#SSD PCB Damage

[jet-datarecovery]

Reliable San Antonio Data Recovery Support When You Need It Most

Loss of data is imminent at any given point in this technology age. It can be a faulty SSD, a faulty hard drive, a faulty USB, or a crashed RAID set. The loss can be drastic, particularly for corporations and individuals with irreplaceable data. That’s where our San Antonio Data Recovery Support team steps in. At JET Data Recovery, we specialize in professional, secure, and fast San Antonio data recovery support to help you recover what matters most.

Why Choose Our San Antonio Data Recovery Support?

Data loss is stressful, but finding help should not be. We are based right here in San Antonio, offering local, hands-on recovery services with no outsourcing or guesswork. Every case is handled in-house by trained technicians with years of experience in recovering data from a wide range of storage media.

We Recover Data From:

Hard Disk Drives (HDDs): Physically harmed, clicking, or hidden drives.

Solid State Drives (SSDs): Firmware failure, bad sectors, or sudden death? We get it back.

USB Flash Drives & Memory Cards: Defective connectors, water damage, or corrupted files.

RAID Arrays: RAID 0, RAID 1, RAID 5, and RAID 10 arrays, we rebuild arrays and recover data from advanced configurations.

Desktop & Laptop Drives: Whether your own computer crashed or the computer at work won't boot, we can assist.

Our lab is equipped to diagnose and repair both logical errors (like file corruption) and physical damage (like head crashes or PCB failure).

How Our San Antonio Data Recovery Support Works

When you bring your failed device to JET Data Recovery, we start with a free evaluation. You will receive a detailed report outlining what went wrong, what can be recovered, and how long it will take. There’s no charge if we can’t recover your data—we stand by our “no data, no fee” policy.

Common Causes of Data Loss We Handle:

Accidental file deletion or formatting

Power surges or hardware failure

Liquid or heat damage

Virus or malware corruption

System crashes or failed OS updates

RAID rebuild errors or controller issues

Whether you possess a solitary external hard drive or a whole server, our local experts will be glad to assist.

Local, Secure, and Confidential

When it is data recovery, security and trust are everything. As a San Antonio business, we value privacy. Your files never even exit our lab, and we take strong handling procedures to keep your information confidential in transit.

We know certain files, business databases, financial records, or photos of those you love are too precious to be lost. That is why we are dedicated to offering personalized, professional service to each client.

When Every Byte Counts, Count on JET Data Recovery

At JET Data Recovery, we know that every lost file has a story. Our San Antonio Data Recovery Support should be rapid, cost-effective, and transparent with no surprise charges or concealed fees.

Do not wait or risk further damage. If your device is making strange noises, failing to start, or not being recognized, turn it off immediately and bring it to our San Antonio location.

[dritfixing12]

DoctorITFixing now offers professional Data Recovery Training In Bur Dubai for those wanting to master SSD and mobile data recovery.

If you're looking to build a career in data recovery or enhance your existing technical skills, then Data Recovery Training In Bur Dubai by DoctorITFixing is the perfect opportunity for you. Designed for both beginners and professionals, this course provides a complete guide to understanding and solving a wide range of data recovery issues.

Why Choose Data Recovery Training In Bur Dubai?

The Data Recovery Training In Bur Dubai program is one of the most comprehensive training modules available in the region. It offers:

Over 20 hours of high-quality video instruction

Access to 120+ real-world data recovery solutions

Hands-on training using advanced tools and techniques

Lifetime access to DoctorITFixing’s online training portal

This training is specifically tailored to meet the needs of IT professionals, computer repair technicians, and even data recovery business owners. By enrolling in Data Recovery Training In Bur Dubai, you will gain a competitive edge in the growing field of data recovery.

What Will You Learn in Data Recovery Training In Bur Dubai?

During the Data Recovery Training In Bur Dubai, you will cover a wide variety of topics to ensure you are fully equipped to handle different types of data recovery scenarios. These include:

1. Logical Data Recovery

Learn how to recover data from corrupted or deleted files, formatted partitions, and system crashes. This section of the Data Recovery Training In Bur Dubai focuses on software-based solutions.

2. Mechanical Failure Recovery

Understand the techniques to recover data from hard drives with physical issues such as head crashes, spindle failures, and more. The Data Recovery Training In Bur Dubai provides detailed video demonstrations on handling delicate hardware.

3. Electrical Failure Recovery

Explore advanced recovery methods from hard drives that have suffered electrical damage. This includes PCB board repair and ROM data transfer, which are also part of the Data Recovery Training In Bur Dubai curriculum.

4. Firmware Repair Training

One of the highlights of Data Recovery Training In Bur Dubai is in-depth training on firmware-level repair using specialized software tools. You will get hands-on experience with the latest technologies used in the data recovery industry.

Who Can Benefit from Data Recovery Training In Bur Dubai?

The Data Recovery Training In Bur Dubai course is ideal for:

IT professionals looking to upgrade their skills

Computer and laptop repair technicians

Individuals interested in starting a data recovery business

Students who want to explore advanced IT specializations

Anyone passionate about data and technology

Lifetime Access and Ongoing Support

By enrolling in Data Recovery Training In Bur Dubai, you receive lifetime access to the DoctorITFixing web portal. This includes updates, newly added case studies, and additional modules as they become available. Plus, you get direct access to mentors and trainers who will guide you throughout your journey.

Why DoctorITFixing?

DoctorITFixing is a trusted name in the tech repair and training industry. With years of experience and a reputation for excellence, they offer a reliable and professional environment for Data Recovery Training In Bur Dubai. Their hands-on training model ensures that you’re not just learning theory—you’re practicing real-world data recovery.

Enroll in Data Recovery Training In Bur Dubai Today!

Don’t miss this opportunity to master one of the most valuable IT skills of today. Enroll in Data Recovery Training In Bur Dubai and gain the confidence to handle any data loss scenario. With DoctorITFixing, you're not just learning; you're preparing for a successful future in data recovery.Take your career to the next level with Data Recovery Training In Bur Dubai—where knowledge meets hands-on expertise.

[govindhtech]

ASUS ROG Strix X870-A Gaming WiFi  Motherboard Features

Dive deep: Discover the ROG Strix X870-A Gaming WiFi, a powerful and attractive motherboard in the ROG X870E/X870 range. Its outstanding looks may be the first thing you notice. Its cobble-gray PCB is offset by striking white and silver embellishments. Combine it with other white-themed PC DIY components from the comprehensive portfolio, such the ROG Hyperion chassis in white, to create a striking first impression. However, this motherboard is more than cosmetic. It’s a premium option for gaming-focused PCs using AMD Ryzen CPUs.

ROG Strix X870-A Gaming WiFi Features

ROG Strix X870-A Gaming WiFi builds a full next-gen PC as an X870 motherboard. The AM5 socket supports the newest AMD Ryzen 9000 Series CPUs. Your PC is equipped for the fastest graphics cards and M.2 SSDs of today and future since the main M.2 slot and PCIe x16 slot are wired for PCIe 5.0 bandwidth. This board has it PCIe Q-Release Slim mechanism for quick graphics card installation. Removing a card requires no latch release or button pressing.

