#explanation for the proton key:

[aipurjopa]

TTHEMM,,,,

[para-dweller]

Privacy is in a terrible situation right now.

Especially on the internet. You know, Google, Facebook, Microsoft, Twitter(X), Apple, and even Tumblr all collect information about you to show you scarily accurate advertisements among other things.

Why does this matter?

This isn't about hiding information, it's about protecting information. You wouldn't let me know your entire life, your diary, all your photos and text messages, so why do you let random companies do the same?

Privacy Guides - Why Privacy Matters

So how do you stop this?

You can't. But you can lessen this. So I'm going to show you a non-exhaustive list of what I've used and what I know of that may help your privacy. I would recommend you go to privacyguides.org after if you want a better explanation. I'm just here to show you cool things.

Disclaimer

I am not a library on this sort of information and this is what I choose to use. I may be incorrect and you may have differing opinions. Also, this may be too extreme for everybody. Use what works for you. Again, I would recommend you go to privacyguides.org after you read this for a more in-depth and better explanation.

VPNs

You know what a VPN is. You've seen the sponsorships. VPNs are one of the most popular privacy tools, but know that they are not the only tool that you'd need. This list is evidence of that.

I would recommend Proton VPN, Mullvad, and IVPN for most users, as they provide a far better amount of privacy and features than VPNs such as Nord VPN, Surfshark, and Express VPN. If you really want unlimited devices go with Windscribe.

I personally use Proton VPN due to the fact that I use their other services.

Browsers

You should probably know that Google Chrome is basically spyware at this point. The issue here is, almost all Chromium-based browsers are. These include, Edge, Opera, and Vivaldi. The only real exception would be Brave, but they've got leadership issues, which may not be a deal breaker for you.

So what do you use? A Firefox-based browser. This obviously includes Firefox, but most Firefox-based browsers are privacy-focused. The browsers that I recommend are Firefox, Librewolf, the Mullvad Browser, Waterfox, and Brave.

There is also the Tor Browser, but that is a whole 'nother can of worms that I will not go into. All I will say is that if you are in a high-risk environment(such as an oppressive regime) or you need absolutely no one to know that you searched that one thing, you may want to use the browser for anonymity.

I use Firefox as my main browser, with Brave as the browser that I use if something doesn't work on Firefox. I also use Tor if it is a high-risk situation.

Search Engines

Google, Bing, and Yahoo! all log your searches, you need alternatives. This is relatively straight-forward.

I recommend, Qwant, DuckDuckGo, SearXNG, Brave Search, and Startpage. Both Qwant and DuckDuckGo are fairly similar as they both use Bing search results and say that they don't track you. SearXNG is more complex, and I will not go into detail here. If you really want Google search results, use Startpage. And if you don't want your search to rely on Bing or Google, use Brave Search.

I use Qwant, mainly just cause its European.

Passwords

Passwords are the keys to your digital life. And most of the time they're not that great. You know the drill here, make passwords like this- XmaE7PEj2hq9ed$w - but you can't really remember them. For that you need a password manager.

I recommend Bitwarden, Proton Pass, and KeepassXC. Bitwarden and Proton Pass are more convenient, but you are trusting a single entity, reputable ones, but still. KeepassXC isn't as convienent, but you have near full control over what happens to it.

I use Proton Pass, as I use other Proton services.

Email

Email is identity, you almost always use your email in order to register for sites like Tumblr, and sites that aren't anything like Tumblr. Companies like Google, Microsoft, and Yahoo! all use your email inbox in order to gain more information about you for their companies. There are quite a few email providers, but I've only used and recommend two.

I recommend Proton Mail and Tuta Mail. Both are good email providers, although Proton would be better if you use other Proton services, like I do.

I use both Proton Mail and Tuta Mail for separate email addresses.

Aliases

Email Aliases are also very important for private email. Your email is your name, if you want to private, you'd go under pseudonyms. That's what email aliases are.

I recommend and have used Simplelogin and Firefox Relay. Email providers like Proton and Tuta also give you aliases when you pay. I don't know how well these work, but I assume that they work the Same as Simplelogin and Firefox Relay.

I use Simplelogin.

Devices/OSes

Phones

Now let's turn up the extremity to 11 as we look at your devices. Phone-wise, avoid Apple, they say that they care about your privacy, but they don't. Apple is better than Google, but I'd only recommend using an iPhone if you already have one, and it still has support left. If that's the case, then follow privacy guides like this one by Techlore(His channel is also really great for privacy guides). You should probably use a Google Pixel. Sounds weird as it's owned by GOOGLE, one of the companies that we don't want to be tracked by, but if we go with the Pixels we can use custom ROMs.

Most ROMs exist for your privacy, they are based on the Android Open Source Project(AOSP) which means they can run most of your favourite Android apps without messing them up with Google. In order to run most of your apps however, you're going to need some way of running Google Play Services. This is a backbone black-box that Google forces most of your apps to use in order to function. CalyxOS and LineageOS with MicroG both have MicroG, an open source implementation of Google Play Services. GrapheneOS just straight up uses Google Play Services but sandboxes it so that it can't get its tentacles all up in your phone.

I recommend going like this:

You have a modern-ish Google Pixel phone, go with GrapheneOS.

You don't have a Google Pixel, but your phone is still supported by CalyxOS, go with CalyxOS.

Your phone isn't supported by either of these but still is supported by LineageOS with MicroG, go with LineageOS.

Your phone isn't supported by any of these, you can do as much degoogling as you can.

Techlore also has a fantastic guide on Android Privacy.

Desktops/Laptops

Apple isn't actually that bad here, its better than Windows at least. But Linux is KING when it comes to privacy and security. There is definitely a learning curve here. Pin the terminal, you're going to use it a LOT. Also be aware that on Linux you won't have every single app that you're used to. If you don't really want that hassle, just go with Mac.

Linux distros that I recommend(for beginners) are: Ubuntu, Linux Mint, Pop!_OS, and Elementary OS.

I use Ubuntu as it's the only one that I could get working on my computer.

Other Pieces of Advice

Use an Ad-blocker! Ads are terrible for privacy as companies can get their trackers in completely unrelated sites via their ads. I use and recommend uBlock Origin.

Don't use any personally identifying information online. Don't use your real name, a picture of you, your voice. The less you give to the internet, the more private you are.

Mix and Match! Explore what works for you. You might be okay with changing OSes but you might be a bit too reliant on GMail. That's fine! Just use what works.

Again, please go to privacyguides.org after this. This did not even scratch the surface but I hope this was useful to you in some way.

