technically-a-geniusiq

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A match made in neural heaven: How a neuron grows an axon

While the neural architecture responsible for the transmission of electrical impulses has been known for more than a century, the basic biology behind how a neuron acquires its one and only axon — a fundamental component of how neurons communicate — remains a mystery.

In a new paper, a researcher at the University of California, Riverside, and his colleagues describe the genetic switches that ignite axon formation. Their work focuses on two molecular components — polypyrimidine tract binding protein 2 (PTBP2) and the shootin gene (SHTN1).

“Neurons are so distinct from other cells in the body,” said Sika Zheng, assistant professor of biomedical sciences in the School of Medicine at the University of California, Riverside. “They are the only cells that can grow a protrusion (the axon) that can become hundreds and thousands of times longer than the cell body itself.”

Neurons transfer information through electrical impulses. These impulses travel down the long, threadlike axon that extends from the neuron’s central body. At the end of the axon, the impulse arcs across a gap to the fingerlike dendrite of the neighboring neuron. This spark of a synapse conveys information from one neural cell to the next. The complex neural circuit enables every action, emotion, and thought you experience every day.

“As a field, we typically study one gene to understand a phenomenon, but one gene cannot possibly describe everything that is happening to generate an axon,” Zheng said. “Rather than focusing on one gene, we are thinking globally to explore the process that generates the spectacular set of tasks to create the axon.”

Previous studies have identified more than 150 genes that play some roles in axon function. Zheng and his team were surprised to find the overall expression levels of these genes stay relatively flat as the axon grows. If these genes do not change their abundance, how then do they dictate neurons to produce axons?  

These genes do change their “character” through a gene regulatory process called alternative splicing. Alternative splicing allows a single gene to produce multiple similar protein isoforms with different functions or identities. According to Zheng, it is as if these genes are transformed to shoulder a new task — in this case generating an axon.  

PTBP2, a specialized RNA binding protein, was about to take center stage in the study. Zheng and his team found PTBP2 spiked in immature neuron cells. This protein orchestrates the precise choreography behind those splicing events by acting like a switchboard controlling every step of the process that produces the one, essential axon.

At the early stage of axon formation, PTBP2 turns on the long isoform of the SHTN1 gene, which promotes growth of the axon. As the neuron matures, PTBP2 is gradually down regulated and the SHTN1 gene switches from the long isoform to the short isoform. Axon growth stops as the neuron and its axon connect to the neural circuit.

“PTBP2 and SHTN1 give us an entry point to understand how splicing changes occur to promote axon growth,” Zheng said. “We can use this information to tease out what is happening at the cellular level, and we are only at the tip of the iceberg.”

While this study focused on PTBP2 and the SHTN1 gene, Zheng notes that other proteins or genes and their isoforms could also play a role in axon formation. This study was also conducted using mouse neural cells. Zheng and his team do not know if the same mechanisms will be active in human neural cells. While the study offers a new perspective to this fundamental question, Zheng cautions that it may be years before these findings could be translated into future therapies.

“Neurodegenerative diseases often manifest through axon degeneration,” Zheng said. “We need to think about the splicing process to understand axon degeneration and regeneration for future therapies, but there is a lot more work to be done.”

[technically-a-geniusiq]

Nicknamed the Southern Pinwheel, M83 is undergoing more rapid star formation than our own Milky Way galaxy, especially in its nucleus. The sharp “eye” of the Wide Field Camera 3 (WFC3) has captured hundreds of young star clusters, ancient swarms of globular star clusters, and hundreds of thousands of individual stars, mostly blue supergiants and red supergiants. 

Image credit: NASA ESA/Hubble

[technically-a-geniusiq]

What is the purpose of our exsitence?

I dedicate my life to my work, my family, my friends my little robot screwdriver that I named Rick. But in the end we're all going to die, weather it be from natural causes or unfortunate disasters. Or from the universe freezing us to death or colliding with another Galaxy, activating our black hole at the center of our universe.

The only comfort I have is Rick and my coffee with four shots of vodka.

[technically-a-geniusiq]

An interesting thought...

What pokemon type do you think i am?

Bonus points if you have a reason

[technically-a-geniusiq]

Now I'm hungry

Mocha Macarons

[technically-a-geniusiq]

Well I would have never guessed an eel but it makes since. Especially if the only forms of reptilian DNA that they found were of toads.

Loch Ness monster could be a giant eel, say scientists 

Gemmell said the sheer volume of eel DNA surprised him and his team. And, maintaining a straight face, he added: “We don’t know if the eel DNA we are detecting is from a gigantic eel or just many small eels.”