DDR5 memory kits with high bandwidth and capacity are supported. This board can overclock compatible kits to 8000 MT/s or more. You may tweak your RAM for maximum performance or stability with this motherboard. AEMP memory profiles optimize settings with a click, even for PMIC-restricted components. AMD’s new processors include several benefits, including quicker baseline memory support for a wonderful out-of-the-box experience.

Durable VRM architecture

Gaming, AI operations, and content production all have higher computational needs. Modern CPUs with large core counts are meeting user needs, but powering them is difficult. These processors need high power output and advanced control circuitry to dynamically alter power in microseconds to ensure a steady and clean supply under fluctuating workloads.

ROG Strix X870-A Gaming WiFi has a powerful VRM design with a paired arrangement to address these problems. Its 16 Vcore power stages and two Vsoc voltage power stages, each with an SPS design rated for up to 90A, ensuring the power module can meet CPU needs.

Dual 8-pin ProCool II power connections with solid pins provide reliable power supply, heat dissipation, and current capacity for overclocking and high-wattage workloads on the ROG Strix X870-A Gaming WiFi. Damage-resistant metal shields protect connections. We add an LED signaling system to the connections to verify good connection.

Next-gen WiFi 7 networking

The ROG Strix X870-A Gaming WiFi supports WiFi 7, a networking revolution. WiFi 7 is 4.8X quicker than WiFi 6 due to the 6GHz band and 4K QAM. Devices may connect on various bands using Multi-Link Operation (MLO) for quicker speeds and dependability. Wireless communication is improved with Bluetooth 5.4 and 2.9Gbps on the ROG Strix X870-A Gaming WiFi.

The ASUS WiFi Q-Antenna simplifies networking optimization. The WiFi Q-Antenna boosts 5GHz and 6GHz signal throughput with PCB improvements and improved inner pin connections.

Plus, Armoury Crate optimizes this directional antenna. Direction Finder quickly detects signal strength and locates the optimal antenna placement, while Fast Check checks signal strength and ensures the best connection. The new Traffic Monitor function tracks WiFi channel use across 2.4GHz, 5GHz, and 6GHz bands. Channel Switch lets you switch to a less crowded channel for better network performance.

Flexible And abundant USB Ports

ROG Strix X870-A Gaming WiFi motherboards include two high-speed USB4 ports, allowing for endless possibilities. USB4’s 40 Gbps bi-directional bandwidth makes it ideal for speedy external storage device connections.

A DisplayPort 1.4 monitor with 8K@30Hz may be connected to USB4 ports. Daisy-chaining numerous screens and gadgets to one USB4 port is another option. You may connect two monitors and three devices, such a mouse, keyboard, or USB headset, with one wire, creating a neater configuration.

Dual USB4 ports are the ROG Strix X870-A Gaming WiFi‘s main rear I/O ports, however there are more. There’s also a USB 10Gbps Type-C port with 30W Power Delivery 3.0. It delivers fast, dependable power to almost everything you plug in by delivering several voltage levels based on the device’s specs.

ROG Strix X870-A Gaming WiFi lets you connect a high-speed, multipurpose USB port to your case’s front panel. The header has a USB 20Gbps connection for fast communication.

The back panel has five USB 10Gbps and four USB 5Gbps Type-A connections for connecting your battle station. One has USB BIOS Flashback to upgrade UEFI without a CPU or RAM. Standby power, a USB flash drive, and the update filename are enough. BIOS Flashback may never be needed, but having it provides you piece of mind.

Build that large storage array

PC users nowadays require speedy storage everywhere. AAA games’ installation sizes aren’t shrinking. AI procedures start with enormous datasets, and camera operators need a place to store high-resolution objects.

All these situations need plenty of M.2 slots. The ROG Strix X870-A Gaming WiFi does that. It has four M.2 slots, two of which are CPU-direct. One is wired for PCIe 5.0, allowing you to install a fast main drive for application loading.

The new motherboards make SSD installation simpler than ever. The ROG Strix X870-A Gaming WiFi‘s M.2 Q-Latch moves down a track to securely accommodate M.2 drives of various lengths. The M.2 Q-Latch technology makes drive installation easy and tool-free, so you never have to worry about dropping a tiny screw into your chassis.

It also making M.2 heatsink installation as simple as drive installation. The main drive slot has an M.2 Q-Release heatsink on the ROG Strix X870-A. One side button releases the heatsink. Snap the heatsink back on after inserting your drive.

Easily Configured And Optimized

It’s easy to concentrate on the ROG Strix X870-A Gaming WiFi‘s hardware enhancements, but the software is as exciting. It begins with major BIOS interface modifications. It are increasing the BIOS interface resolution to 1920×1080. This modification will let you view more material at once, making it simpler to discover the options you need.

The new BIOS Q-Dashboard interface connects BIOS settings to motherboard layout, which may be even more useful to beginner PC builders. It shows your motherboard model in BIOS with all the important components and connections identified. New PC builders learn their hardware and motherboard operation via these visual correlations.

Keeping your device drivers updated helps your new PC run smoothly. However, you may miss an update unless you regularly check for updated drivers. ASUS introducing ASUS DriverHub to fix this. This one-stop solution simplifies ASUS driver and utility management to keep your system optimum. ASUS DriverHub is accessible in the Armoury Crate app and after OS installation for convenience.

Conclusion

The Powerful ROG Strix X870-A Gaming WiFi is white. For your next PC, the ROG Strix X870-A Gaming WiFi is ideal. It supports a next-gen AMD Ryzen 9000 Series CPU, DDR5 RAM, and fast storage. The newest features ease PC building and optimization. The white-and-silver hue makes it stand out.

Read more on Govindhtech.com

[flora-819]

Understanding PCIe and Card Edge Connectors: A Deep Dive into Modern Connectivity

Introduction

In the realm of computer hardware, the Peripheral Component Interconnect Express (PCIe) standard has become a cornerstone for connecting various components to the motherboard. This high-speed interface allows for the rapid transfer of data between the CPU and peripherals, such as graphics cards, SSDs, and network cards. A critical aspect of PCIe technology is the card edge connector, which serves as the physical interface for these components. This article will delve into the intricacies of PCIe technology, the significance of card edge connectors, and their impact on modern computing.

What is PCIe?

PCIe, or Peripheral Component Interconnect Express, is a high-speed interface standard used for connecting various hardware devices to a computer's motherboard. It was developed to replace the older PCI and PCI-X standards, which could not keep pace with the growing demands for data transfer speeds and bandwidth. PCIe provides a scalable, high-performance interface that can accommodate a wide range of devices, from simple expansion cards to complex graphics and storage solutions.

