thelensofscience

[thelensofscience]

Terrific Types of Therapy: JHD

     Hello, my wonderful geeks and nerds, and welcome back to another science-packed post! This week, we will be delving into a continuation of last week's scientific encounter. As you may recall we previously spoke about Juvenile Huntington's Disease (JHD), its causes, symptoms, etc. However this week we are diving even deeper to explore the therapy methods for this disease. So, without further ado, let's begin!

    To start with a brief recap, JHD is a genetic disorder in juveniles caused by abnormal CAG repeats in the Huntingtin gene with over 60 repeats. To understand that jargon I suggest you take a look at last week's blog. However, this disease is fascinating in the way that the cause of it is completely understood yet the treatment for it is... iffy. That is due to several factors such as ethics issues with experimental testing on juveniles, lack of funding or research, and overall complexity of the brain disease. Yet despite these issues, certain treatments have been considered for this disease after being tested on animal models and certain adult subjects. To understand these potential treatments we must go through each individually.

    Gene therapy: This form of therapy works by specifically targeting the DNA for the mHTT gene. By doing so the issue is hit at the root cause before the mRNA can transcribe the DNA. Once within the nervous system, the gene has three different ways to combat the production of the mHTT from the core. The first is replacing in which the administered gene replaces the corrupted gene. The second is gene silencing in which the corrupted gene is blocked from being produced. The third is adding a gene to fight against the mHTT without directly replacing it or blocking it. However, this method does not come without its disadvantages. These are costly and dangerous operations that, for the most part, have only been proven to be effective in animal testing. Furthermore, while gene therapy is used in several neurodegenerative diseases there is still limited research on its effect on Huntington's disease, and has not been tested for Juvenile Huntington's disease quite yet. Nonetheless, this is an effective therapy method and by applying it to JHD a new and effective treatment for this disease may be uncovered. This is delivered through injection (Tabrizi, n.d.).

    Small molecule: This therapy uses low molecular weight compounds (under 900 daltons) to easily and efficiently combat disease. These molecules work well due to their simple structure which makes it easy for them to transverse the BBB. They function by blocking, mimicking, or boosting the activity of biological components such as enzymes, receptors, or proteins. This is directly related to HD because small molecules can boost protective agents such as BDNF that can reduce the damage made by the mutant Huntington protein. This therapy is administered in the form of drugs such as tablets, capsules, or soft gels. This therapy method works on fixing the issues associated with the disease rather than fixingthe disease itself (What Are Small Molecule Drugs?, 2024).

Biologics: This therapy involves making medication using living organisms. Scientists do this by using cells to create medication in specialized facilities which is used to combat disease within the body. The cells used in this process help the medication grow and thrive in order to be used in the biological system. Afterward, the medication is isolated away from the cells and injected into the body. Unlike small molecule therapy, biologics have to do with complex structures that do not navigate throughout the BBB as easily. This is correlated to HD because these cells can be used to bind to the mHTT by creating antibodies to combat the antigen. Furthermore, these cells can also work on de-escalating the damage made by the mHTT by lowering inflammation. This therapy method is done through injection. It works on both targeting the disease itself and the issues created by the disease. However, it is complicated, costly, and difficult to maintain (Biologics (Biologic Medication & Drugs): What It Is & Types, 2024).

    Cell therapy: This process is done by directly using the cells within the patient to create the medication. First, the cells are taken out of the patient and then brought in a lab to modify and eventually add back to the body to combat disease within it. Cell therapy can be used to reduce brain inflammation, regenerate neurons, and reverse neuronal damage. Furthermore, it targets the genetic cause (i.e. mHTT) to deconstruct it and can help fight against it by fixing issues caused by the mutation such as damaged brain tissue by regenerating it. This therapy method targets the main cause by remedying issues caused by it. Yet this is another form of therapy that is costly and not thoroughly researched (Shah et al., n.d.). 