[dinosaursonthetwinplanet]

Rapid Fossilization of Dinosaur Remains via Cosmic-Triggered Mineralization

My hypothesis proposes that dinosaur fossils were mineralized not through slow geological processes over millions of years, but rather through a rapid petrification mechanism triggered by intense cosmic forces. The preservation level of these fossils, combined with internal structural details that closely resemble living tissue in MRI/CT imaging, suggests an alternative explanation to standard permineralization: one involving high-energy cosmic interactions acting on water-rich biological tissues.

Introduction

Traditional fossilization theories assert that bone and tissue are gradually replaced by minerals over geologic timeframes through groundwater percolation (permineralization). However, this model struggles to explain the exceptionally well-preserved internal structures found in some dinosaur fossils, such as:

• Preserved blood vessels and cellular outlines.

• High-resolution internal microstructures resembling those seen in living organisms These anomalies warrant re-examining the possibility of rapid fossilization under extraordinary environmental conditions.

Core Hypothesis

I propose that a high-energy cosmic event (or sustained cosmic force) acted upon dinosaur remains shortly after death, triggering:

• Instant or rapid dehydration of biological material.

• Ionization and crystallization of water and soft tissues.

• Quartz or silica infusion, forming fossil structures nearly identical to quartzite This event could have involved one or more of the following:

• Electromagnetic radiation bursts (solar flare, gamma-ray burst)

• Planetary-scale magnetic field inversion or pulse.

• Gravitational wave exposure from a nearby astrophysical event

• Unknown energetic cosmic field interaction with hydrogen-rich tissue (not unlike the principles behind MRI signal dependence)

Supporting Observations:

• Microscopic fossil structure: Resembles living tissue seen in MRI/CT, suggesting near-immediate preservation rather than slow degradation.

• Presence of quartz-like crystalline structures in some fossilized bones.

• Soft tissue remnants in multiple dinosaur fossil finds (e.g. T. rex by Schweitzer) raise questions about long-term molecular preservation.

• MRI comparison: Hydrogen-based imaging in MRI aligns conceptually with fossil water content being key in early tissue response to cosmic energy.

Testable Predictions

If this hypothesis is correct, we should observe:

• Residual isotopic anomalies in fossils consistent with sudden energy absorption.

• Geological layers with evidence of a high-energy event (e.g. shocked quartz, unusual magnetism, fusion crusts).

• Comparisons between MRI scans of modern biological samples and high-resolution scans of fossils may reveal near-identical structural patterns suggestive of non-degraded tissue.

Conclusion

This hypothesis challenges conventional long-term fossilization models by proposing that certain fossils—particularly those with exceptional preservation may be the result of cosmic triggered rapid mineralization. This would mark a paradigm shift in our understanding of fossil formation, connecting cosmic-scale physics with earth-bound paleobiology. Cosmic processes especially those involving extreme energy like supernovae and stellar fusion—are responsible for creating many of the heavy elements we see on Earth, including:

• Silicon (formed in massive stars through fusion before they explode).

• Gold, platinum, uranium (mostly from neutron star collisions or supernova nucleosynthesis).

• Even diamonds may have extraterrestrial origins in some cases (e.g., nano-diamonds found in meteorites).

So as Hydrogen, being the simplest atom, could theoretically be transformed into heavier elements by adding properties (like neutrons, protons, or energy) via cosmic processes. That’s absolutely grounded in nuclear physics:

• Hydrogen fusion in stars is how helium, carbon, oxygen, and silicon are created.

• Adding energy (via cosmic rays, gamma bursts, or gravitational forces) to hydrogen-rich matter could in theory trigger transmutation or mineralization processes not normally found under Earth-bound conditions. If cosmic-scale forces can:

• Create new elements.

• Fuse atoms

• Restructure matter under enormous pressure and heat then localized transmutation or rapid mineralization of organic, hydrogen-rich remains (like dinosaur bones) might occur under specific cosmic exposure scenarios.

How This Connects Back to Fossils:

1. Fossil bones (rich in water/hydrogen) interacted with a cosmic-level energy event.

2. This triggered internal atomic/molecular rearrangement, potentially forming crystalline silicates (quartz-like) directly from organic matter.

3. The result: instant fossilization with MRI-like internal structure intact, preserved in silica or quartzite.

• Some fossils look almost “snap frozen” in detail.

• We see cell-like structures rather than mineral that cosmic events don’t just create elements in space they may have acted directly on Earth to convert biological tissue into stable mineral structures (like quartz or even exotic matter) in a rapid and energetically-driven way.

[edgythoughts]

What Makes Acids and Bases React 2025

What Makes Acids and Bases React 2025

Book-Based Explanation (University Level) Acids and bases react due to the fundamental chemical interactions involving protons (H⁺ ions) and hydroxide ions (OH⁻ ions). This is best understood through several key theories that explain their behavior: 1. Arrhenius Theory - Acid: A substance that increases the concentration of H⁺ ions in aqueous solution. - Base: A substance that increases the concentration of OH⁻ ions in aqueous solution. - Reaction: When an acid and base are mixed, H⁺ from the acid reacts with OH⁻ from the base to form water (H₂O). This is called a neutralization reaction. Example: HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H₂O (l) 2. Brønsted-Lowry Theory - Acid: Proton donor. - Base: Proton acceptor. - This theory expands on acid-base behavior even in non-aqueous solutions. Example: NH₃ + H₂O → NH₄⁺ + OH⁻ Here, water donates a proton (acting as an acid) and ammonia accepts it (acting as a base). 3. Lewis Theory - Acid: Electron pair acceptor. - Base: Electron pair donor. - This theory is more generalized and includes a wider range of chemical reactions. Example: BF₃ (acid) + NH₃ (base) → F₃B←NH₃ In this interaction, ammonia donates an electron pair to boron trifluoride, forming a coordinate covalent bond. Why Do They React? - The driving force of an acid-base reaction is the movement of protons and/or electrons to achieve a more stable, lower-energy state. - These reactions are often exothermic, releasing energy. - The products are typically more stable than the reactants (e.g., water and a salt in neutralization reactions).