Key Features of PCIe

High Bandwidth: PCIe offers significantly higher bandwidth compared to its predecessors. Each lane in a PCIe connection can transfer data at rates of up to 1 GB/s per direction in PCIe 3.0, doubling to 2 GB/s in PCIe 4.0, and further increasing to 4 GB/s in PCIe 5.0.

Scalability: PCIe supports multiple lanes, allowing devices to operate over a single connection. A x1 connection has one lane, while a x16 connection utilizes sixteen lanes, making it ideal for high-performance devices like GPUs.

Low Latency: The architecture of PCIe minimizes latency, providing faster communication between the CPU and connected devices. This is particularly crucial for applications that require real-time data processing.

Compatibility: PCIe is backward and forward compatible, meaning that a newer PCIe device can operate in an older slot, and vice versa, although it will be limited to the speed of the slower interface.

The Role of Card Edge Connectors

At the heart of PCIe connectivity lies the card edge connector, a critical component that facilitates the physical connection between the PCIe card and the motherboard. The card edge connector is a type of electrical connector that allows a printed circuit board (PCB) to connect to another PCB, typically within a housing or slot.

Design and Structure

A card edge connector consists of multiple conductive pads arranged along the edge of a PCB. These pads make contact with corresponding pins in the PCIe slot on the motherboard. The design of the connector is crucial for ensuring a reliable connection, minimizing signal loss, and maintaining high data transfer speeds.

Contact Pads: The conductive pads are typically made from gold-plated copper to ensure good conductivity and resistance to corrosion. The arrangement of these pads determines the number of lanes available for data transfer.

Mechanical Features: The card edge connector often includes features like notches or guiding mechanisms to ensure proper alignment when inserting the card into the slot. This prevents damage to both the card and the motherboard.

Durability: Given that PCIe cards may be inserted and removed multiple times, the card edge connector must be designed to withstand wear and tear. High-quality materials and robust engineering are essential for longevity.

Types of Card Edge Connectors

While PCIe primarily uses the standard card edge connector, there are variations designed for specific applications or form factors. Some of these include:

Standard PCIe Connector: This is the most common type, used for full-size PCIe cards, including graphics cards, sound cards, and network interfaces.

Mini PCIe: Designed for compact devices, such as laptops and embedded systems, mini PCIe connectors are smaller and often used for Wi-Fi and cellular modules.

M.2 Connector: While not a traditional card edge connector, M.2 is a modern interface that uses a similar principle for SSDs and other devices. It offers a more compact form factor and supports both PCIe and SATA protocols.

Importance of Card Edge Connectors in PCIe

The card edge connector is indispensable in the PCIe ecosystem for several reasons:

Signal Integrity: The design and quality of the card edge connector directly impact signal integrity. High-quality connectors minimize crosstalk and electromagnetic interference, which is critical for maintaining high data transfer rates.

Ease of Use: The card edge connector allows for easy installation and removal of expansion cards. This user-friendly design has contributed to the popularity of PCIe in both consumer and enterprise markets.

Versatility: With the ability to support various devices, the card edge connector enables a broad range of applications, from gaming to data centers. This versatility has made PCIe the go-to standard for modern computing.

Future-Proofing: As technology evolves, the card edge connector continues to adapt. Newer PCIe standards, such as PCIe 5.0 and the upcoming PCIe 6.0, leverage the existing card edge connector design while providing increased bandwidth and performance.

The Evolution of PCIe and Card Edge Connectors

Since its introduction in the early 2000s, PCIe has undergone several iterations, each improving upon the last. The transition from PCIe 1.0 to PCIe 6.0 exemplifies the rapid advancement in data transfer technology.

PCIe Generations

PCIe 1.0: Released in 2003, PCIe 1.0 offered a maximum bandwidth of 2.5 GT/s (gigatransfers per second) per lane, equivalent to 250 MB/s.

PCIe 2.0: Launched in 2007, PCIe 2.0 doubled the bandwidth to 5 GT/s per lane, providing 500 MB/s.

PCIe 3.0: Introduced in 2010, PCIe 3.0 further increased the speed to 8 GT/s per lane, translating to 1 GB/s. This version also introduced improvements in encoding to enhance efficiency.

PCIe 4.0: Released in 2017, PCIe 4.0 doubled the bandwidth again to 16 GT/s per lane, allowing for 2 GB/s. This generation was crucial for supporting high-speed SSDs and next-gen GPUs.

PCIe 5.0: Launched in 2019, PCIe 5.0 maintained the same lane configuration but doubled the data rate to 32 GT/s, providing 4 GB/s. This was particularly beneficial for data centers and high-performance computing.

PCIe 6.0: Expected to be finalized in the near future, PCIe 6.0 aims to deliver 64 GT/s per lane, which would translate to an impressive 8 GB/s. This generation is poised to support the next wave of high-bandwidth applications, including AI, machine learning, and advanced gaming.

Impact on Card Edge Connectors

As PCIe technology has evolved, so too have the requirements for card edge connectors. The following considerations are vital for future developments:

Increased Density: As devices become more compact and powerful, card edge connectors must accommodate higher densities without sacrificing performance.

Thermal Management: High-performance devices generate significant heat. Card edge connectors must be designed to facilitate effective thermal management, ensuring longevity and reliability.

Emerging Technologies: With the rise of technologies like 5G, AI, and IoT, card edge connectors will need to adapt to support new applications and form factors.

Conclusion

The PCIe standard and its card edge connectors are integral to the performance and functionality of modern computing systems. As data transfer demands continue to rise, the evolution of PCIe and its associated connectors will remain pivotal in shaping the future of technology. Understanding the nuances of PCIe and the role of card edge connectors not only provides insights into current hardware capabilities but also prepares us for the innovations of tomorrow. Whether in gaming, data processing, or general computing, PCIe and its connectors will undoubtedly play a vital role in the ongoing evolution of technology.

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[nowdatarecove]

Hard Drive Recovery in India

Whether your flash media has been by accident deleted, formatted, or physically damaged, we can help. Our technicians can repair and recuperate data from failed or broken USB keys - Hard Disk Data Recovery. You are knowledgeable about these particulars and upon receiving approval to proceed, your job might be queued for data restoration procedure. Common issues include unhealthy sectors, read/write head crashes or stiction, PCB failure, and drive motor and bearings points. All these situations trigger the exhausting drive to stop regular operations and require hands-on hard drive repair inside a specialized cleanroom setting.It is very important to recover your drive and migrate your data to a secure storage system as quickly as potential. Our group is proficient in recovering data from various operating techniques, together with MAC OS X, Microsoft, and Linux. We specialize in knowledge recovery for top brands like Maxtor, Fujitsu, Hitachi, IBM, Lacie, Samsung, Seagate, Toshiba, Western Digital, Apple, Dell, HP, Lenovo, Sandisk, Synology, Kingston, and Extra. After recovering your information about their unique situation, we return your information on the return media of your alternative - SSD Data Recovery.Now Data Recovery Specialists focus on recovering records data from all types of RAID, hard drives, SSD, flash memory, and other media. If the device is repairable and recoverable we diagnose it additional to know which degree of repair or recovery it needs. We diagnose the issue and run a number of exams to know whether the device could be repaired and recovered or not.No matter the make and model of the media, Now Data Recovery has the tools and the expertise to allow you to regain entry to your useful information. Loss of information on RAID servers needn't be debilitating to a business or hosting service. We have help businesses and IT groups heave a sigh of reduction with full recovery of lost information. Our proven data restoration solutions assist restore and recover all data from the numerous exhausting mixtures used as servers. We know your storage methods work around the clock and data loss can happen at any time. We have experienced data recovery engineers working 24/7 able to recuperate your data. For more information, please visit our site https://www.nowdatarecovery.com/  