    Protein therapy: In this therapy, a protein is injected to combat the disease. This is done in five different ways. The first is the replacement of a protein that is defective and unstable. The next is adding to an existing pathway which combats the disease. The third is interfering with a harmful molecule of the organism. The fourth is adding a function that can help the body attack the disease, and the last is delivering helpful proteins that can help remedy issues with the disease. In the case of HD protein therapy can be used for multiple causes from blocking the mHTT to increasing the amount of a helpful pathway such as BDNF to help remedy the issue. However, while this treatment has a diverse amount of courses for treatments it also comes with various setbacks. The most obvious is that it is costly to make these proteins and is not a simple process. Another significant issue is that this protein is immunogenicity meaning that it may be seen as foreign by the immune system and be attacked (Ghosh et al., n.d.). 

    Immunomodulatory Therapy: In this therapy, a chemical agent is used to modify the functioning of the immune system. This therapy is correlated to HD as HD has to do with a severe amount of inflammation. By using this therapy this issue can be reduced significantly which aids in preventing the progression of the disease. While this issue is primarily caused by the mHTT gene, cell degeneration also plays a significant role in the growth of this gene. Yet this therapy method only combats the symptoms but not the root cause of the disease. However, currently, this therapy is entirely experimental and is not reliable enough to be used as a genuine method (Tripathy & Tsui, 2024).

    That's all for today folks! Thank you for reading and to end this off a question: what therapy do you find to be the most effective? Anyway, I hope you learned something new and I will see you next week!

[thelensofscience]

The Wonderful World Of Neuroscience: Juvenile Huntingtons Disease

Hello Folks! Welcome back to another science article to brighten your minds! Today, we get to discuss a topic that has long interested me, despite my initial reluctance to delve into it: neuroscience. More specifically the disease, Juvenile Huntington's Disease (JHD).

Without further ado, let's begin! To understand what JHD is we first have to understand precisely what Huntington's disease (HD) is. Huntington's disease is a neurological disorder that begins in the Central Nervous System (CNS), which is the nervous system within your brain and spinal cord. This system helps process touch, feelings, and other senses and sends back responses on how to take action in response to them. The CNS also works on sending back responses on how to deal with issues and circumstances within the body. Inside the nervous system, some genes contain DNA. These DNA each have a certain "code" that dictates functions within the body. Why is this relevant? Well in the case of HD one particular gene is the root cause of this disease. It is known as ... the Huntingtin gene. On its own this gene isn't bad it's vital for human function. However, the true issue with this gene comes from a certain mutation within it. Inside the DNA there are nucleotide bases which are the equivalent to the code for the DNA. These are adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T). One of the codes these bases make up is the CAG which is an essential component of the Huntingtin gene. This code has a certain number of repeats within the gene which decide how much of it is needed for the gene to do what is needed. However, in the case of HD, this code repeats too many times specifically over 35 times. Yet, the gene itself is not the issue rather it is what the gene helps create. When a certain function in the body needs help from this gene a certain process begins. It starts with the messenger RNA (mRNA)-which is equivalent to a postal carrier within the body- coming and copying or transcribing the gene and bringing it to the cytoplasm where it is turned into a protein. This protein then goes and helps the function within the body. In most cases, this happens normally and consistently and helps the body stay productive and healthy. However, in the case of HD, this protein has too many CAG repeats which turn into a part of the protein called "glutamine". Once turned into a protein the CAG produces a large string of glutamine called an expanded polyglutamine which is where the real issue sets in. This glutamine causes the protein to not be able to function by crowding it too much and not giving it enough space to properly carry out its function or for the other parts of the protein to thrive. Because this protein is so vital in the well-being of the body, having it not function properly puts the body in severe jeopardy. Because it is the same gene being copied again and again the same protein spreads throughout the body causing issues such as motor and cognitive loss and emotional distress. 