Easy Explanation (With Examples) Let’s make this super simple! Think of acids as being a little like "proton throwers" – they have extra protons (H⁺ ions) and want to get rid of them. Bases are like "proton catchers" – they want to grab those protons. Simple Analogy: Imagine acids as people giving away basketballs (protons), and bases are players trying to catch those balls. When a basketball (proton) is passed from the acid to the base, they both feel good – this is the chemical reaction happening! Everyday Example: - Vinegar (acid) reacts with baking soda (base). - It bubbles and fizzes because a chemical reaction happens that makes carbon dioxide gas. Equation (simplified): Acid + Base → Salt + Water Another Simple One: - Lemon juice (acid) and soap (base) can neutralize each other. - The sour and slippery cancel out, making the mixture neutral. So, acids and bases react because one wants to give something (a proton), and the other wants to take it. Together, they form something more balanced. Disclaimer: The easy explanation is designed to help you understand the basic concept using simple words and analogies. However, if you're writing an answer for an exam or assignment, please stick to the book-based explanation above. We’re just trying to make the learning process fun and clear. Scoring less by using simplified answers in exams is not our responsibility. External Resource: For a deeper understanding, you can read the Wikipedia page: Acid–Base Reaction https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acidbase_reaction Related Articles from EdgyThoughts.com: - What If Quantum Computers Could Simulate an Entire Human Brain? https://edgythoughts.com/what-if-quantum-computers-could-simulate-an-entire-human-brain - How Do Enzymes Control Metabolism 2025 https://edgythoughts.com/how-do-enzymes-control-metabolism-2025 Read the full article

[tutoroot]

What is the Comparison of Atomic Models? 

An atom is the smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of an element. It is composed of subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons. These particles interact to form the building blocks of all matter, from the simplest hydrogen atom to complex molecules.��

Early Ideas of Atomism (Greek Philosophers) 

Democritus (460–370 BCE) theorized that the universe comprises two entities: indivisible atoms and void (space). He believed atoms varied in shape, size, and motion, giving rise to the diverse materials we observe. However, due to the lack of scientific methods during his time, these ideas remained speculative. 

Dalton’s Atomic Theory 

Centuries later, in the early 19th century, John Dalton revitalized atomic theory with his scientific approach. His work marked the beginning of modern chemistry. 

Key Postulates 

Indivisibility: Atoms are indivisible and indestructible. 

Identical Elements: Atoms of the same element are identical in mass and properties. 

Compound Formation: Atoms combine in simple whole-number ratios to form compounds. 

Chemical Reactions: Chemical reactions involve the rearrangement of atoms, but the atoms themselves remain unchanged. 

Limitations of Dalton’s Theory 

Dalton’s theory had several limitations: 

It could not explain the existence of isotopes (atoms of the same element with different masses). 

The idea of indivisible atoms was later disproven by the discovery of subatomic particles. 

Discovery of Subatomic Particles 

The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw groundbreaking discoveries that unveiled the internal structure of atoms. 

Electron: J.J. Thomson’s Cathode Ray Experiment 

J.J. Thomson’s cathode ray tube experiment demonstrated the existence of negatively charged particles called electrons. He observed that cathode rays were deflected by electric and magnetic fields, proving they were composed of charged particles. This discovery challenged Dalton’s notion of indivisible atoms. 

Proton: Goldstein’s Experiment 

Eugen Goldstein, using a modified cathode ray tube, discovered positively charged particles, later named protons. These particles had a much greater mass than electrons and were crucial in balancing atomic charge. 

Neutron: James Chadwick’s Discovery 

In 1932, James Chadwick discovered neutrons, uncharged particles located in the atomic nucleus. Neutrons explained the mass differences between isotopes and further refined the atomic model. 

Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model 

Following his discovery of electrons, J.J. Thomson proposed the “plum pudding” model in 1904. 

Description of the Model 

Thomson envisioned the atom as a spherical cloud of positive charge with negatively charged electrons embedded within it, resembling raisins in a pudding. 

Limitations of the Plum Pudding Model 

While the model explained atomic neutrality, it failed to account for the arrangement of subatomic particles or the existence of a dense nucleus. 

Rutherford’s Nuclear Model 

Ernest Rutherford’s gold foil experiment in 1911 revolutionized atomic theory. 

Gold Foil Experiment 

Rutherford bombarded a thin gold foil with alpha particles and observed their scattering pattern. Most particles passed through, but some were deflected at large angles. 

Observations and Conclusions 

Atoms consist of a dense, positively charged nucleus. 

Electrons orbit the nucleus, with most of the atom being in space. 

Drawbacks of Rutherford’s Model 

Rutherford’s model could not explain the stability of atoms, as orbiting electrons should lose energy and spiral into the nucleus. 

Bohr’s Model of the Atom 

Niels Bohr refined Rutherford’s model by introducing quantum concepts. 

Postulates of Bohr’s Theory 

Electrons orbit the nucleus in fixed energy levels or shells. 

Electrons can transition between energy levels by absorbing or emitting energy. 

Explanation of Hydrogen Spectrum 

Bohr’s model explained the discrete spectral lines of hydrogen, corresponding to electron transitions between energy levels. 

Successes and Limitations 

While Bohr’s model successfully described hydrogen, it could not account for more complex atoms or the behaviour of electrons as waves. 

Quantum Mechanical Model 

The quantum mechanical model, developed in the 20th century, provided a more comprehensive understanding of atomic structure. 

Introduction to Wave-Particle Duality 

Electrons exhibit both particle-like and wave-like behaviour, as demonstrated by experiments such as the double-slit experiment. 

Schrodinger’s Equation (Basic Understanding) 

Erwin Schrödinger developed a mathematical equation to describe the behaviour of electrons in terms of probability rather than fixed orbits. 

Concept of Orbitals 

Orbitals are regions around the nucleus where electrons are most likely to be found. These are categorized into s, p, d, and f shapes, representing different energy levels and sublevels. 

Comparison of Atomic Models 

Key Differences Between Thomson, Rutherford, and Bohr Models 

Feature 

Thomson Model 

Rutherford Model 

Bohr Model 

Nucleus 

Absent 

Present 

Present 

Electron Arrangement 

Embedded in a sphere 

Orbiting the nucleus 

Fixed energy levels 

Stability Explanation 

None 

Incomplete 

Quantum transitions 

The evolution of atomic theory reflects humanity’s relentless pursuit of knowledge, from the speculative ideas of ancient philosophers to the precise quantum mechanical models of today. Each advancement has not only deepened our understanding of matter but also driven technological innovation, shaping the modern world. 

For more simplified explanations like the one above, visit the physics blogs on the Tutoroot website. Elevate your learning with Tutoroot’s personalised Physics online tuition. Begin your journey with a FREE DEMO session and discover the advantages of one on one personalised tuitions. 

For students looking to master these concepts and excel in their studies, platforms like Tutoroot provide personalised guidance, interactive learning resources, and expert tutoring tailored to individual needs. With Tutoroot’s support, exploring the fascinating world of atomic models becomes an engaging and enriching experience. 

[locustheologicus]

Mirror Universe Hypothesis: Suggesting a Teleological Cosmology

Neil Turok presents an alternate cosmological design to the inflationary model. He presents this to Brian Green in this episode of World Science Festival. Turok calls this the mirror hypothesis which is defined as this.

The mirror universe idea is inherently simple, Turok says. It evokes a geometrically symmetrical universe that one can imagine looking like an hourglass on its side. On the right is a universe flowing forward in time; on the left, a universe flowing backward in time. In the middle is the singularity, where the wavelength of the radiation in the universe becomes smaller than the unimaginably tiny Planck length, about 10−20 times the diameter of a proton.