[andrrut13]

SSD Data Recovery Services | Recover Data from SSD Drive | Payam Data Recovery (Auckland, NZ)

The best SSD data recovery service in the world, based in Auckland, New Zealand - Payam Data Recovery can help with any brand or model of SSD.  https://sco.lt/8PQIym

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[smithlee1221]

Best SSD Data Recovery Services - Apple Mac Book Air/Pro SSDs | Recover Data from Dead, Faulty, Failed SSD | Payam Data Recovery Australia

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[dailytechnologynews]

Common PSU Misconceptions: Adopted from LTT forum.

This is just some misconceptions I hope to flatten out in regards to PSUs, I have adopted this from another user on LTT forum (with permission!).

“80+ rating is the best indicator of PSU quality”

Not wholly true. You also have to look at ripple, voltage regulation, transient response, noise, fan bearing, topology, load regulation (including 12V crossloads), temperatures (includes rated temperature, 30C 40C 50C etc.). That’s why even though Raider II spinoffs like EVGA GQ and Be Quiet! Pure Power 10/11 are Gold, they are still worse than Corsair CX in quality (ACRF vs Half Bridge LLC). 

​

��You should get a higher wattage PSU because of efficiency curve”

First, let’s look at what an efficiency curve on a modern PSU looks like.

(Left percentage is 115VAC, right is 230VAC) Efficiency peaks at 200/650 = 31% of the rated wattage at ~91.5/93%, then decreases until it hits ~88/92%  at max load and ~87.5/91.5% above 700W. The difference between max load and peak load efficiency is 3.5/1%, which is extremely insignificant. 

Even on older platforms, this trend of efficiency plateauing above ~20-40% load is present.

Now for the real world calculations: let’s say that a person is debating on whether to get a 550W or 750W PSU for a build that consumes 400W when overclocked to its max. Also, he’s debating on whether to get the Corsair RMx 550 or 750. 

These are the efficiency curves for both:

RMx 550W

RMx 750W

The 550W has ~90/92% efficiency at 400W, and the 750 also has ~90/92% efficiency at 400W. Conclusion? He should get the 550 since it’s probably much cheaper, he doesn’t need 750W anyway since his build consumes 400W max, and the efficiency is the same!

​

“Get more wattage than you need because it will last longer/running your PSU at max will significantly decrease its lifespan” 

First off, most modern not trash PSUs are rated for 40C or higher, which is good for most cases. And the advertised wattage is usually CONTINUOUS, not PEAK. If a 550W continuous PSU at 40C were not able to deliver 550W constantly at 40C, then that would be false advertising and the manufacturer would get sued. Thus, the claim that running the PSU at max would significantly decrease its lifespan is generally false. Besides, most PSUs are overbuilt to ~120%+ of their rated wattage, and you can see that from where the protections are set. 

More wattage = last longer isn’t necessarily true; a MOSFET or the fan can still fail under high wattage PSUs. In fact, higher wattage PSUs can be more dangerous; this is especially true for single rail PSUs, because highly set OCP (OPP’s even slower!) is much slower than lower set OCP. And in the event of a short within the PSU or within the motherboard, FET/VRM failure on the motherboard etc. the OCP/OPP on the PSU won’t be fast enough to trip before the short causes massive damage on the PSU and/or the motherboard.

A demonstration on why higher wattage PSUs are more dangerous. The reasoning.

​

“PSUs branded by [Brand name] are always good” 

Every brand except Delta and Diablotek, etc have made good and bad PSUs (Delta have made only good PSUs if you don’t care about noise, and Diablotek only makes bombs). The most common brands I've seen people spout as “never having made a bad PSU” are Seasonic and EVGA. 

First off, both have their fair share of bad PSUs. Look no further than Seasonic’s S12ii/M12ii/EVO series or their S12III series, and EVGA’s G3 (protections are set too high)/BQ/BT etc. 

Secondly, EVGA doesn’t even make PSUs (that job goes to FSP, HEC, Super Flower, RSY, Andyson etc.), and Seasonic along with Super Flower often outsource to RSY because their manufacturing capacity is small. If Seasonic/Super Flower choose to manufacture a certain PSU themselves, the Quality Control will be worse on those because every part is outsourced, compared to FSP, CWT etc who do not outsource the PCB-A. 

This misconception also falls under statements such as “just get a brand name PSU, they’re all fine”. 

​

“Modularity is extremely important for the consumer” 

Truth: unless the person in question is doing Cablemod, Mod vs Semi-Mod will make absolutely no difference, as the cables that are preattached on semimod PSUs will be necessary cables, such as the 24pin for motherboard. Also, in my and many other people’s experiences, on lower wattages (<=550W) nonmod is actually EASIER to work with than semi/full mod because there’s only a few cables left over from nonmod, which are easily ziptied and tucked under the PSU shroud (or left out in the open). Of course the issue of nonmod vs semi-mod is subjective, but at least I have found that the ~2 cables to ziptie after all the cables are attached on nonmod PSUs are easily dealt with. 

​

“Japanese Caps are the most important factor of a PSU's quality”

A PSU is not just a box of caps. There is also the bridge rectifier, transformer, MOSFETs (particularly the 12V ones), fan quality, and topology to worry about when judging a PSU’s quality. The capacitor plague is over; for most modern PSUs, tier 2 Teapo/whatever else caps are as good as Japanese caps, and MOSFETs/the fan are usually the first to fail anyway (Stefan Payne). 

​

“PSU calculators are good for estimating your system’s wattage” 

Ever notice how PSU calculators have affiliate links for their recommended PSUs? Yeah, they’re not there for YOUR benefit, they’re there to make money. And in this case, it’s by overestimating the wattage a lot so that they make money off higher wattage PSUs, which cost more thus bringing better profit margins. Outervision is by far the worst offender here; when I put in an RX 5700 XT, 3600, 2x8gb RAM, 1 SSD, 1 HDD, I got ~550W for my power consumption during gaming. However, when I look at Tom’s Hardware power consumption measurements, I see that the 3600 draws about 70W when PBO is turned on during gaming, and RX 5700 XT full OC draws 250W during gaming. Add 30W for everything else (because everything else draws minimal wattage) and we get 350W, which is FAR from the 550W that Outervision proclaimed. 