Yet that is only for the adult version of HD. JHD is a type of HD that applies to people below the age of 20. This disease is much more rare with an estimated amount of 5-10% of all HD cases being JHD. However, the issue with this disease is its severity. This disease has more than 60 repeats of the CAG which causes the disease to expand rapidly and dangerously. The estimated life span after being diagnosed with this disease is 10-15 years. Usually, this disease is passed down genetically from a parent with HD. Each child of that parent (usually the father) has a 50% chance of getting the disease. However, the symptoms of this disease are much worse. This disease causes severe forms of depression, loss of cognitive function, and chorea which causes uncontrolled movements within the body. The worst part is that there is no cure. This is due to several factors. First off, due to it being a neurodegenerative disease very little information exists of it. Continuing, because it is so rare it is often misdiagnosed until it is too late. Lastly, since its main target is juveniles it is hard to run experimental testing due to ethics concerns. Most approved therapies only apply to HD and even those are scarce. For the most part therapy for this disease is symptomatic meaning it tries to help with the symptoms such as depression or chorea rather than targeting the gene that causes this issue originally. Further science will have to be developed before a finite therapy can be used for this disease.  Anyway, that is all for today's scientific explorers! While that has been a more heavy topic than usually handled on this blog I still consider it necessary to discuss. I am doing a research project on this currently and find it a very interesting and important topic to discuss. I most likely will dive deeper into this disease in later blogs but we shall determine that soon. So, thanks for reading and to leave you with a question: What is something you believe needs more research whether it is from science or not? Thank you for reading, I hope you learned something new, and see you next week!

[thelensofscience]

Scientific Summer: The Programs I Plan To Participate in This Year

This summer is jam-packed with science programs. First and foremost I will be doing a scientific research program called Lumiere starting on June 2nd. In this program students from across the globe participate in their research projects. However, this program is valuable because it has scientists from top universities mentor students. My mentor will be an African American scientist from the University of Cambridge. She is currently studying cancer and is using herbology to try and find a cure. She is accomplished with multiple degrees in Pharmacology and has worked as a professor for several years. I am excited to work with her and begin my research and be sure to document my work on this blog. 

 My next plan is less impressive but still comes with its own merits. I will be participating in a writing camp over the summer. It is conducted at a local university and will give me valuable tips on the art of writing. While this specific program focuses more on the creative aspects of writing it still will give me a chance to improve my writing skills so that even on this blog my writing will be to its highest standard. 

 Furthermore, I will be volunteering at the Red Crescent Clinic. Similar to the Red Cross, the Red Crescent Clinic provides free medical care to families without proper insurance. I have volunteered at this clinic for four consecutive years and will be going back for my fifth. This clinic has given me an incredible amount of experience and I have thoroughly enjoyed my time there and I am delighted to once again have this chance. 

    Finally, I will be working at my father's clinic as the front desk worker and I will be working on checking in the patients and documenting their records. As well, I will be taking geometry over the summer to get ahead in school and take Algebra 2 next year. 

 That is it for today folks! I hope you enjoyed learning about my summer plans and I hope you will consider partaking in one of these activities. To end this off a question: what scientific programs have you participated in? As always, thanks for reading, I hope you learned something new, and I will see you next week!

[thelensofscience]

Marie Curie: The Greatest Woman Scientist In History

   Hello Folks! As many of you may have realized, exam season has begun, so I have not had as much time as usual to get my research done. So today, I thought I would do a blog post that I have been dreaming about doing for a while. Today we are talking about my idol and slight obsession: Marie Curie. 

    Born in Warsaw, Poland, as Maria Sklowdowska, Maria was the daughter of two teachers during wartime. Due to the consistent fighting, her parents knew it was not safe to send their daughter to either of their schools. Thus, she went to a boarding school nearby instead. At age eight, her older sister died, and just two years later, so did her mother. Deceived by their deaths, Maria began to immerse herself in her study to cover her grief. By the time she had finished secondary school, she had gotten a gold medal for her dedication and effort. After completing her schooling, Maria decided to become a governess to pay for one of her sisters to study in France.  Later on, she also moved there to attend college at the Sorbonne (University of Paris). She changed her name to Marie to fit within French customs. Marie studied profusely and, in 1893, graduated top of her class with a degree in physics. 

    Then in 1894, she graduated second in her class for mathematics. After finishing her studies, she needed to get lab space, which led to her meeting Pierre Curie. She needed the space, and they had the opportunity to share a makeshift lab. Soon after they fell in love over their love of science, in 1895, they got married. 

    A few years later, they conducted research with Henri Becquerel as they studied radioactivity in uranium. While they were studying uranium ores, they discovered two new elements within them, called polonium (named after its home country) and radium. These were highly radioactive elements that made a severe impact on the chemical field. In 1903, she won her first Nobel Prize along with her husband and their partner for their work in radioactivity and physics. 