Cosmological physics is an amazing study which I consider necessary. I consider it necessary because of the idea of cosmopolis which suggests that the way we understand how our cosmos functions held determine how we organize our own social systems. In the video above Turok proposes a fascinating cosmological hypothesis that will have us again rethink how our universe is organized. What is equally fascinating however is that in presenting his hypothesis Turok also suggests that this model implies a cosmological purpose for why things are the way they are, a teleology as he calls it.

What Turok proposes is the Big Bang (more appropriately identified as the singularity) launched two mirror (symmetrical) universes, one based on matter and another based on anti-matter. I consider this an interesting alternate cosmological model but what caught my interest was his following point where he addresses the chaos of the Big Bang. He considers how to calculate the cosmological boundary that defines our universe and in doing so he posits the following.

Our picture gets rid of all that because what we say is that the way we impose the boundary condition is not at the singularity itself. You see that would be sort of the Creator coming in and starting the universe. We do it in the opposite way and I’m afraid this gets a little bit teleological okay but I am coming to believe that some kind of teleological picture for quantum gravity is actually essential.

Turok explains how the mirror universe provides the raison d'etre for why we exist and after his explanation Brian himself talks about why the perennial question continues to be “why is there something rather than nothing?” In reflecting on this question Turok offers his own cosmological answer for why there are both positive (matter) and negative (anti-matter) mirror universes. He suggests that the cosmological constant that seems to answer this riddle may be the Lambda. In quantum physics lambda is the symbol for wavelength which describes how subatomic particles move and interact with each other. Turok goes on to say.

I think there is only one possible answer it’s the lambda. It’s today’s cosmological constant that literally pulls space bigger and bigger, so again it’s a little bit teleological because it’s saying that the future influenced the past. That does seem to be the way the universe works, I mean it contradicts our, you know, classical pictures.

Lambda seems to a force that organizes the flow of subatomic particles in both our universes. As a cosmological constant this particle wave must carry some information that designates what gets shared between the mirror universes. It would be interesting to know the order of intelligence that designates such information but that is something for cosmic reflection rather than scientific comprehension (at least for now). The article below describes this hypothesis well.

What is curious is that Turok doesn’t want to shock the physicist community by maintaining his hypothesis distant from any God theory. It is interesting to see how he chuckles as he distances himself from the concept of a creator yet he uncomfortably admits his belief in the teleological purpose of the universe. I recently posted on what teleology is and this cosmological innovation may scientifically encourage this notion of the purpose-filled universe. In a nutshell teleology is the study (in theology and other studies) of the ends or final purpose of all created things. In this presentation it is amazing how many time Turok tells Green that he is convinced about the teleological aspect of his cosmology (no less than five times by my count). Turok believes that the cosmological constant and the intelligently informed mirror universe designs our cosmology with some sense of symmetrical purpose that he is open to considering. While he may refrain from using God language, he is certainly leaving open a theological possibility.

Jean Porter was aware of this teleological possibility within the scientific community when she her wrote her book “Nature as Reason” in 2005. She tells us that assessing a teleological possibility opens up our cosmology and the biological sciences to a deeper sense of understanding.

Admittedly, some scientists and philosophers do claim that we cannot speak in terms of natural teleologies, but many others contest this claim. Moreover, they do so on grounds that have nothing to do with theological or moral concerns, but stem from fundamental commitments to a particular way of construing the subject matter and modes of research of biology as a science. These commitments represent a stance toward living creatures which is plausible on its own terms, and which provides us with a secure basis for defending a version of natural teleology. At the same time, it is important to be clear about the kind teleological judgment that is in question- not one rooted in the purposes of functions or organs, but a judgment stemming from an assessment of a whole organism in terms of some ideal of flourishing understood in this way, a teleological assessment is inseparably related to a judgment regarding the kind of living creatures under consideration. We cannot form a concept of a kind of living creature without at the same time forming a judgment about the way of life proper to a mature and fully developed creature of that kind. (Porter, pg. 103)

Porter’s teleological assessment connects with Turok’s cosmological suggestion. A natural teleology, which they both infer from their own academic perspective, suggests some form of intelligible purpose behind the forces of creation. Turok suggests this while not avoiding any God-talk but that is because his own community has a limited understanding of God based on the idea of a supreme being.

This reminds me of Bishop Barron’s academic critique of the scientific community (which I think is well placed) where their sense of God is based on the notion of a supreme being, what Barron calls the yeti theory, some divine entity/being that programs the origins of the universe. The theological definition is that the notion of a creator is not a powerful entity/being but a self-subsisting process of existence that gives purpose to creation, all creation (mirror, multiverse etc.).

Turok’s teleological belief would be consistent with mature members of the faith community who recognize the idea of God as the self subsisting process of existence which informs and gives a purpose to our cosmology.

[johniac]

Working with Claude (3.5 Sonnet )

Identifying Woody Forest Debris

JV what is the name given woody materials that naturally fall from trees in a forest

The term for woody materials that naturally fall from trees in a forest is deadfall.

Deadfall typically includes:

Fallen branches Twigs Bark Entire fallen trees This material is an important part of forest ecosystems, providing habitat for various organisms and contributing to nutrient cycling as it decomposes. Would you like me to elaborate on the ecological importance of deadfall or its uses?

how much deadfall would an acre of poplar trees generate

To estimate the amount of deadfall generated by an acre of poplar trees, we need to consider several factors. However, it's important to note that this can vary significantly based on the specific conditions. Here's an approximate calculation:

Tree density: A typical poplar plantation might have about 500-700 trees per acre. Deadfall rate: Poplars, being fast-growing and relatively short-lived trees, produce more deadfall than many other species. On average, they might lose about 1-2% of their biomass annually as deadfall. Tree size: Let's assume mature poplars of about 50 feet tall and 12 inches in diameter. Biomass calculation: Such a tree might have about 1,500-2,000 pounds of above-ground biomass. So, for an acre with 600 trees:

Total biomass: 600 x 1,750 lbs = 1,050,000 lbs Annual deadfall at 1.5%: 1,050,000 x 0.015 = 15,750 lbs or about 7.9 tons per acre per year This is a rough estimate and could vary based on:

Age of the trees Local climate conditions Soil quality Presence of diseases or pests Wind exposure Management practices Would you like me to elaborate on any part of this calculation or discuss factors that might increase or decrease deadfall production?

