#Deep_space

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Hubble's image of spiral galaxy NGC 6951 shows its bright blue spiral arms, bars, patches of star clusters, and clumps of dust. The galaxy NGC 6951, which lies 78 million light-years from Earth, was captured in a new Hubble image created by the Wide Field Camera (WFC3) and the Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS). The image shows bright blue spiral arms, star clusters, and a dark orange dust cloud. [caption id="attachment_64740" align="aligncenter" width="780"] spiral galaxy NGC 6951[/caption] The history of this galaxy is quite amazing. About 800 million years ago, NGC 6951 was known for its high rate of star formation, but then star formation stopped for 300 million years. Over the past 25 years, six powerful supernova explosions have occurred, causing the extinction of some of these stars. The average age of a star cluster in the galaxy is between 200 and 300 million years, but some have reached the age of one billion years. An angle straight to the heart: Hubble captured a detailed image of the spiral galaxy NGC 6951 NGC 6951 is classified as a Type II Seyfert galaxy due to its infrared emission and the presence of a slow-moving gaseous environment at the center. However, some astronomers also consider it to be a low-ionization galaxy with an emission line in the core, implying a cooler and less ionized core. Near the center of the galaxy lies a supermassive black hole, which is surrounded by a ring of stars, gas, and dust with a diameter of about 3,700 light years. This ring is also known as the "central ring" and is thought to have star formation for 1 to 1.5 billion years, with 40% of its mass consisting of stars less than 100 million years old. This image of NGC 6951 is part of NASA's Hubble Photo Sharing Campaign, which features new images taken by the space telescope every day from October 2 to October 7.

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The problem arose when one of the three gyroscopes gave incorrect readings. The team is working to fix the problem, but for now all scientific missions are suspended NASA has suspended all current science missions of the Hubble telescope due to a gyroscope malfunction. The problem arose on November 19, when the telescope went into safe mode after one of its three gyroscopes gave erroneous readings. The team quickly resumed work after fixing the problem, but the unstable gyroscope attracted attention twice, causing the telescope to go into safe mode again on November 21 and 23. After the incident on November 21, the agency was able to restore operations. However, on November 23, the telescope went into safe mode again, prompting NASA to suspend all science missions until the cause was determined. [caption id="attachment_85327" align="aligncenter" width="780"] Hubble Telescope[/caption] Hubble Telescope temporarily suspends science missions due to faulty gyroscope Gyroscopes are important components of the Hubble Telescope, helping to measure its rotation speed and determine its direction. The NASA team is actively working to determine the cause of the gyroscope malfunction. The gyroscopes were last replaced during the shuttle's fifth and final executive mission in 2009. Six gyros were replaced as part of this mission, and the faulty gyro is one of three that are still operational. Despite the need for another service mission, NASA believes Hubble will continue to make breakthrough discoveries with the James Webb Telescope for the rest of this decade, and possibly well into the next. The space agency has not released details about when it hopes to return Hubble to service once the gyroscope problem is fixed. Even if you need to turn off the faulty gyroscope, the telescope will be able to continue working, since NASA claims that for Hubble to continue moving and participate in scientific missions, one working gyroscope is enough. Hubble launched in 1990 and spent 33 years exploring our Universe, giving us iconic views of the cosmos, including a spectacular view of the Creation Pillars, which was also photographed by astrophotographers and the James Webb Telescope.