    Sadly, in 1906, her husband died due to being hit by a horse-drawn carriage. By then, Marie had to continue her work as a single mother of two daughters named Irene and Eve Curie. Despite the hardship she faced, she chose to work harder and eventually was able to isolate both of the elements she had previously discovered, which allowed her to win her second Nobel Prize in 1911. 

    However, right before she received the prize, she fell in love with a married but estranged man, and their relationship was leaked to the press. Soon, she was berated with hatred and called a homewrecker despite the marriage already being ruined. It got so far that the Nobel Prize committee suggested she should come to collect her prize to avoid scandal. Yet with her dignity, she went and collected her award and became not only the first person to win two Nobel Prizes but also the only person to win two Nobel Prizes in different fields- physics and chemistry. 

    After this immense achievement, she went on to have many other achievements, such as making little curies for World War 1 (small trucks with x-rays used to aid soldiers), founding the radium institute (where important cancer research was conducted, and gaining global recognition for her work. 

    Her legacy continued with her daughter Irene, who went on to a Nobel Prize in physics with her husband. Her other daughter, Eve, went on to become a journalist and published "Madame Curie," dictating her mother's life and circumstances.

     On July 4, 1934, at 66 years old, Marie Curie died from a bone-deteriorating condition most likely caused by her immense overexposure to radiation. 

Anyway, Marie Curie is amazing, and while this is a brief overview of her life, I would recommend doing more research on this wonderful woman. I am happy I got to write this, but I promise to get back on the science grind after next Sunday (when exams are over). Anyway, as always, thanks for reading. I hope you learned something new, and a question: who is your idol? See you next week. Bye!

[thelensofscience]

Plants and Particles: The Greener Side of Carbon Dots

Good afternoon, ladies and gentle scientists! Today, we are going to look at the smaller sides of life—and by small, I mean less than ten nanometers in size. This week we are examining another particle that is revolutionizing the scientific field: the carbon dot.

Discovered in 2004 by Xiaoyou Xu and his team, carbon dots are tiny carbon-based nanoparticles that are less than 10 nanometers in size. These microscopic particles are relevant because they absorb light and then emit it at a longer wavelength. These carbon dots have received significant attention for several reasons:

Certain light-emitting substances go through a process called photobleaching, where they lose their ability to emit light after being exposed to it for too long. Yet, carbon dots resist photobleaching, which allows them to glow brightly for prolonged periods without fading, no matter how long they are exposed.

Carbon dots have good biocompatibility, meaning they can reside in living organisms without causing any harm, which makes them incredibly useful for medical procedures.

Carbon dots have stable physicochemical characteristics, meaning they can keep their same properties—such as shape, size, reactivity, and solubility—for long amounts of time.

Due to these properties, carbon dots have been used in a variety of scientific procedures, including medicine and chemistry. For example, they have been used in disease treatment, ion and molecular detection (the process by which molecules and ions are identified in a solution to figure out its properties), bioimaging (the process by which internal structures of organisms are identified), and measuring the acidity and alkalinity of mixtures. It is extremely useful in multiple areas of science and has revolutionized the scientific field in all sorts of ways. However, like any part of science, it comes with its setbacks.

To understand these setbacks, we first have to discuss a crucial part of the carbon dot called the precursor. To put it simply, a precursor in a carbon dot is any carbon-containing material that can be used to make this substance. Yet many of these precursors, such as nitrogen and sulfur, can be harmful, nonrenewable, and unreliable. Scientists knew that these carbon dots needed other types of precursors to function sufficiently. From there, scientists decided to turn to green methods—or more sustainable methods. One method that especially caught their eye was the method of incorporating herbal medicine as a precursor, creating a substance known as HM-CDs. Herbal medicine was chosen due to its natural abundance in the world, its simple and efficient preparation, and its biocompatibility.

The place it made the biggest impact on is the area of theranostics. This refers to the approach in medicine where the diagnosis and treatment of conditions within the human body happen together. Carbon dots worked well in this area due to their microscopy, long-lastingness, and ability to emit large amounts of light or fluorescence. Yet once HM-CDs came into the equation, theranostics soared to higher levels than ever before. Because of how biocompatible and reliable these precursors were, carbon dots could finally be used in abundant amounts, and scientists have been using them ever since.