Looking more sceptical, he outlined the theory: “The notion is that these eels would normally migrate to reproduce, but they, for whatever reason, don’t. And they continue to grow to a very large size, forgoing reproduction for growth.”

[technically-a-geniusiq]

A very interesting article, you should give it a read of you get the chance.

I think I saw this on Octonauts! Otters can only eat so many…

Could Eating Sea Urchins Help Revive Kelp Forests?

B-movie screenwriters could hardly have produced a campier story: the world turns to dust as an army of tiny, pincushion-like invaders ever so slowly takes over. They devour whatever lies in their path, then live on for decades without eating. The ecosystem collapses, and while humanity despairs, a few bright scientists hatch a plan to save the day.But fact can be as strange as science fiction and this zany plot is unfolding around the world as sea urchins proliferate.

[technically-a-geniusiq]

Man, I can’t *wait* for the reveal of how the bad guy made himself fly!

This is one of the show’s most-impressive feats, period. How does he do it?

In costume, he hovers a full foot off the ground, bobbing up and down as if he were genuinely levitating.

From a standing position, he can take off and quickly gain (and maintain) momentum.

He can fly steadily for hundreds of yards, not losing a single inch of height.

Hmm. 

Getting a good look at his costume, there’s little to be seen. Nothing on his feet, and no indication of wires… though to be fair, he would have nothing to hang from, using said wires outside.

Here, he passes over the sled by mere inches, further discounting any sort of extra objects attached to his feet.

Oh! Oh! They caught him! Here we go!

Lemme try to guess… well, in order for him to:

Hover, standing, a foot above the ground 

Initiate horizontal flight instantly

Fly for several hundred yards or more 

Maintain height indefinitely without descending 

It would have to be… some form of zero-gravity invention, with hyper-precise movement, controlled by telepathy since he doesn’t move externally?

Maybe an invisible, silent, undetectable helicopter flown by an accomplice, suspending him via wires that are also somehow invisible? What is it?!

Velma: “It was simple! Transparent plastic skis!”

…

…

…

…no.

No.

This is not ok.

YOU CAN’T JUST ACT LIKE SLIGHTLY-TRANSLUCENT SKIS GIVE PEOPLE THE POWER OF LEVITATION

I WILL NOT STAND FOR THIS

THIS IS NOT OK, VELMA

THIS IS NOT OK AT ALL

[technically-a-geniusiq]

I was browsing through here looking at photos of my favorite orange wearing hero when I found this.

cartoon network commercial from the late 90s

[technically-a-geniusiq]

Well hello

source

[technically-a-geniusiq]

The best assistant a genius could ask for.

[technically-a-geniusiq]

Hi how are you ? Hope your doing well

Another ask. I'm doing well Mrs. Thank you for asking.

[technically-a-geniusiq]

You never know, I could just be a cocky guy who's just messin with you on the internet. That's why I'm so discreet. Because I dont want to be a victim to the internet.

[text]-uh...hello? I-is anyone there? I heard you were working in a project and I’m intrigued...

Oh? Wow my first question. How did you gain that knowledge? Have you been watching me?

[technically-a-geniusiq]

How so? People can have a wide vocabulary an a fascination with science and engineering but not be a genius.

[text]-uh...hello? I-is anyone there? I heard you were working in a project and I’m intrigued...

Oh? Wow my first question. How did you gain that knowledge? Have you been watching me?

[technically-a-geniusiq]

Hmm, true. I guess my name does give me away. I've had to much experience with the first option so I'll have to do more research on you before I can classify you as a 'friend'.

[text]-uh...hello? I-is anyone there? I heard you were working in a project and I’m intrigued...

Oh? Wow my first question. How did you gain that knowledge? Have you been watching me?

[technically-a-geniusiq]

I don't exactly have anyone I trust enough to discuss it with. So currently I am going through it alone. As for the genius comment. How are you aware of that as well?

[text]-uh...hello? I-is anyone there? I heard you were working in a project and I’m intrigued...

Oh? Wow my first question. How did you gain that knowledge? Have you been watching me?

[technically-a-geniusiq]

Discuss? While that sounds enticing, I'm afraid I don't feel comfortable enough with my blog to discuss this particular project. All I can say that it requires a lot of attention an I've been at this for days....so far the only thing it's done is give me circles under my eyes.

[text]-uh...hello? I-is anyone there? I heard you were working in a project and I’m intrigued...

Oh? Wow my first question. How did you gain that knowledge? Have you been watching me?