JV what chmicals are produced from acetone

Acetone is an important industrial solvent and chemical intermediate. It's used to produce various chemicals through different reactions. Here are some key chemicals produced from acetone:

Methyl methacrylate (MMA): A precursor to plexiglass and other acrylic products. Bisphenol A (BPA): Used in polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins. Diacetone alcohol: A solvent and chemical intermediate. Mesityl oxide: Used in the production of methyl isobutyl ketone. Methyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK): A solvent used in paints and resins. Isophorone: Used in some paints, resins, and pesticides.* Acetone cyanohydrin: An intermediate in methyl methacrylate production. Diisopropyl ether: A solvent and fuel additive. Cumene: An intermediate in phenol production. Acetone peroxide: Used as an initiator for some polymerization reactions (also known for its use in improvised explosives, though this is not an intended industrial application). This list covers some of the main chemicals, but there are others. Would you like me to elaborate on any specific chemical or process?

JV how is bisphenol A made from phenol and acetone

Bisphenol A (BPA) is synthesized from phenol and acetone through a condensation reaction. Here's a step-by-step explanation of the process:

Reactants: 2 moles of phenol (C6H5OH) 1 mole of acetone (CH3COCH3) Reaction conditions: Acidic catalyst (typically hydrochloric acid or a sulfonated polystyrene resin) Temperature around 50-90°C (122-194°F) Excess phenol is usually used to drive the reaction to completion Reaction steps: a. The acetone molecule is protonated by the acid catalyst, making it more electrophilic. b. One phenol molecule attacks the protonated acetone, forming a bond. c. Water is eliminated, creating a carbocation intermediate. d. A second phenol molecule attacks this carbocation. e. The catalyst is regenerated as the final product forms. Overall reaction: 2 C6H5OH + CH3COCH3 → (CH3)2C(C6H4OH)2 + H2O Purification: After the reaction, the crude BPA is purified, typically through processes like distillation and recrystallization. The resulting molecule, Bisphenol A, has two phenol groups connected by a central carbon atom from the acetone, with two methyl groups also attached to this central carbon.

This process is efficient and widely used in industry, though there are ongoing efforts to develop alternative methods due to concerns about BPA's potential health effects.

Would you like me to elaborate on any part of this process or discuss the properties and uses of BPA?

JV can biomass be a source of phenol

Yes, biomass can indeed be a source of phenol. This is an area of growing interest in the field of renewable chemicals. Here's an overview of how biomass can be used to produce phenol:

Lignin conversion: Lignin, a major component of woody biomass, is a rich source of aromatic compounds including phenol. Methods include: Pyrolysis (heating in the absence of oxygen) Catalytic depolymerization Oxidative processes Biomass gasification: Biomass is converted to syngas (CO + H2), which can then be used to synthesize phenol. Fermentation: Some microorganisms can produce phenol from renewable resources like glucose. Dehydration of bio-derived cyclohexanol: Cyclohexanol can be produced from biomass and then dehydrogenated to phenol. Conversion of lignin-derived bio-oils: Bio-oils produced from fast pyrolysis of biomass contain phenolic compounds that can be extracted or further processed. Hydrothermal liquefaction: Biomass is treated with hot compressed water, producing a bio-crude that contains phenolic compounds. These methods are at various stages of development, from lab-scale to pilot plants. The main challenges include:

Improving yield and selectivity Developing efficient separation and purification methods Scaling up processes to be economically competitive with petroleum-derived phenol Would you like more details on any of these methods or information about the current state of bio-based phenol production?

JV which of these methods is the most efficient

Determining the most efficient method for producing phenol from biomass is complex, as efficiency can be measured in different ways (e.g., yield, energy consumption, cost-effectiveness, environmental impact). However, based on current research and development, I can provide some insights:

Lignin conversion: This is often considered one of the most promising approaches due to lignin's abundance and high aromatic content. Among lignin conversion methods: Catalytic depolymerization shows high potential for efficiency, with some studies reporting yields of phenolic compounds up to 10-20% by weight of lignin. Fast pyrolysis of lignin can achieve phenol yields of 1-5% by weight, with the advantage of producing other valuable co-products. Biomass gasification: While this method is well-established for other chemicals, it's generally less efficient for phenol specifically due to the multiple conversion steps required. Fermentation: This method is still in early stages for phenol production and currently has relatively low yields compared to other methods. Dehydration of bio-derived cyclohexanol: This can be quite efficient in terms of atom economy, but the overall process efficiency depends on how the cyclohexanol is produced from biomass. Hydrothermal liquefaction: This method can be efficient in terms of energy use, as it doesn't require drying the biomass. However, the yield of phenol specifically (as opposed to a mixture of phenolic compounds) is often lower than some other methods. Currently, lignin conversion methods, particularly catalytic depolymerization, are often cited as having the highest potential for efficiency at scale. However, it's important to note that:

The field is rapidly evolving, with new catalysts and processes being developed. Efficiency can vary greatly depending on the specific type of biomass used. The most efficient method in the lab may not always be the most practical at industrial scale. For the most up-to-date information on efficiencies, you might want to check recent review articles in journals focused on biomass conversion or green chemistry. Would you like me to elaborate on any specific aspect of these methods?

JV?

The health risks posed by free bisphenol A (BPA) in polycarbonates and epoxy polymers are similar in nature, but there are some nuances to consider:

Chemical structure: In both polycarbonates and epoxy polymers, BPA is the starting monomer. The chemical bonding is different, which can affect the rate of BPA release. Release mechanism: Polycarbonates: BPA can leach out due to hydrolysis, especially at higher temperatures or in the presence of acidic or basic conditions. Epoxy polymers: Unreacted BPA monomers or those formed by polymer degradation can migrate out. Exposure levels: Generally, epoxy resins tend to have higher levels of free BPA compared to polycarbonates. This is partly due to differences in the polymerization process and the potential for incomplete curing in epoxies. Use cases: Polycarbonates are often used in food containers and water bottles. Epoxy resins are commonly used as coatings in food cans and as adhesives. The different applications can lead to varying exposure patterns. Environmental factors: Heat, UV light, and certain chemicals can accelerate the breakdown of both materials, potentially increasing BPA release. Regulatory perspective: Many regulatory bodies consider the risk from both sources, but may have stricter controls on epoxy resins used in food contact materials due to potentially higher migration rates. Research focus: More studies have been conducted on BPA leaching from polycarbonates, particularly in the context of reusable water bottles and food containers. In summary, while the fundamental health concerns are similar (e.g., endocrine disruption), the risk profile can differ based on the polymer type, application, and exposure conditions. Epoxy polymers might pose a slightly higher risk due to potentially higher levels of free BPA, but this can vary greatly depending on specific formulations and use cases.

It's worth noting that ongoing research and regulatory scrutiny have led to the development of BPA-free alternatives for both polycarbonates and epoxy resins. Would you like more information on these alternatives or on specific health effects associated with BPA exposure?