Anyway, to end this off—just a few personal thoughts. First off, I was incredibly excited to try learning about herbal medicine, as the scientist who will be mentoring me through the Lumiere research program this summer specializes in this area. It also helps that the first area of herbal medicine I decided to endeavor into was microscopic (as I adore microbiology).

Yet on the subject of the actual article, this piqued my interest due to just the brilliance of it. After all, who would have thought light could be created through plants? The more I read these articles, the more I come to appreciate how bewildering yet fascinating science truly is. Every day, scientists test the limits of the world and come through with breakthroughs such as these.

This also excited me because recently I have gotten a bit invested in climate change, and the idea that renewable sources such as these are already being created gives me hope for a future where all sources of electricity, heat, and transportation will be renewable.

Anyway, sorry for the short post—I got home late today and didn’t have a lot of time to write. Exams are in two weeks, so I may not have as much time to go through these articles. Expect shorter articles for a little while. I may go a bit deeper into herbal medicine next week, as this fascinates me—but we shall see.

So to end this post, a question: what other sources do you think herbs could be beneficial in?

As always, I hope you learned something new, and I will see you next week!

[thelensofscience]

Science Under The Sea: Opening The Lens of the Ocean to a Broader Range

Welcome back, ladies and gentlemen, to week three of our scientific deep dive! Speaking of deep dives, today we will explore the deepest dive of them all: the ocean. With its vastness and mystery, it has often been an unexplored frontier of the world. However, this week, we will plunge into the medical aspects surrounding it and, more specifically, how little the medical world is focused on it.

    To begin with, maritime medicine refers to any medical activity related to the welfare of employees at sea. Maritime medicine is a postgraduate course, yet its reliability has long been debated. Very few people consider maritime medicine relevant, and it has been overlooked. Due to that issue, the syllabus seems to lack the appropriate and substantial knowledge needed to educate individuals in this field. A study was done recently to develop this syllabus and raise the education standard of marine medicine.

    The methods consisted of three stages. The first was reviewing the current published literature involving marine medicine. The second was going through interviews to discuss maritime medicine with experts in this field. The final stage involved two rounds of the Delphi method. To put it simply, the Delphi method is sending surveys and questionnaires to multiple researchers and experts to gain their insight on certain questions, then having a group of experts review those insights and critique them, and then sending them back to have the insights rewritten with the critique. By following these three phases, researchers were able to design a proper syllabus for maritime medicine.

    The first stage consisted of researching and reviewing research papers across multiple sources such as the Web of Knowledge, Pubmed, and Scopus, and the Iranian databases SID and Magiran. Any article relating to maritime medicine in the slightest was used. However, what began as thousands of papers turned into sixty-two papers to be reviewed due to the sheer amount of irrelevant information and duplicate papers that were discovered.

    The next phase consisted of a qualitative analysis, meaning that instead of basing the data on numbers and statistics, it was based on interviews and discussions. This phase consisted of participants with vast knowledge surrounding maritime medicine. This study consisted of interviewers going to the workplace of the participants at the time that the participants chose to create a safe and welcoming environment. The interviews were conducted by either those with past research experience or those who specialized in maritime medicine to ensure productive questions were asked. The interviews lasted anywhere from 43 to 72 minutes, and non-verbal cues were taken note of and described exactly as well. Each interview was audiotaped. The final step of this phase was to use the "Geranheim Method" to analyze the data. This method is a multi-step analysis that begins with writing down the interviews and then choosing how you will transcribe the interview (i.e., facial expressions, verbal language, etc.). Afterward, you review whatever way you focused on transcribing the interview and look at what data you gained from the interview. The next step involves a tedious reading of the transcriptions, trying to code them meaningfully. After that, you would compare codes to see which are similar. Finally, you would group similar subcategories and name them.

    The last phase consisted of the Delphi method with 18 experts from across the medical field who had a deep comprehension of maritime medicine. The first step of this process is determining what percentage of the participants need to agree to finish the study and consider it accurate. For this particular research, the cut-off point was 80%. The next step involved sending questionnaires to researchers with questions based on previous phases of the experiment. The questions had a 5-point Likert scale (1-strongly disagree, 2-disagree, 3-neutral, 4-agree, 5-strongly agree). It took two rounds to reach an 80% consensus.

