on the formation of new bumblebee colonies — and thus on bumblebee populations overall. "A reduction this big in the ability of queens to start new colonies significantly increases the chances that wild populations could go extinct," said Raine, a professor of environmental sciences at the University of Guelph in Ontario, Canada.

As dangerous as neonics can be for bees, some species do seem to have natural defenses against certain types of the insecticide. In one study, researchers from the University of Exeter, Rothamsted Research and Bayer AG — a multinational corporation that produces neonicotinoids — reported that enzymes in honeybees and bumblebees buffer them against thiacloprid, a neonic that's less toxic to bees than others, like imidacloprid. This may shed light on new ways to protect bees from the insecticides, the study's authors say, although more research will be needed.

How do pollinators absorb neonicotinoids?

Bees can absorb neonics in several ways, such as by drinking nectar or transferring pollen. Another is a process called guttation, or the act of a plant sweating.

Corn, for example, sweats during the night. Bees can obtain water from guttation droplets, especially during dry weather.

Aphids, one of the real targets of neonicotinoids, insert their needle-like mouthparts into plant tissue and suck plant juice all day long rather than imbibing guttation droplets. The neonicotinoids are also in the sweet excrement, or honey dew, from the aphids, which honeybees collect. So it's possible for the honeybees to absorb neonicotinoids indirectly from a treated plant without ever visiting that plant.

A graphic from the EPA explaining pollinator-related label requirements for pesticides. (Image: EPA)

How are neonicotinoids applied?

The most common form of applying neonicotinoids to agricultural crops is to treat seeds before they are sown rather than treating plants. The goal is to eliminate application issues such as drift that can cause collateral damage.

That doesn't always work out as planned, Delaplane said. There was a case in the Midwest, he pointed out, involving spring planting of neonicotinoid-coated corn seed. As the seed was being poured into the hoppers and run through the planters, insecticide-coated dust was released into the air.

There was so much dust that it formed a pink cloud, which drifted off-target onto nearby bee hives. Manufacturers have since tried to improve the formulation to prevent airborne drift, Delaplane said.

Also in 2014, Michigan State University conducted specific research about the use of neonicotinoids and made recommendations about their use for greenhouse growers that produce flowering annuals. In 2013, the EPA produced a strengthened bee advisory label. The agency required registrants of commercial pesticides that could be harmful to pollinators to include the label on packaging beginning in 2014.

A gardening center in a Home Depot store. (Photo: RustyClark/Flickr)

Neonicotinoids in the retail trade

Perhaps the best way for home gardeners to know whether ornamental plants they purchase at retail garden centers or big box stores have been treated with neonicotinoids is to ask the staff or look at the plant labels. Smitley's PowerPoint, for example, points out that Home Depot, one of the large retail chains that controls a lion's share of the flower and nursery market, is requiring a label in each pot of plants treated with a neonicotinoid insecticide. (Home Depot did not respond to a request for information for this story, but the company has announced plans to phase out the use of neonics on its plants "by the end of 2018.")

Lowe's, another major retail home garden plant source, is working with growers and suppliers of live plants to eliminate the use of neonics on plants that attract bees and other pollinators. It has pledged to phase out the pesticides by 2019, and to make brochures and fact sheets about pollinator health available in stores.

"Lowe's is also encouraging growers to use biological pest control methods when practical," said Steve Salazar, manager of Lowe's corporate communications. Neither seeds nor seedlings at Lowe's stores are treated with neonicotinoids, he added.

In the meantime, "Lowe's will be tagging plants and nursery products with information highlighting bee health and encouraging customers to be mindful of pollinator health when using pesticides," Salazar said.

Broad-spectrum insecticides are not necessary to grow a successful garden. (Photo: Parker Knight/Flickr)

What can home gardeners do?

Because neonicotinoids have been in the news, the public eye has been focused on plants at garden centers. Smitley says warnings about these plants harming pollinators have been exaggerated. In fact, he believes that purchasing flowering annuals, perennials and trees is beneficial for bees and other insects. "The discovery of neonicotinoid insecticide in the leaves and flowers of some garden center plants should not stop [home gardeners] from buying and planting flowers, because the benefit to bees far outweighs the potential risk," Smitley wrote in a 2014 paper.

Home gardens are not a primary food source for most bees, and even if neonics are present in some plants from retail centers, those plants will not necessarily harm bees, according to Smitley. Here are some reasons why:

Many bedding flowers — such as petunias, impatiens and marigolds — are not typically treated with neonicotinoids.

Many trees and shrubs (including all types of conifers) are pollinated by wind, and therefore not visited by bees.

Perennial flowers, roses, flowering shrubs and flowering trees will only have neonics in their pollen and nectar for the first year or two after they are planted. However, these plants will be a valuable resource for bees and other pollinators for many years to come.

Bees feed on a large variety of flowering plants within a mile of their colony home. The presence of a neonicotinoid in one plant will be diluted when the bees feed on untreated plants.

Flowers in flats should be completely safe to bees.

Still, Smitley said in the paper that homeowners can take steps to help ensure bee safety with purchased perennial flowers and flowering trees.

These steps include:

Removing the flowers in their first year in your garden or plant trees after they have finished flowering.

Avoid spraying plants in your garden with insecticides, and never spray the flowers.

If holes that insects chew in leaves become unsightly, bee-friendly insecticides include products containing Bacillus thuringiensis (B.t.) and horticultural oils and soaps, according to Smitley's paper. B.t. can be used any time for caterpillars, and soaps and oils are safe to bees if sprayed early in the morning before bees are present. Be careful not to exceed the application rate on the product label, because at higher concentrations soaps and oils can cause plant injury.

Safe for humans

Neonicotinoids should not pose any threat to humans if they are used according the product label and stored in places not accessible to children. They have a low toxicity for all mammals, said Delaplane.

In fact, according to Smitley, the most widely used neonicotinoid, imidacloprid, is less toxic to people than caffeine, and about twice as toxic as ibuprofen.

Smitley offered a calculation that puts the toxicity of neonicotinoids for humans into perspective. Based on the required studies with laboratory rats, he has concluded that once garden-center products containing imidacloprid are mixed into a bucket of water for use as a drench around the base of a tree, the toxicity of that solution to people is about the same as the toxicity of wine

.https://www.mnn.com/your-home/organic-farming-gardening/stories/neonicotinoids-what-home-gardeners-need-to-know