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The James Webb Telescope helped observe the disappearance of the disk around the young star SZ Cha Data obtained with the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) allowed us to draw conclusions about the process of planet formation in gas-dust disks. It turns out that the amount of ionized neon in these disks can serve as an indicator of the rate of planet formation. Previously, astronomers have already observed disks of gas and dust around young stars, but the process of their formation takes a very long time - hundreds of thousands, or even millions of years. It is almost impossible to observe changes in disks over short time intervals. In a new study, James Webb was able to detect changes in one of these disks where planet formation occurs. In observations made by a team led by Catherine Espaillat in 2008 using NASA's Spitzer Telescope, an infrared spectral line associated with doubly ionized neon ([Ne III]) was seen. The signal came from a disk of gas and dust around the young star SZ Chamaeleontis (SZ Cha).  [caption id="attachment_82600" align="alignnone" width="780"] James Webb[/caption] James Webb Helps Find Key to the Rate of Planet Formation When an atom collides with a photon, it becomes "ionized" and "doubly ionized" atoms lose two electrons. In the SZ Cha disk, the amount of doubly ionized neon appears to be very low compared to disks typically exposed to X-ray emission from young stars. The appearance of this neon indicated that the dominant type of radiation in the SZ Cha system was "extreme ultraviolet" (EUV) radiation, capable of destroying gas and dust in the protoplanetary disk, but not as quickly as X-rays. X-ray radiation destroys the protoplanetary disk 100 times faster than ultraviolet radiation. From this we can conclude that the rate of “evaporation” of the disk and, accordingly, the time during which the formation of planets is possible depends on the energy and type of radiation.  In 2023, Espaillat and her team conducted a new long-term observation of the SZ Cha system using JWST's MIRI instrument. The scientists found that the amount of doubly ionized neon was significantly reduced compared to singly ionized neon. Additional observations using ground-based telescopes allow us to study the properties of protoplanetary disks in even more detail. For example, the CHIRON spectrometer on the SMARTS telescope at Cerro Tololo Observatory measured the blueshift of alpha hydrogen from the star SZ Cha. The blue shift is a Doppler-type change that indicates that something is moving toward our detectors, in this case hydrogen. Scientists interpret this phenomenon as a "stellar wind" of particles emanating from the star. This wind is thought to be dense enough to absorb ultraviolet radiation, but still transmits X-rays, indicating the latter's dominance in the evolution of this star system.  The discovery of doubly ionized neon in 2008, but its absence in subsequent observations, supports the assumption of X-ray dominance in the SZ Cha system. Thus, the amount of doubly ionized neon can serve as an indicator of ultraviolet and X-ray radiation affecting the protoplanetary disk. Astronomers can use this value to more accurately determine the time it takes planets to form in such a system before their disk disappears.

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The James Webb Telescope helped observe the disappearance of the disk around the young star SZ Cha Data obtained with the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) allowed us to draw conclusions about the process of planet formation in gas-dust disks. It turns out that the amount of ionized neon in these disks can serve as an indicator of the rate of planet formation. Previously, astronomers have already observed disks of gas and dust around young stars, but the process of their formation takes a very long time - hundreds of thousands, or even millions of years. It is almost impossible to observe changes in disks over short time intervals. In a new study, James Webb was able to detect changes in one of these disks where planet formation occurs. In observations made by a team led by Catherine Espaillat in 2008 using NASA's Spitzer Telescope, an infrared spectral line associated with doubly ionized neon ([Ne III]) was seen. The signal came from a disk of gas and dust around the young star SZ Chamaeleontis (SZ Cha).  [caption id="attachment_82600" align="alignnone" width="780"] James Webb[/caption] James Webb Helps Find Key to the Rate of Planet Formation When an atom collides with a photon, it becomes "ionized" and "doubly ionized" atoms lose two electrons. In the SZ Cha disk, the amount of doubly ionized neon appears to be very low compared to disks typically exposed to X-ray emission from young stars. The appearance of this neon indicated that the dominant type of radiation in the SZ Cha system was "extreme ultraviolet" (EUV) radiation, capable of destroying gas and dust in the protoplanetary disk, but not as quickly as X-rays. X-ray radiation destroys the protoplanetary disk 100 times faster than ultraviolet radiation. From this we can conclude that the rate of “evaporation” of the disk and, accordingly, the time during which the formation of planets is possible depends on the energy and type of radiation.  In 2023, Espaillat and her team conducted a new long-term observation of the SZ Cha system using JWST's MIRI instrument. The scientists found that the amount of doubly ionized neon was significantly reduced compared to singly ionized neon. Additional observations using ground-based telescopes allow us to study the properties of protoplanetary disks in even more detail. For example, the CHIRON spectrometer on the SMARTS telescope at Cerro Tololo Observatory measured the blueshift of alpha hydrogen from the star SZ Cha. The blue shift is a Doppler-type change that indicates that something is moving toward our detectors, in this case hydrogen. Scientists interpret this phenomenon as a "stellar wind" of particles emanating from the star. This wind is thought to be dense enough to absorb ultraviolet radiation, but still transmits X-rays, indicating the latter's dominance in the evolution of this star system.  The discovery of doubly ionized neon in 2008, but its absence in subsequent observations, supports the assumption of X-ray dominance in the SZ Cha system. Thus, the amount of doubly ionized neon can serve as an indicator of ultraviolet and X-ray radiation affecting the protoplanetary disk. Astronomers can use this value to more accurately determine the time it takes planets to form in such a system before their disk disappears.