    The findings of this study consisted of including eight main topics and forty sub-topics to the maritime medicine syllabus. These eight main topics include an Overview of marine medicine, Health at sea, Common physical diseases and injuries at sea, Subsurface medicine and hyperbaric medicine, Safety action in marine incidents, Medical care at sea, Psychology at sea, and Medical examinations of people working at sea. These topics each include multiple subtopics within them. With this new syllabus, education in maritime medicine will increase infinitely.

    Now to wrap this article up, a few personal thoughts. First off, it surprised me to think about how little is known about maritime medicine across the general population. After all, with the growing excitement around the ocean, one would expect more focus on such a pivotal part of the sea: the well-being of those working with it. Although previously I had never heard of this course, I can believe it isn't as popular as it should be. This article got me wondering about how a new syllabus will expand the understanding of maritime medicine. Would more students join the course as it becomes more comprehensive and reliable? Would it eventually become a required course for those entering any position related to the ocean? I have certain friends who plan to become marine biologists; will they take this course? I have plenty of questions surrounding it, but for now, I hope that this topic continues to advance as I believe it is incredibly beneficial to the large population of those invested in researching or working at the ocean.

    Sorry for the late post. This article was a lot easier and shorter than the previous articles, so it was easy to get past (especially because of the lack of jargon). However, this week has been packed with social events and sports (two areas in which I do not thrive), so this post was done later than usual. Because this is a medicine and chemistry blog, I wanted to shift the lens to the medical world as I feel as though we have been chemistry-heavy recently. Anyway, as always, I hope you learned something new, and I will leave you with a question: What are your theories for why this field is so overlooked? Thanks for reading, and I will see you next week!

[thelensofscience]

Lights, Clicks, Action: The Science Behind Photo Click Chemistry

          Good Afternoon, Folks! Last week, we skimmed the top of the vast ocean of Click Chemistry; today, we will dive deeper into a fascinating branch known as PhotoClick Chem. This chemistry combines the simplicity of Click Chemistry with the wonders of light to create unique yet straightforward reactions. This type of reaction is yet another example of how Click Chemistry has influenced all lengths of science. So, without further ado, let's get into it.

    We previously discussed what Copper-Catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC) is. We also discussed the benefits of the reaction but not the disadvantages of it. The main component of this, which takes away from its overall remarkable nature, is the copper. The very substance that allows the reaction to begin is also the substance that causes it to be harmful. Copper has detrimental effects on human and environmental health. Because of that, the widespread use of this reaction has often been prohibited for fear of causing issues as a result of it. It wasn't until the strain-promoted azide-alkyne cycloaddition (SPAAC) was discovered that this issue was resolved. This reaction is incredibly similar to CuAAC, except for one key difference—the catalyst. In SPAAC, the catalyst used is Cyclooctene. Cyclooctyne is a compound containing an eight-membered ring with a triple bond between two of the carbon atoms. This compound is incredibly strained, meaning it has to be tight and compact to store all the carbon atoms. Atoms typically enjoy being at specific angles to allow themselves comfort, but this molecule, has too many carbon atoms to be at that angle. Imagine a ruler; you can bend it if you try, but it doesn't want to be bent, and the second it can release, it does. The same applies to this reaction, except its "release" is bonding with another molecule, which, in this case, would be the Azide. That is what makes this reaction so effective. Due to the amount of reactivity in Cyclooctynes, they work perfectly to have a chemical bond without any metal catalyst involved. This also makes them much safer, more reliable, and available for wider use. However, one vital variable remains that limits both of these reactions' abilities: control. While this reaction could be done under milder conditions with more control, complete control still wasn't possible. Nonetheless, what if there was a reaction that could be activated with just the flip of a switch?

Ladies and gentle scientists, I present to you... photoclick chemistry. PhotoClick Chemistry is the process by which a chemical reaction is formed simply by shining light on a molecule. Scientists attempted to use photons to activate certain inactive molecules at a specific time in a precise place. This type of reaction was beneficial in all sorts of fields, from drug delivery to 3D printing of biomaterials. However, let's descend deeper into each type of Photoclick Chem.