**JV provide examples of BPA-free alternatives for both polycarbonates and epoxy resins

Certainly. The concern over potential health effects of BPA has led to the development of various alternatives for both polycarbonates and epoxy resins. Here are some examples:

For Polycarbonates:

Tritan copolyester: Developed by Eastman Chemical Company Used in water bottles, food containers, and medical devices BPA-free and reportedly more durable than polycarbonate Polyethylene terephthalate glycol (PETG): A modified version of PET with improved impact resistance Used in food packaging and medical devices Polypropylene (PP): A common plastic with good chemical resistance Often used for food containers and bottle caps Polylactic acid (PLA): A biodegradable polymer derived from renewable resources like corn starch Used in food packaging and disposable tableware Acrylic (PMMA): Clear plastic with good optical properties Used in displays, lenses, and some food containers For Epoxy Resins:

Bisphenol F (BPF) based epoxies: Similar to BPA-based epoxies but with potentially less estrogenic activity Used in coatings, adhesives, and composites Bisphenol S (BPS) based epoxies: Another BPA alternative, though some studies suggest it may have similar health concerns Used in thermal paper and some food contact materials Epoxidized soybean oil (ESO): A bio-based alternative derived from soybean oil Used in coatings and as a plasticizer Novolac epoxies: Derived from phenol and formaldehyde Used in high-performance applications due to their heat and chemical resistance Cycloaliphatic epoxies: Offer good UV resistance and low viscosity Used in outdoor applications and electronics Glycidyl ether of cardanol: Derived from cashew nut shell liquid, a renewable resource Used in coatings and composites Isosorbide-based epoxies: Derived from corn starch Used in coatings and composites It's important to note that while these alternatives are BPA-free, some may have their own potential health or environmental concerns that are still being studied. The suitability of each alternative depends on the specific application requirements, including mechanical properties, chemical resistance, and regulatory compliance.

Would you like more information on any of these alternatives or their specific applications?

**JV can formaldehyde be economcally produced from biomass

Yes, formaldehyde can be economically produced from biomass. This approach aligns with the growing interest in renewable chemical feedstocks. Here's an overview of the process and its economic viability:

Main production routes: a) Methanol route: Biomass is first converted to syngas (CO + H2) Syngas is then converted to methanol Methanol is oxidized to formaldehyde b) Direct conversion: Some processes aim to produce formaldehyde directly from biomass pyrolysis or gasification Biomass sources: Wood waste Agricultural residues Energy crops Municipal solid waste Economic factors: a) Feedstock availability and cost: Biomass can be cheaper than fossil fuels in some regions Transportation costs can significantly impact overall economics b) Process efficiency: Improvements in catalysts and process integration are making bio-based routes more competitive c) Scale: Larger plants generally have better economics, but biomass supply chains may favor smaller, distributed production d) Co-products: Valorization of by-products can improve overall economics e) Policy incentives: Carbon pricing, renewable chemical credits, and other policies can make bio-based formaldehyde more competitive Current status: Several pilot and demonstration plants exist Some commercial-scale plants are operating, particularly in regions with abundant biomass Challenges: Ensuring consistent biomass quality Competing with well-established fossil-based production Optimizing the multi-step process for biomass-to-formaldehyde Future prospects: Ongoing research into more efficient catalysts and process designs Integration with biorefineries producing multiple products can improve overall economics While biomass-derived formaldehyde is not yet dominant in the market, it is becoming increasingly viable. The economic competitiveness varies by region and is influenced by factors like local biomass availability, energy costs, and policy environments.

Would you like more details on any specific aspect of biomass-to-formaldehyde production or its economic considerations?

JV elaborate on the processes that produce formaldehyde directly from biomass

Certainly. The direct production of formaldehyde from biomass, without going through methanol as an intermediate, is an area of ongoing research and development. These processes aim to simplify production and potentially improve overall efficiency. Here are the main approaches being explored:

Fast Pyrolysis: Process: Rapid heating of biomass (400-600°C) in the absence of oxygen. Outcome: Produces bio-oil containing formaldehyde and other compounds. Challenges: a) Separating formaldehyde from the complex bio-oil mixture. b) Dealing with tar formation and reactor fouling. Advantages: Can process a wide variety of biomass feedstocks. Catalytic Fast Pyrolysis: Process: Similar to fast pyrolysis but uses catalysts to guide product formation. Catalysts: Zeolites, metal oxides, or supported metal catalysts. Goal: Increase selectivity towards formaldehyde and other valuable chemicals. Current status: Still mainly at the research stage, with ongoing work to improve catalyst performance and longevity. Gasification followed by Partial Oxidation: Process: a) Biomass is first gasified to produce syngas. b) The syngas then undergoes partial oxidation to form formaldehyde. Catalysts: Silver or copper-based catalysts are often used for the partial oxidation step. Advantage: Can potentially integrate with existing gasification infrastructure. Hydrothermal Processing: Process: Biomass is treated in hot, pressurized water (200-400°C, 20-200 bar). Outcome: Produces a range of chemicals including formaldehyde. Advantage: Can process wet biomass without drying. Challenge: Controlling selectivity towards formaldehyde. Plasma-assisted Conversion: Process: Uses plasma technology to break down biomass at lower temperatures. Current status: Mostly experimental, with potential for energy efficiency. Challenge: Scaling up the technology and controlling product distribution. Microwave-assisted Pyrolysis: Process: Uses microwave heating for rapid, volumetric heating of biomass. Potential advantages: Faster reaction times and potentially better control over product formation. Current status: Mainly at laboratory scale, with ongoing research into scalability. Key Challenges Across These Processes:

Selectivity: Improving formaldehyde yield while minimizing unwanted by-products. Separation: Developing efficient methods to isolate formaldehyde from complex product mixtures. Scalability: Moving from lab-scale to industrial-scale production while maintaining efficiency. Feedstock variability: Designing processes that can handle the inherent variability in biomass composition. These direct conversion methods are still primarily in the research and development phase. Their economic viability compared to the established methanol route depends on further technological advancements and process optimizations. Researchers are particularly focused on improving catalysts and reactor designs to enhance formaldehyde selectivity and yield.

Would you like more information on any specific aspect of these processes or the challenges involved in their development?