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The James Webb Telescope helped observe the disappearance of the disk around the young star SZ Cha Data obtained with the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) allowed us to draw conclusions about the process of planet formation in gas-dust disks. It turns out that the amount of ionized neon in these disks can serve as an indicator of the rate of planet formation. Previously, astronomers have already observed disks of gas and dust around young stars, but the process of their formation takes a very long time - hundreds of thousands, or even millions of years. It is almost impossible to observe changes in disks over short time intervals. In a new study, James Webb was able to detect changes in one of these disks where planet formation occurs. In observations made by a team led by Catherine Espaillat in 2008 using NASA's Spitzer Telescope, an infrared spectral line associated with doubly ionized neon ([Ne III]) was seen. The signal came from a disk of gas and dust around the young star SZ Chamaeleontis (SZ Cha).  [caption id="attachment_82600" align="alignnone" width="780"] James Webb[/caption] James Webb Helps Find Key to the Rate of Planet Formation When an atom collides with a photon, it becomes "ionized" and "doubly ionized" atoms lose two electrons. In the SZ Cha disk, the amount of doubly ionized neon appears to be very low compared to disks typically exposed to X-ray emission from young stars. The appearance of this neon indicated that the dominant type of radiation in the SZ Cha system was "extreme ultraviolet" (EUV) radiation, capable of destroying gas and dust in the protoplanetary disk, but not as quickly as X-rays. X-ray radiation destroys the protoplanetary disk 100 times faster than ultraviolet radiation. From this we can conclude that the rate of “evaporation” of the disk and, accordingly, the time during which the formation of planets is possible depends on the energy and type of radiation.  In 2023, Espaillat and her team conducted a new long-term observation of the SZ Cha system using JWST's MIRI instrument. The scientists found that the amount of doubly ionized neon was significantly reduced compared to singly ionized neon. Additional observations using ground-based telescopes allow us to study the properties of protoplanetary disks in even more detail. For example, the CHIRON spectrometer on the SMARTS telescope at Cerro Tololo Observatory measured the blueshift of alpha hydrogen from the star SZ Cha. The blue shift is a Doppler-type change that indicates that something is moving toward our detectors, in this case hydrogen. Scientists interpret this phenomenon as a "stellar wind" of particles emanating from the star. This wind is thought to be dense enough to absorb ultraviolet radiation, but still transmits X-rays, indicating the latter's dominance in the evolution of this star system.  The discovery of doubly ionized neon in 2008, but its absence in subsequent observations, supports the assumption of X-ray dominance in the SZ Cha system. Thus, the amount of doubly ionized neon can serve as an indicator of ultraviolet and X-ray radiation affecting the protoplanetary disk. Astronomers can use this value to more accurately determine the time it takes planets to form in such a system before their disk disappears.