    Type 1: This reaction starts with light, triggering the breakdown of a precursor molecule (the starting molecule), which then proceeds to release certain groups like N2, CO2, or a photo-protecting group, creating a reactive intermediate (a highly reactive molecule). Once this molecule forms, it can react selectively with a cognate reaction partner (a reaction partner that bonds well with it) or revert to its original state. If it chooses to react, it leads to the formation of new products. The key part of this reaction is the stability of the reactive intermediate. If it has too long of a half-life (the amount of time a molecule stays intact), it will not have a proper response to bonding with other atoms and may produce harmful side effects. However, this reaction is incredibly beneficial when the reactive intermediate has a short half-life.

    Type 2: This is where a molecule absorbs light and changes its structure. From there, it forms a reactive intermediate that is incredibly unstable. The final step of this reaction either involves reacting with another molecule or reverting to its original form.

    Type 3: The final type of Photoclick reaction requires a catalyst and is only aided by Photoclick Chem rather than enabled by it.

    These three types of PhotoClick reactions describe the majority of these reactions. This provides a basic overview of PhotoClick Chem, so now to wrap up this blog—my thoughts. PhotoClick Chem is fascinating to me because of how easily a reaction can be made. Often when chemistry is described, you imagine beakers filled with strange liquids and difficult lab experiments, but PhotoClick Chem is just flipping a switch. It's fascinating to think of how much work goes into making something that is so simple and how it is all intentional. I may be incorrect in saying this, but I feel as though photons may soon take over chemistry. After all, they have already snuck into one of the most revolutionizing branches of science. I am also starting to notice a pattern where I am particularly attracted to reactions involving radiation or photons. I'm not entirely sure why, but they just seem the most interesting type of chemistry.

    Anyway, I don't have a lot to say about PhotoClick Chemistry. These first two posts haven't been terrific since I'm still new to this. However, I enjoy doing this, and I'm excited to continue this journey. I hope to develop my skills in the future (and maybe start to comprehend this jargon). For those who got through this painstaking article, I applaud you and thank you for reading. To end this off, a quick question: What ways could you apply PhotoClick Chem to your daily life? I hope you learned something new today, and I will see you next week!

[thelensofscience]

Click Chemistry: The Simple Science That Changed The World

How could a straightforward chemical reaction revolutionize the entire field of chemistry? After all, wouldn't it be a complex and large-scale reaction to make an impact? In the case of click chemistry, the exact opposite is true. Click chemistry is popular purely for its simplicity, reliability, and versatility.

In 2001, chemist K. Barry Sharpless published a research paper detailing a theoretical process that he referred to as click chemistry. In simple terms, click chemistry is the process by which simple molecules that bond well together come together to form a more complex molecular model. To put it into perspective, imagine puzzle pieces. Each puzzle piece corresponds perfectly to another piece. These pieces do not need to be forced together, and by attaching them correctly, side issues do not occur. The same applies to click chemistry. Just like puzzle pieces, molecules find their perfect match and become fitted together. They are flawless matches because they come together smoothly and do not produce side effects. They only produce the desired result. When click chemistry was discovered, it made a significant impact in the chemistry field, especially in drug discovery, bioconjugation, and materials science for a variety of reasons. Click chemistry was clean, efficient, and quick—qualities that were essential in chemistry and could seriously make an impact in every form of science. As opposed to traditional synthetic chemistry, which was usually step-abundant, uncertain, and produced side effects, traditional synthetic chemistry often faced multiple side effects that were harmful to the experiment and had to be done under extreme conditions over a long period. Click chemistry could be done under mild conditions quickly and without harmful effects. Through click chemistry, scientists could easily conduct chemical reactions with simplicity and without using valuable resources.