Be Quiet!’s PSU calculator doesn’t brashly overestimate as much as Outervision’s; when I put in the same specs, I got 387W, which is still overestimating by ~37W but not as much as 550W. However, Be Quiet! Calculator is still overestimating for their own benefit, not yours. Moral of the story? Use THW’s power consumption measurements for the CPU and GPU, then tack on 30W for your true power consumption when gaming and overclocking.

​

“Get a PSU with higher wattage than you need for headroom” 

Nothing about the current trend of CPU and GPU power consumption says that their power consumption will go up in the future. In fact, with die shrinks, the opposite is likely to happen, as same core CPU from Zen+ to Zen 2 power consumption has dropped, similarly with GCN to RDNA. 

[sanaavay]

ASRock B450M/Ac WiFi Motherboard Features: Supports AMD AM4 Socket Ryzen™ 2000, 3000, 4000 G-Series, 5000 and 5000 G-Series Desktop Processors Supports DDR4 3200+ (OC) 1 PCIe 3.0 x16, 1 PCIe 2.0 x16 AMD Quad CrossFireX™ Graphics Output: HDMI 7.1 CH HD Audio (Realtek ALC892 Audio Codec), ELNA Audio Caps 4 SATA3, 1 Ultra M.2 (PCIe Gen3 x4)* 6 x USB 3.1 Gen1 (2 Front, 4 Rear) Realtek Gigabit LAN ASRock Polychrome SYNC *Actual support may vary by CPU. ASRock B450M/Ac WiFi Motherboard Specifications RULE YOUR OWN LIGHTING WAY – POLYCHROME RGB This motherboard features onboard RGB headers and an addressable RGB header that allow motherboard to be connected to compatible LED devices such as strip, CPU fans, coolers, chassis and so on. Users may also synchronize RGB LED devices across the Polychrome RGB Sync-certified accessories to create their own unique lighting effects. Ultra M.2 32 Gb/s (PCIe Gen3 x4) The PCIe Gen3 x4 Ultra M.2 interface pushes data transfer speeds up to 32Gb/s, and is compatible with ASRock's U.2 Kit for installing some of the world's fastest U.2 PCIe Gen3 x4 SSDs. Dual Band 802.11ac WiFi No one has time for weak WiFi signals and sluggish internet! That’s why this motherboard comes with a 802.11ac WiFi (2.4G / 5G WiFi) module which supports wireless networks and Bluetooth v4.2. 4 x USB3.2 Gen1 Delivering data transfer rates up to 10X faster than USB 2.0 with optimized power efficiency. USB 3.2 Gen1 technology advances the data transfer rate up to 5Gb/s. ASRock provides 4 x USB 3.2 Gen1 ports onboard allows you to have a stunning data transfer experience. Sapphire Black PCB Pure black PCB appearance. The new Sapphire Black PCB represents rock-solid quality and gives the motherboard a more mysterious touch. High Density Glass Fabric PCB High Density Glass Fabric PCB design that reduces the gaps between the PCB layers to protect the motherboard against electrical shorts caused by humidity. 2oz Copper PCB Using only carefully selected copper materials for PCB layers, 2oz Copper PCB delivers lower temperature and higher energy efficiency for overclocking. ELNA Audio Caps Who says high quality audio is only available on high-end motherboards? ASRock applied ELNA audio capacitors on mainstream and entry-level motherboards! Compared with traditional solid caps, the leakage current of ELNA audio caps is merely 3uA. This is the key to reduce noise level significantly and satisfy even the pickiest audiophiles. Full Spike Protection Some sensitive digital components on the motherboard are vulnerable to power surges, the excessive current may cause your system to malfunction immediately. ASRock Full Spike Protection includes various technologies to prevent your motherboard's components from being damaged by these unexpected voltage spikes. ASRock B450M/Ac WiFi Motherboard

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[jaclynclark231]

Data Recovery

It is the process of retrieving data from secondary storage, removable media, or files that has been deleted or lost, or that has been corrupted, damaged, or formatted when the data held in them cannot be accessed in the normal way. Internal and external hard disk drives (HDDs), solid-state drives (SSDs), USB flash drives, magnetic tapes, compact discs (CDs), digital video discs (DVDs), and other electronic devices are the most common storage media from which data can be recovered. Physical damage to the storage devices or logical damage to the file system that prevents the file system from being mounted by the host operating system may necessitate recovery of the information (OS).

About 

For example, on a single-drive, single-partition, single-OS system, the most common data recovery scenarios are: an operating system failure; a storage device malfunction; storage device logical failure; accidental damage or deletion; and so on. The ultimate goal in these scenarios is simple: copy all important files from the damaged media to a second, new drive. This can be performed by booting directly from a ROM instead of the corrupted drive in question while using a Live CD or DVD to restore functionality. Many Live CDs or DVDs provide the ability to mount the system drive as well as backup drives or removable media, as well as the ability to transfer files from the system drive to the backup media using a file manager or optical disc writing software, among other things. These types of situations can frequently be avoided by dividing the hard drive and putting valuable data files (or copies of them) on a separate partition from the replaceable operating system system files.

Another scenario involves a breakdown at the level of the drive, such as a corrupted file system or drive partition, or a failure of the hard disk drive itself. In any of these scenarios, the data stored on the media devices is difficult to retrieve. In some cases, repairing the logical file system, partition table, or master boot record is required, while in others, drive recovery techniques are required. These include everything from software-based recovery of corrupted data to hardware- and software-based recovery of damaged service areas (also known as the "firmware" of the hard disk drive) to hardware replacement on a physically damaged drive that allows for data extraction to a new drive. If a drive recovery is required, it is usually because the drive has failed permanently, and the focus is on doing a one-time recovery and rescuing whatever data can be recovered from the drive.

Another possibility involves individuals mistakenly "deleting" files from a storage medium without realizing it. As a general rule, the contents of deleted files are not instantly wiped from the physical disk; instead, references to them are removed from the directory structure, and then space occupied by the deleted data is made available for later data overwriting. End users may believe that deleted files are no longer accessible with a typical file manager, yet the data is still technically present on the actual hard drive. The original file contents are still present, frequently in a number of disconnected fragments, and may be retrieved provided they have not been overwritten by other data files during this time period.

As well as in the context of forensic applications and counter-espionage, the phrase "data recovery" is used to refer to the process of recovering data that has been encrypted or hidden, rather than damaged. Data stored on a computer can become encrypted or hidden for a variety of reasons, including virus attacks, and can only be recovered by certain computer forensic professionals.

Damage to the physical body

Data recovery hardware is another option.

Physical damage to storage medium can be caused by a wide range of failures, including human mistake and natural calamities, among other things. A variety of mechanical problems, such as head crashes, PCB failures, and failed motors, can occur in CD-ROM media; tapes can simply break due to the scratching off of their metallic substrate or dye layer.

In the event of physical damage to a hard drive, even in the event of a head collision, it is not always the case that the data would be lost permanently. A large number of professional data recovery businesses have developed ways that can typically recover the majority, if not all, of the data that had been lost when the loss occurred.