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The research team studied the planetary nebula's central star in the star cluster, determining that it had lost 70% of its mass over its lifetime. It also turned out that the star has an unusual chemical composition and does not contain hydrogen. Stars like our Sun end their lives as white dwarfs. Some of them are surrounded by a planetary nebula, consisting of gas ejected by a dying star just before the outburst. An international research team led by Professor Klaus Werner from the Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics at the University of Tübingen studied the central star of a planetary nebula located in an open star cluster. Scientists were able to accurately determine the mass that the central star lost during its life. There are more than a thousand open star clusters in our Galaxy. Each of them includes up to several thousand stars that were formed from a dense cloud of gas and dust. “The stars in the cluster are of the same age, and this is of particular importance for astrophysics,” says Klaus Werner. They differ only in their mass. “The greater the mass of a star, the faster it consumes its nuclear fuel, burning hydrogen into helium. So the life of a large star is shorter and it turns into a white dwarf faster,” he explains. [caption id="attachment_68877" align="aligncenter" width="780"] nebula Messier 37[/caption] Observation of a star cluster shows the development of stars of different masses at the same age. “In astronomy, star clusters can be used as a kind of laboratory where we can test how correct our theories of stellar development are. One of the most uncertain aspects of the theory of stellar development is how much matter a star loses during its life. Stars like our Sun lose almost half their mass by the time they become white dwarfs. Stars eight times heavier than the Sun lose about 80% of their mass,” says the astrophysicist. The mass of white dwarfs in star clusters can be directly related to their mass at birth. Data on very young white dwarfs is especially valuable because they are the central stars of planetary nebulae. But none of their central stars in such nebulae have been studied before because they are all very distant and dim. The research team pointed one of the world's largest telescopes, the ten-meter GRANTECAN telescope, at the central star in the Messier 37 cluster and analyzed its spectrum. They were able to determine the star's mass to be 0.85 solar masses, meaning an original mass of 2.8 solar masses. How the central star of the planetary nebula Messier 37 survived the loss of 70% of its mass “The star thus lost 70% of its matter during its lifetime,” explains Werner. Another feature is its special chemical composition. There is no longer any hydrogen left on its surface. This points to an unusual event in its recent past - a short-term burst of nuclear reactions. The ability to accurately determine the start-to-end mass relationship of a star is of fundamental importance in astrophysics. It determines whether a star becomes a white dwarf, becomes a neutron star during a supernova, or becomes a black hole at the end of its life. From the ejected matter at the moment of “rebirth” of the star, new generations of stars are formed, enriched with heavy elements as products of nuclear reactions. The chemical evolution of galaxies, and ultimately the entire Universe, depends on this.

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Using computer models, scientists were able to simulate the formation of intermediate-mass black holes in star clusters. This opens up new ways to study mysterious objects The Universe is teeming with black holes from stellar masses to supermassive monsters. But there is one class that remains elusive: “average” black holes. They are called intermediate-mass black holes. How common are they, how are they formed and where are they located? To answer these questions, astronomers modeled possible formation scenarios. Intermediate-mass black holes lie in the mass gap between stellar mass and a supermassive black hole. They range from 100 to 100,000 solar masses. If they exist, do they indicate a hierarchical model of black hole formation and do small black holes form from the collapse of supermassive stars? If this is so, then intermediate-mass black holes will be a kind of “transition link” between stellar mass and supermassive black holes. If this idea is correct, then is it possible that intermediate-mass black holes could collide with each other and form the seeds of supermassive black holes? Astronomers need more observational data to answer all these questions. [caption id="attachment_68861" align="aligncenter" width="780"] star clusters[/caption] At the same time, astronomers have enough data on stellar-mass black holes. They are formed during the collapse of supermassive stars. Supermassive black holes located at the centers of galaxies are most likely formed through the accretion of matter, as well as mergers with other black holes. The existence of intermediate-mass black holes appears to be beyond doubt, but their observation presents certain difficulties. This doesn't mean they don't exist. Observers have found candidates for intermediate-mass black holes in the Milky Way. They also appear to be present in active galactic nuclei, where accretion effects are observed. Additionally, some ultraluminous X-ray sources may also have these "average" black holes. The Sloan Digital Sky Survey also found several potential candidates that emit strongly in the X-ray range. X-ray emission is one of the characteristics of activity around a black hole. One of the most interesting observations involves the gravitational waves emitted when two massive black holes merge. As a result, a black hole with a mass of about 150 solar masses was formed - exactly the kind of mass that can be classified as intermediate. Simulation reveals secret of origin of intermediate-mass black holes in star clusters Scientists are sure they exist, but still cannot determine exactly where and how they are formed. An international group led by Arca Sedda from the Gran Sassa Institute (Italy) modeled the possible mechanisms of their formation.  [caption id="attachment_68862" align="aligncenter" width="451"] star clusters[/caption] “Current observational limitations do not allow us to say anything definitive about the population of intermediate-mass black holes with masses between 1,000 and 10,000 solar masses, and they cause headaches for scientists regarding the possible mechanisms of their formation,” Sedda explained. Sedda and his team looked at star clusters as possible birthplaces for intermediate-mass black holes, and they created computer models that could simulate the formation of these mysterious objects using DRAGON-II data. This is a collection of 19 computer models representing dense clusters of up to a million stars each. Using these in further simulations, the team discovered that the objects they were interested in could form star clusters. This occurs due to a complex combination of three factors: mergers between stars much more massive than the Sun, accretion of matter from the star onto stellar-mass black holes, and mergers between stellar-mass black holes. "The latter process makes it possible to 'see' these phenomena through the detection of gravitational waves," Sedda explained. The team also hypothesized what happens after the birth of intermediate-mass black holes. They appear to be ejected from their clusters by complex gravitational interactions, or experience "relativistic recoil" when formed. This keeps them from gaining weight.  “Our models show that although seeds form naturally from interactions in star clusters, they are unlikely to become heavier than a few hundred solar masses unless the parent cluster is extremely dense or massive,” Sedda said. Finding out the history of the origin of these black holes still does not answer the question of whether they are the missing link between stellar and supermassive black holes. For a better understanding, we need two ingredients: one or more processes capable of forming black holes in the intermediate mass range and the ability to preserve such black holes. Our study places strict constraints on the first ingredient, providing clear insight into what processes may contribute to the formation of intermediate-mass black holes. Looking at more massive clusters containing more binary star systems in the future may be the key to obtaining the second ingredient. But this will require enormous effort from a technological and computational point of view.