JV are producers of novolac polymers vertically integrated with captive phenol and formaldehyde production

The vertical integration of novolac polymer producers with captive phenol and formaldehyde production varies across the industry, but there is a trend towards integration, especially among larger companies. Here's an overview of the situation:

Degree of integration: Fully integrated: Some large chemical companies produce phenol, formaldehyde, and novolac resins. Partially integrated: Others may produce one of the raw materials (usually formaldehyde) and purchase the other. Non-integrated: Smaller specialty resin producers often purchase both phenol and formaldehyde. Reasons for integration: Supply security: Ensures stable supply of critical raw materials. Cost control: Can potentially reduce costs through economies of scale. Quality control: Better oversight of raw material quality. Flexibility: Ability to adjust production based on market demands. Examples of integrated producers: Some major chemical companies have operations spanning phenol, formaldehyde, and various phenolic resins including novolacs. However, I should avoid naming specific companies without verifying current information. Formaldehyde integration: More common than phenol integration due to: a) Simpler production process b) Lower capital requirements c) Formaldehyde's limited storage/transport options due to its reactive nature Phenol integration: Less common due to: a) Complex production process (cumene process) b) High capital costs c) Large scale required for economic viability Regional variations: Integration levels can vary by region based on local market dynamics and raw material availability. Market trends: Increasing consolidation in the industry has led to more vertically integrated operations. However, specialty producers focusing on high-performance or niche novolac resins often remain non-integrated. Challenges of integration: High initial capital investment Need for expertise across multiple chemical processes Potential overcapacity in some product lines Future outlook: Continued trend towards integration among larger players Potential for increased bio-based raw material integration (e.g., bio-based phenol or formaldehyde) It's worth noting that the degree of integration can change over time as companies adjust their strategies in response to market conditions, technological advancements, and regulatory environments.

Would you like more information on any specific aspect of the novolac resin industry or its raw material supply chain?

JV estimate the costs asociated with phenol and formaldehyde production from biomass 

and by current technology

To estimate the costs associated with phenol and formaldehyde production from biomass and current (primarily fossil-based) technology, we need to consider several factors. Please note that these are rough estimates and can vary significantly based on location, scale, and specific technologies used.

Let's break this down for each chemical:

Phenol Production A. Current Technology (Cumene Process):

Estimated cost: $1,000 - $1,300 per metric ton Major cost factors: Benzene (main feedstock): ~60-70% of cost Energy: ~15-20% of cost Capital and operating expenses: ~10-15% of cost B. Biomass-based Production:

Estimated cost: $1,500 - $2,500 per metric ton Major cost factors: Biomass feedstock: ~40-50% of cost Processing (including pretreatment and catalysis): ~30-40% of cost Energy: ~10-15% of cost Capital expenses: ~15-20% of cost Formaldehyde Production A. Current Technology (Methanol Oxidation):

Estimated cost: $300 - $500 per metric ton Major cost factors: Methanol (feedstock): ~60-70% of cost Energy: ~10-15% of cost Capital and operating expenses: ~15-20% of cost B. Biomass-based Production:

Estimated cost: $400 - $700 per metric ton Major cost factors: Biomass feedstock: ~30-40% of cost Processing (gasification, synthesis): ~35-45% of cost Energy: ~10-15% of cost Capital expenses: ~15-20% of cost Key Observations:

Biomass-based production is generally more expensive due to: Higher processing costs (more complex conversion steps) Lower economies of scale (typically smaller plants) Variability in biomass quality and composition The cost gap is smaller for formaldehyde than for phenol, partly because: Formaldehyde production from biomass is more established The conventional process for phenol is highly optimized and integrated Factors that could change these economics: Carbon pricing or other environmental regulations Technological improvements in biomass conversion Changes in fossil fuel prices Government incentives for bio-based chemicals Regional variations can be significant based on: Availability and cost of biomass Energy costs Labor costs Scale of production The biomass route may become more competitive as technology improves and if fossil fuel prices increase. These estimates are based on general industry trends and may not reflect the most recent technological developments or specific company data. Would you like me to elaborate on any specific aspect of these cost estimates or the factors influencing them?

Claude can make mistakes. Please double-check responses.

=End=

[tadashiscience]

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[samutdbmr]

Infertility Treatment Market Size, Share, Trends, Demand, Growth, Challenges and Competitive Outlook

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[rutujamnm]

Hydrogen Technologies

A flexible and clean energy source with many uses is hydrogen. The following list covers some of the most popular hydrogen technologies, along with a comparison of their benefits and drawbacks:

Steam Methane Reforming (SMR): About 95% of the hydrogen produced worldwide is produced using SMR, which is the most widely used technique. In order to make hydrogen and carbon dioxide, methane and steam must react in the presence of a catalyst.

Electrolysis: Water is split into hydrogen and oxygen by a process called electrolysis, which runs on electricity. Alkaline and proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolysis are the two forms. A well-established technique, alkaline electrolysis is less effective than PEM electrolysis but is still reasonably priced.

Biomass Gasification: The process of biomass gasification entails heating organic materials like wood or agricultural waste without the presence of oxygen in order to create a gas that can be refined into hydrogen.

Nuclear: Water is divided using high-temperature nuclear reactors in the nuclear hydrogen generation process. Though costly and raising questions about the security and safety of nuclear reactors, this technology produces hydrogen without emitting carbon.

Photobiological: The process of producing hydrogen by photosynthetic microorganisms, including algae, is known as photobiological hydrogen generation.

Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cells (SOEC): Water is divided into hydrogen and oxygen using a ceramic electrolyte in SOECs. Although still in the research and development stage, this technology is effective.

Thermochemical: Hydrogen can be produced from fossil fuels or other sources thermochemically, which uses heat and chemical reactions. Although it is currently in the research and development stage, this technique has the potential to be carbon neutral.

Explanation of Hydrogen Technologies

Technology and procedures related to the creation, distribution, storage, and use of hydrogen as an energy source are collectively referred to as hydrogen technologies. Energy needs can be met while reducing environmental impact by utilizing hydrogen, the most plentiful element in the universe, in a variety of forms.

Key components of hydrogen technologies:

Hydrogen Production:

Many techniques are available for producing hydrogen, such as:

Steam Methane Reforming (SMR): This is the most used process, in which steam is chemically reacted to produce hydrogen from natural gas.

Electrolysis: Utilizing electricity, water (H2O) is split into hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2). Solar or wind energy can be used to power electrolysis, which produces "green hydrogen" that emits no greenhouse gases.

Thermochemical Processes: Gasification and pyrolysis are two examples of high-temperature processes that can produce hydrogen from a variety of feedstocks, including waste and biomass.

Hydrogen Storage: Though its low density makes storage difficult, hydrogen is an incredibly adaptable energy carrier. Various techniques for storing data include:

Compressed Hydrogen Gas: For industrial and transit purposes, hydrogen is compressed and kept in high-pressure tanks, usually at 350–700 bar.

Liquid Hydrogen: Hydrogen is mostly employed in space exploration and certain industrial uses. It may be liquefied at extremely low temperatures (-253°C) and kept in insulated tanks.