It should be noted that there are some exceptions to this rule, such as circumstances in which the hard drive platters have been severely damaged. However, if the hard drive can be repaired and a full image or clone of the drive can be generated, the logical file structure can usually be reconstructed in the majority of cases.

The majority of physical damage is irreversible and cannot be rectified by end users. Opening a hard disk drive in a regular atmosphere, for example, can cause airborne dust to settle on the platter and become trapped between the platter and the read/write head, which can cause data loss. As a rule of thumb, read/write heads float 3 to 6 nanometers above the platter surface during normal operation, and the average dust particle size encountered in an ordinary environment is around 30,000 nanometers in diameter. As a result of these dust particles becoming trapped between the read/write heads and the platter, they have the potential to create fresh head crashes, which can further damage the platter and complicate the recovery process. Furthermore, most end users do not have the necessary gear or technical competence to carry out these repairs on their own time. As a result, data recovery businesses are frequently hired to recover vital data, with the more reputable ones employing class 100 cleanrooms that are free of dust and static electricity. [2]

Techniques for data recovery

Data recovery from physically damaged devices can be accomplished using a variety of approaches. Some damage to the hard drive can be remedied by swapping out individual components. Even if this alone restores usability to the disk, there may still be logical damage present. A sophisticated disk-imaging process is utilized to recover every readable bit from the surface of the disk using a special software package. As soon as this image is captured and preserved on a stable medium, it can be safely evaluated for logical damage, which may enable for a significant portion of the original file system to be reconstructed if the image is of a large enough size.

Hardware maintenance and repair

It is necessary to perform data recovery on media that has experienced a catastrophic electrical breakdown in order to save its contents.

In certain circles, it's believed that a corrupted printed circuit board (PCB) may simply be replaced during recovery processes with an identical PCB from a healthy hard drive. While it is possible that this will work in unusual circumstances on hard disk drives built before 2003, it will not work on drives manufactured after 2003. Drive-specific adaption data (often a map of faulty sectors and tuning settings) and other information required to effectively access data stored on current drives are typically found on the electronic boards of modern drives. Replacement boards frequently require this information in order to successfully retrieve all of the data. It is possible that the replacement board will need to be reconfigured. A serial EEPROM chip is used by some manufacturers (for example, Seagate) to save this information. This chip can be removed from the original board and transferred to a replacement.

System areas and service areas are sections of a hard disk drive that are not directly available to the end user. These sections of the drive typically hold the drive's firmware as well as adaptive data that allows the drive to run within standard parameters while the drive is not in use.

In addition to logging problematic sectors inside the drive, the system area is responsible for informing the drive where it is permitted to write data and where it is prohibited from doing so.

The sector lists are also kept on several chips that are attached to the PCB, and each hard disk drive has its own set of sector lists. If the data stored on the PCB does not match the data recorded on the platter, the drive will not be able to calibrate properly and will fail. [6] In the vast majority of situations, the drive heads will click because they are unable to locate data that matches the data recorded on the PCB.

Damage to the logical system

It's the result of a failed attempt to recover data from a hard disk drive.

There are cases in which an error is not caused by a hardware fault and therefore requires software-level fixes. This is referred to as "logical damage."

Partitions and file systems that are corrupt, as well as media problems

When a hard disk drive's partition table or file system are damaged, or when media failures occur (on an intermittent basis), the data stored on the drive becomes illegible in some instances. When a damaged partition table or file system is repaired with specialized data recovery software, such as Testdisk, at least a portion of the original data can be recovered. Software such as dd rescue can image media despite intermittent errors and image raw data when a damaged partition table or file system is encountered; in the majority of these cases, at least a portion of the original data can be recovered. Because it does not necessitate the use of any particular physical equipment or access to platters, this method of data recovery can be carried out by someone with no prior knowledge of drive technology.

In some circumstances, data can be recovered using relatively basic procedures and tools[7], but in more serious cases, expert assistance may be required, particularly if portions of files are irrecoverably corrupted or deleted. Data carving is the recovery of sections of damaged files by utilizing knowledge of the file's structural layout.

Data that has been overwritten

Data erasure is another option.

A hard disk drive's old data is typically thought to be unrecoverable after it has been physically overwritten with new information. In 1996, Peter Gutmann, a computer scientist, published a paper in which he proposed that erased data might be recovered by the use of magnetic force microscopy, which was accepted by the scientific community. [8] In 2001, he delivered a second paper on a topic that was similar to the first. [9] Gutmann and Colin Plumb developed a way of irrevocably scrubbing data to protect against this form of data retrieval. This method, known as the Gutmann method, is employed by various disk-scrubbing software packages and is available for free online.

Following this, there has been a great lot of criticism, largely focused on the absence of real examples of large amounts of overwritten data being successfully recovered.

Despite the possibility that Gutmann's theory is valid, there is no practical proof that overwritten data can be retrieved, whereas research has demonstrated that overwritten data cannot be recovered. 

Solid-state drives (SSD) wipe data in a different way than hard disk drives (HDD), making it possible to recover at least some of the information stored on them. Virtually all SSDs store data in flash memory in the form of pages and blocks, which are addressed by logical block addresses (LBAs) that are controlled by the flash translation layer (FTL) (FTL). When the FTL makes a change to a sector, it writes the new data to a different place and updates the map such that the new data appears at the target point. This leaves the pre-modification data in place, with the possibility of multiple generations of data recovery, and is recoverable with data restoration tools.

Data that has been lost, destroyed, or formatted

Sometimes, data stored on physical devices (internal/external hard disks, pen drives, and so on) is lost, destroyed, or formatted as a result of events such as a virus attack, an inadvertent deletion, or the accidental use of the SHIFT+DELETE keyboard shortcut. In these instances, data recovery software is used to recover or restore the lost or deleted information.

Sector with a logical flaw

A logical bad sector is the most prevalent type of logical failure on hard disks, and it is the problem that causes data to be unreadable the most often. Even in software, it is sometimes possible to get around error detection and, with repeated reading and statistical analysis, recover at least a portion of the underlying stored data. Even erroneous data can be recovered in some cases if the user has prior knowledge of the data being stored and the mistake detection and correction codes. However, if the underlying physical drive is severely damaged, it may be essential to replace at the very least the hardware that surrounds the data, and it may even be necessary to use laboratory procedures to repair the actual recording medium in some cases. Each of the ways becomes progressively more expensive, and as a result, they become progressively less frequently sought after.

Eventually, if the final, physical storage medium has been sufficiently damaged, recovery will be impossible by any means; the information will have been irreversibly lost; there will be no way to recover it.

Data recovery using the internet

It is not always necessary for recovery specialists to have physical access to the damaged gear. When lost data can be recovered using software approaches, the recovery can often be accomplished through the use of remote access software over the Internet, a local area network, or another link to the physical location of the damaged medium. Essentially, the process is no different from what the end user might accomplish on their own. 

Remote recovery necessitates the use of a reliable internet connection with sufficient capacity. It is not appropriate, however, in situations when access to the hardware is required, such as in the case of physical damage.