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The absence of white dwarfs in the Hyades cluster is of interest to astronomers, and this case helps reconstruct the history of the cluster The Hyades star cluster is located about 153 light years away. At such a short distance it is visible to the naked eye in the constellation Taurus. THIS proximity makes it easier for professional astronomers to observe than many other objects. The Hyades cluster contains many stars with approximately the same age - about 625 million years, the same metallicity, and similar trajectories. But it lacks white dwarfs - there are only eight of them in the center of the cluster. The Hyades cluster is quite common. His research greatly helps in understanding star clusters. But such a feature as the almost complete absence of white dwarfs puzzles astronomers.  A new study has found one "escapee" from the cluster. This is a white dwarf whose mass is approaching the limiting value for this type of star. The study is called "A White Dwarf That Was Able to Escape the Hyades Star Cluster." [caption id="attachment_68737" align="aligncenter" width="769"] star cluster[/caption] An extremely massive white dwarf was able to escape the Hyades star cluster Clusters such as the Hyades are weakly gravitationally bound, and over time they lose stars through their interactions with gas clouds, other clusters, and between the cluster stars themselves. Study author David Miller of the Department of Physics and Astronomy at the University of British Columbia and his co-authors studied the phenomenon of the absence of white dwarfs in the Hyades to reconstruct the history of the cluster. If we can identify the stars that were expelled, especially white dwarfs in this case, then it is possible to reconstruct the history of the cluster. The European Space Agency's Gaia space telescope tracks more than 1 billion stars in the Milky Way, providing Miller and his colleagues with a huge amount of data. The team found three white dwarfs with trajectories indicating possible escape from the Hyades cluster. For two of them, the range of masses makes it unlikely that they originated in a cluster, but for the third object, it is possible. "We estimate there is a 97.8% probability that the candidate is a true native of the Hyades" White dwarfs have a mass comparable to the Sun, but their size is comparable to the Earth. They consist of degenerate matter and emit only residual thermal energy. This is the final state of about 97% of the stars in the Milky Way. Their mass is governed by the Chandrasekhar limit and at maximum can reach about 1.44 solar masses. Large white dwarfs are usually found in binary star systems and gain mass by pulling matter from a companion; such white dwarfs eventually explode in a type 1a supernova, and all their mass is dissipated. [caption id="attachment_68738" align="alignnone" width="780"] star cluster[/caption] The white dwarf that left the Hyades is called an ultramassive white dwarf. These have a mass of 1.10 or more solar masses. This is well below the Chandrasekhar limit, but well above the average mass of a white dwarf, which is about 0.6 solar masses. Such high-mass objects typically originate from two-parent stars in a binary system, where one star has "taken" material from the other, increasing its mass. However, the Hyades ultramassive white dwarf has a mass of 1.317 solar masses and an age consistent with only one parent star. It appears to be the most massive white dwarf to come from a single progenitor.

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