However, after this paper was published, Sharpless discovered a reaction that sparked the powder keg for his research. This reaction came to be known as Copper(I)-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC). That's quite a bit of jargon, so to simplify, let's break it down. First off, Copper(I)—simply means that the reaction was catalyzed by copper or that the reaction was sped up by the addition of copper. The (I) shows the oxidation state of copper, which is +1 in this case—meaning each copper ion has lost one electron. Next, we can discuss what azide-alkyne is. These are the molecules in the reaction that both contain specific properties. Azide is a molecule with three nitrogen atoms (N₃⁻) drawn as N⁻=N⁺=N⁻. It is a unique structure that is incredibly reactive and unstable. These dashes represent how many of the electrons are connected. Because the overall molecule looks like this: N-N≡N, it has a unique structure that not only makes it incredibly weak but also very reactive. This is where the second molecule comes in, the alkyne. An alkyne is a hydrocarbon containing at least one triple bond between carbon atoms (C≡C). In the CuAAC reaction, a terminal alkyne is often used, which has the structure H–C≡C–R, where R represents the rest of the molecule and works as a modifier without affecting the reaction. The terminal alkyne is particularly reactive due to the hydrogen atom at the end of the chain, which facilitates the reaction. These two molecules bond extremely well together due to them both being reactive. However, the triple bond for the carbons in this molecule is quite strong, and the molecule needs a higher activation energy (the energy essential for molecules to bond) to bond with the azide, as it is not reactive enough. This is where the copper comes in. Copper works as a catalyst because it coordinates with the alkyne and changes its electron distribution, lowering the activation energy required to combine with the azide. This weakening allows for the reaction to go quicker and smoother. The (I) is essential due to its specific properties, which help change the shape and electronic properties of the alkyne and make it more reactive. Finally, we have to discuss cycloaddition. A cycloaddition is a type of bond where two molecules come together to form a ring structure. In this specific reaction, the two molecules, alkyne and azide, form a five-membered ring called a triazole.

This reaction wasn’t given its honor until 2022, when K. Barry Sharpless received his second Nobel Prize, going down as one of the only people in history to win two Nobel Prizes. Along with him, scientist Morten Meldal also won the prize for this discovery. While they were not research partners, they conducted similar independent research separately and came out with similar reactions. Since then, click chemistry has only grown. Because of its usefulness and efficiency, scientists from the entire chemical field have been eager to apply it to their specific field or spark a reaction close to it. However, click chemistry is still rare and developing, and it still has a long way to go.

This topic immediately fascinated me. I have seen numerous articles discussing it, and the chemistry community seems to be fixated on click chemistry. The thing that fascinated me was how a reaction that was made to have a simple and precise outcome is so incredibly difficult to achieve. This idea was unheard of a few years ago, and now scientists obsess over it daily. It has made such a large impact simply because of how efficient it is. It is mind-boggling to think how uncertain chemistry is, that a reaction like that is so precise is entirely new. It is also extraordinary to think how many different chemical fields this reaction can apply to. It is astounding, and I hope to gain more insight into it in the future.

In conclusion, click chemistry has been an incredibly beneficial part of chemistry in recent years. Since it was discovered with the CuAAC, it has sparked deep interest in the chemical field. Although the Nobel Prize for this discovery was awarded only three years ago, scientists have explored this reaction to its depths and applied it to many fields. This is amazing, and shortly I hope to discuss more about this reaction. I apologize for any incorrect data within this blog, as I did not have enough time to dig as deep as I would have liked, and I deeply appreciate any critiques I can gain from others. However, I hope you enjoyed this anyway and hopefully learned something new. To end this blog, I have a question: What heights do you believe click chemistry will reach in 10 years from now? Thanks for reading, and see you next week!

[thelensofscience]

The Lens of Science Beginning

   Welcome to The Lens of Science! My name is Haadiya Habib, and I am here to share my lens with you on the wonders of the scientific world.      Each week, I will provide a comprehensive analysis of a scientific article, my views on it, and key takeaways from it. This blog will primarily revolve around articles on chemistry and medicine. I chose to create this blog due to my extreme (and almost obsessive) excitement about the world of chemistry and medicine, sparked by my idol, Marie Curie—founder of polonium and radium, and the best woman scientist in history.  Once this blog is more established, I shall diverge into different forms of scientific analysis through interviews, research documentation, and fieldwork as we dive deeper into the depths of science. Expect a new post every Sunday for thrilling scientific analyses and extensive discussions. I'm excited to start this journey, and I hope to see you join me!