There are four stages to data recovery.

When it comes to successful data recovery, there are typically four stages, though this might vary based on the sort of data corruption and recovery that is necessary.

Repair the hard disk drive in the first phase.

The hard drive is repaired in order to get it back up and running in some manner, or at the very least in a state acceptable for reading the data off of it again. For example, if the heads are damaged, they must be replaced; if the PCB is problematic, it must be repaired or replaced; and if the spindle motor is bad, the platters and heads must be shifted to a new drive to ensure proper operation. 

Phase 2: Create an image of the drive on a new drive or a disk image file of the drive.

When a hard disk drive breaks, the most important thing to do is to get the data off the drive as soon as possible. The longer a malfunctioning drive is used, the greater the likelihood that additional data loss will occur. In addition to providing a secondary copy of the data on another device, creating an image of the drive will ensure that the data may be tested and recovered without causing damage to the original.

Recovery of files, partitions, master boot record (MBR), and disk structures in Phase 3

After the disk has been cloned to a new drive, it is possible to attempt to recover any lost data from the original drive. It is possible for the drive to have failed logically for a variety of reasons. It may be feasible to repair the partition table or master boot record (MBR) with the help of the clone in order to read the file system's data structure and retrieve any previously stored information.

Phase 4: Repair any damaged files that were obtained during the previous phase.

When a file is written to a sector on a hard disk that has been damaged, for example, data damage can occur. This is the most typical reason for a failed hard disk, and it means that data must be reconstructed in order to be readable again. Documents that have been corrupted can be restored using a variety of software programs or by manually rebuilding the document using a hex editor.

Disk re-installation

It is possible to reinstall the Windows operating system on a computer that has already been licensed for it. The reinstallation of the operating system can be accomplished either by downloading the operating system or by utilizing a "restore disk" that was supplied by the computer maker. A fine and imprisonment in a federal jail in the United States were levied against Eric Lundgren in April 2018 for manufacturing 28,000 restore DVDs with the intent of distributing them for around 25 cents apiece as a convenience to computer repair firms.

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— Hard Drive Recovery Group (@hdrecoverygroup) January 27, 2022

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Computer Fundamentals - 2073

Example of a laptop computer   Attempt (Any Ten) questions: - What is computer? Write down the features of 4th generation computer. Computer is an electronic machine which accepts data and instructions given by the user (input), processes them according to the given instructions (processing) and produces 100% accurate result(output) which can be further stored for current as well as future uses(storage). Various features of 4th generation computer are as listed below: - Its speed of processing is very high. - It consumes extremely low amount of electricity in comparison of its predecessor generations. - The main component used for processing in this computer is microprocessor. - It is very smaller in size. - The latest computers of this generation are so much small that they can be either easily transported from one place to another or even worn on hands. - It has very large storage capacity. - Write down the characteristics of computer. The characteristics of computer are as listed below: - It should be faster in processing speed. - It should be able to handle a large amount of data. - The output produced by a computer should be 100% accurate and reliable. - A computer be versatile i.e. it should be applicable in various fields. - A computer should be diligent i.e. it should get bored or tired of doing works. - A computer should not have any feelings. - It should operate on electricity. - It should be programmable i.e. it can be used to achieve any goal with respect to its programmability. - Differentiate between RAM and ROM. RAM and ROM are as differentiated below: RAM ROM It is a temporary memory. It is a permanent memory. It is volatile memory i.e. its content gets deleted once the electricity cuts off. It is non-volatile memory i.e. its contents remain unchanged even if the electricity cuts off. It is generally used for loading system files and temporary application files. It is generally used to store the vendor's information and contact details as well. It can easily be upgraded with respect to the demand of user. It remains inbuilt into the motherboard hence can't be further upgraded easily. - Explain the term BIOS. BIOS is an abbreviation for Basic Input Output System. This system mainly deals with the checking of various input and output peripherals at the time of system booting. It also notifies in case any important peripheral is missing or damaged. This is the topmost instruction being carried out once the power button of a computer is pressed. It also tells the computer about the addresses from where the devices or system logs can be accessed for further processing. Loading device driver into computer's memory is also a step being defined in BIOS. - What is hardware? Write about CPU and motherboard. The physical components of computer that can be touched or felt is known as hardware. As the name suggests, hardware can be physically touched or stored in a physical location. Various examples of computer hardware are: keyboard, mouse, monitor, CPU, Hard Disk, etc. - CPU:- CPU is an abbreviation for Central Processing Unit. It is the main component of processing in fourth generation computer. The major task of CPU is to perform the instructions being fed into the computer system. It is the only place that carries out processing action of the instructions. Hence it is also called as "the brain" of a computer system. A CPU can be further divided into three parts. They are: - ALU(Arithmetic & Logic Unit):- This part of CPU is responsible for carrying out various arithmetical operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, etc. as well also the logical operations such as Logical AND, OR, NOT, etc. Any number system is converted into binary number system and then performed operation. Then once again, the result is converted into original number system for easy understanding of the user. - CU (Control Unit):- This part of CPU is responsible for controlling the various the instructions to be processed by a CPU. This unit also defines the priority for any task and then arranges the instructions sequentially to perform any task. This unit is also responsible to take decision for the devices where the data or information should reach. For e.g.: displaying operation is sent to VGA, playing sound is sent to speaker, printing documents is sent to printer, etc. - MU (Memory Unit):- This part of CPU is responsible for storing the data and instructions that is related to CPU. Various data and instructions prior to processing or even after processing are stored into this unit for further transmission. Memory Unit can be further divided into two categories: Primary Memory and Secondary Memory where the data to be processed or operated by CPU are stored in Primary Memory whereas the result produced after processing by CPU is stored in Secondary Memory. - Motherboard:- As the name implies, motherboard can be termed as "mother" of all the boards i.e. it connects every devices together for further communication. Since individual connection of every devices to remaining devices would form a meshy structure, hence motherboard is used to attach or connect every devices together. Almost all the devices are directly connected to motherboard either for power supply or for data transmission. The circuit is not possible by using individual wires for every connection, hence the circuit is being printed on a plastic body with metallic material that results the conduction or passing of electricity to every electronic devices. Hence motherboard is also known as PCB (Printed Circuit Board). - Explain the types of storage devices. The various types of storage devices are as explained below: - Magnetic tapes: The storage devices in which magnetic tapes are used to store data are known as magnetic tapes. Data and information are written or read in sequential mode i.e. the part of the tape under the read/write head is only accessed at a time. So collecting data from this type of devices is time consuming and slower in comparison to other storage devices. They are also known as primitive types of storage devices which are out of use at present. Any physical touch to the magnetic tapes of the devices may corrupt the data and result in corruption of data. The chances of spreading viruses is also very high as a single touch may result corruption of data. Example: VCR, audio cassettes, etc. - Magnetic disks: The storage devices in which magnetic disks are used and are divided into the form of tracks and sectors are known as magnetic disks. Since the data are not accessed sequentially, these types of storage devices are also known as Random Storage Devices. But storage or accessing process require the physical movement of disks inside the device, so it may be prone to get damaged soon. In comparison to magnetic tapes, magnetic disks are more reliable and faster for data communication as it supports Random Access of data. Example: Hard Disk, Floppy Disk, etc. - Flash memory: The storage device that uses semiconductor chips for storage of data is known as flash memory. Semiconductor memories are generally smaller and portable in size. So they are also called removable disks. They have no any physical movement related parts for read/write process. Hence they are also long time durable in case of proper uses. Example: pen drive, memory cards, etc. - Optical Storage Devices: The devices in which data or instructions are stored optical form and require laser reader to access the stored data. They are generally write once type of storage devices i.e. the data once written can neither be edited nor any new data can be added. But also RW (Re-Writable) optical storage devices are available in which data can be written as many times as required. But the problem is that, adding any newer data needs to delete all the older data. Generally write once type of devices are cheap and mostly used in the market which is the root cause of virus transmission. So the newer computer systems have completely eliminated the use of optical storage devices and the current trend of storage is shifting towards external magnetic disks such as external hard disk, pen drives, memory cards, etc. Some of the examples of optical storage devices are Compact Disk (CD), Digital Versatile Disk (DVD), etc. - Solid State Drive (SSD): It is the most trending storage devices till date. It uses various semiconductor memories together being connected using NAND gates. No any magnetic disk is used that results no any physical movement inside the disk while accessing this device. In comparison to other storage devices, it is extremely fast and results a better a computer experience. - Differentiate between serial port and parallel port. Serial Port Parallel Port Data is transmitted serially through this port. Data is transmitted parallel through this port. Data transmission speed is slower than parallel port. Data transmission speed is faster than serial port. It has generally less number of wire connections. It has generally large number of wire connections. It sends data bit by bit streams after sending a bit at a time. It sends multiple bit streams at a time. It generally uses male jacks. It generally uses female jacks. Modems, device controllers, security cameras, etc. use serial port. CD Drivers, printers, hard drives, etc. use parallel port. - What is Operating System? Write down its functions. The system software that manages the overall functions of a computer system and also tells the computer what to do and how to do is known as an operating system. The various functions of Operating System are as follows: - Memory management: It manages the amount of memory required by any application and also frees that memory when the application is closed. - File management: Although the data or information is stored in various storage devices, Operating System defines creates a cluster or a system pattern to store files and directories. - Security management: The administrative rights of a computer are defined by an operating system. Hence it enables to secure the computer system on the basis of various levels of users. - Resource management: It queries the conditions and checks the availability of various resources available to a computer system such as hard disk, printer, etc. - User interface: An operating system provides an interface where a user can interact with computer resources. - Batch execution: An operating system also provides the facilities to perform a same type of task on various data or files which is concluded as batch execution. - Define application program. Explain about device driver and its importance. The program designed to meet the specific goal of user rather than the smooth functioning of computer system is called application program. For example: mspaint is developed for users to draw, microsoft word is developed to type various letters and official documents, etc. The utility software that helps the computer to identify a specific device and also instructs the way how to interact with that device is known as device driver. It mainly introduces the device to computer. In case device driver of a device is not present in computer, that computer cannot work with that device as it can't identify the device. The absence of proper device driver may result in the malfunctioning of computer as well as that device too. Device driver is very much important for a computer. Device driver also preserves the right to identify the administrative rights and decide either to send or receive data to/from that device into computer. Every computer must have device driver of every devices connected to it. Generally most of the devices' device drivers are installed by default but in some cases such as adding new printer, scanner, fax, etc. may require the computer to have its device driver. - What do you mean by browser? Highlight the concept of WWW and FTP. A computer program that helps us to open various websites is simply referred to as browser or web browser. Examples of browser are: opera mini, UC browser, Google Chrome. Browser understands the language of HTML (HyperText MarkUp Language) and converts it into an attractive and responsive page called webpage. WWW:- WWW is an abbreviation for World Wide Web. It is one of the most important services of internet. This features enables the user to open various websites. WWW follows the HTTP (HyperText Transmission Protocol) to open any webpage. The page being stored in any web server throughout the world can be accessed by a local computer if it is connected to internet. Because of this feature, nowadays various daily life activities have become easier such as news reading, incidents happening in any corner of the world, make research and collaborate with people anywhere in the world, etc. FTP:- FTP is an abbreviation for File Transfer Protocol or File Transmission Protocol. This protocol is used to access any files or directories being shared in a network. It defines the rules according to which a file can be accessed in a network. It is also followed at the time of uploading or downloading any file to/from internet. - Define the term internet. Also explain the services provided by internet. Internet is the network of networks that does not have any geographical limitation. It is also known as international network. It was first developed by ARPA (Advanced Research Project Agency) and was called ARPANet (Advanced Research Project Agency Network) which was then handed over to the defense ministry of USA and was named as DARPANet where D stood for Defense. Later on, various governmental organizations and universities, schools were also provided this facility. Finally, now it is available throughout the world where anyone can communicate with one another by the means of internet. It has also helped in various sectors like: internet banking, e-commerce, e-mail, instant chatting, distance learning, online classes, etc. Various services provided by internet are as follows: - E-mail:- E-mail stands for Electronic mail where a sender can send message to receiver instantly without paying any cost. Not only the text but also various components of multimedia such as video, audio, images, animations, etc. can be easily sent to one another. - E-commerce:- E-commerce stands for Electronic commerce where a user can easily purchase any product online and also pay through online modes. This reduces the time to whirl around in the market in search of a specific product. Users can easily compare the price and quality of product for better shopping or purchase of any items. - Online classes:- This is also one of the best feature of internet where a student need not physically attend the class. He/she can study from home easily irrespective of their location from the institution. This has caused the students to join their interested classes globally. - Instant messaging:- This feature instantly sends the message to the receiver as soon as the sender presses the send button. Because of this feature, the world of communication has fully modernized and has become very fast. In case the receiver is online, he/she can respond to the message instantly else whenever he/she sees the message, then he/she can respond. It is also free of cost. - What is computer network? Write down the advantages and disadvantages of computer network. The interconnection between various computers to share any resources either software or hardware resources along with the communication is known as computer network. Computer network generally reduces effort, time, cost, etc. Various advantages of computer network are as follows: - Resources can be shared easily. - Sharing of resources reduces the cost. - Since data can also be shared sitting in one computer, it reduces the effort and time to copy same data to another computer. - The main computer (server) can easily monitor the performance of other computers connected to the network. Various disadvantages of computer network are as follows: - Trained professionals are required to setup computer network. - Extra devices and wires are required to setup computer network that may increase setup cost. - Failure of a computer may negatively affect all the computers in the network. - Security breach may result virus infection to all the computers in the network. - Explain the structure and working mechanism of hard disk. - Write short notes on: (Any Two) - VRAM - MODEM - Office Package Read the full article