Hydrogen Carriers: Certain materials have the ability to absorb and release hydrogen, such as metal hydrides and chemical compounds, which makes them useful for hydrogen storage and transportation.

Hydrogen Distribution: With the right adjustments, hydrogen can be supplied via pipelines and other existing infrastructure. Alternatively, tankers or specialized transport methods can be used to move it in liquid or compressed gas form.

Hydrogen Utilization: There are several uses for hydrogen, such as:

Fuel Cells: The only consequence of the electrochemical process that uses hydrogen to create energy in fuel cells is water. Vehicles such as vehicles, buses, and trains, as well as permanent power generating and portable electricity, all employ fuel cells.

Combustion: In order to make hydrogen compatible with traditional internal combustion engines, hydrogen can be utilized as fuel in those engines or directly burned to produce heat.

Industrial Processes: In many industrial processes, such as metallurgy, chemical synthesis, and refining, hydrogen is employed as a reducing agent or feedstock.

Hydrogen Blending: It is possible to gradually move towards a hydrogen-based energy system without requiring major infrastructure upgrades by blending hydrogen with natural gas in already-existing gas pipes.

Importance of Hydrogen Technologies

As a flexible and clean energy source, hydrogen has shown great promise in addressing major global issues like energy security, climate change, and energy transition.

Decarbonization and Climate Change Mitigation:

Hydrogen technologies provide a way to decarbonize a number of industries, including heavy manufacturing, shipping, aviation, and long-distance transportation, which would otherwise be challenging to directly electrify.

Energy Storage and Grid Balancing:

The intermittent nature of renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar power, is one of their main problems.

Energy Transition and Sector Integration:

Moving away from fossil fuels and toward a greener energy mix is made easier by hydrogen technologies. An efficient and linked energy ecosystem is created by allowing the integration of several energy sectors, including power, transportation, and heating.

Energy Security and Independence:

Energy security is increased by utilizing hydrogen technology to diversify the energy mix and lessen reliance on imported fossil fuels. Nations can lessen their need on imported energy by producing hydrogen domestically from a variety of sources, including nuclear power, renewable energy, and natural gas.

Technological Innovation and Job Creation

Technology innovation and economic progress are promoted by investments in hydrogen technologies. Jobs are being created along the value chain by the development and implementation of hydrogen infrastructure, which includes facilities for production, storage, and delivery.

Significance and Potential Benefits of Hydrogen as an Energy Carrier

Regarding a sustainable and low-carbon future, hydrogen is an energy carrier with great importance and potential advantages. Let's examine the main justifications for why hydrogen is seen as a significant participant in the energy scene:

Versatility and Energy Storage:

Utilized in a wide range of industries and applications, hydrogen is an extremely adaptable energy source. Hydrogen is a desirable alternative to fossil fuels in a number of industries, including power generation, transportation, and industrial.

Carbon Neutrality and Climate Change Mitigation:

Green hydrogen is produced by electrolyzing hydrogen that comes from renewable energy sources like sun, wind, or hydropower.

Energy Efficiency and Resource Optimization:

When compared to conventional combustion engines, hydrogen-based devices, such fuel cells, have better energy conversion efficiency.

Energy Security and Independence:

By combining different energy sources, hydrogen presents chances to improve energy security. It may be made locally, which lessens reliance on imported fossil fuels. Countries can increase their energy independence, lower the geopolitical risks related to energy supply, and promote a more secure and resilient energy system by building a strong infrastructure for the production and delivery of hydrogen.

Air Quality and Health Benefits:

Air quality can be greatly improved by switching to hydrogen-based systems, especially in urban areas. Fuel cells and combustion processes driven by hydrogen generate no particulate matter or toxic pollutants like sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx).

Technological Innovation and Job Creation:

Research and technological innovation are propelled forward by investments in hydrogen technologies. This advancement draws funding from the private sector, encourages the development of a hydrogen industry, and generates employment possibilities in infrastructure construction, production, research and development and maintenance.

Applications of Hydrogen Technologies

There are many uses for hydrogen technologies in many different industries. Let's examine a few of the major uses for hydrogen that are of great interest:

Transportation:

Transportation is one of the main areas where hydrogen technologies are being used, as they provide efficient and clean substitutes for traditional fossil fuel-powered cars.

Fuel Cell Vehicles (FCVs): The only consequence of hydrogen fuel cells' process of turning hydrogen and oxygen into energy is water vapor, which powers fuel cell vehicles. Fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) present a viable approach to decarbonizing the transportation sector because to its extended driving range, rapid refueling periods, and zero emissions.

Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles (HICEVs): A temporary way to use hydrogen in current car fleets while lowering emissions is to use it as fuel in internal combustion engines that have been upgraded.

Energy Storage and Grid Balancing:

Energy storage and grid balancing, especially for intermittent renewable energy sources like solar and wind, can greatly benefit from hydrogen technologies.

Power-to-Gas: Hydrogen can be produced through electrolysis using surplus electricity generated during peak hours. Hydrogen can be utilized as a feedstock for industrial processes or stored and subsequently transformed back into energy.

Hydrogen Fuel Cells for Backup Power: Telecommunications, off-grid applications, and essential infrastructure can all benefit from the clean, dependable backup power that hydrogen fuel cells can offer.

Industrial Applications: Hydrogen technologies provide low-carbon alternatives and improve process efficiency, with numerous applications across diverse industrial sectors.

Hydrogen as a Feedstock: Several industrial processes, like the synthesis of methanol and the manufacturing of ammonia, require the utilization of hydrogen.

Hydrogen for Refining: In order to purge crude oil of contaminants and create cleaner fuels, refining techniques like hydrocracking and hydrotreating require hydrogen.

Steel and Metal Production: In the manufacturing of iron and steel, hydrogen can be employed as a reducing agent to help these energy-intensive industries become more carbon-efficient.

Power Generation: Hydrogen technologies present a clean and efficient option to conventional fossil fuel-based power plants for the production of electricity.

Distributed Generation: Distributed power generation using fuel cells can supply heat and energy to commercial, industrial, and residential structures.

Hybrid Power Plants: Reliable and dispatchable power can be produced by hybrid power plants that combine hydrogen with renewable energy sources, guaranteeing a steady supply of energy.

Residential and Commercial Heating: Hydrogen presents a low-carbon substitute for natural gas in heating applications.

Hydrogen Blending: Buildings, both residential and commercial, can use hydrogen for heating by blending it with natural gas in the current pipeline system.

Hydrogen Boilers: Carbon emissions from heating systems can be decreased by switching to hydrogen-fueled boilers from conventional natural gas boilers.

Futuristic opportunities for hydrogen technologies

Future hydrogen technologies have a lot of promise and will be essential in establishing a low-carbon, sustainable society. The following futuristic prospects demonstrate the revolutionary potential of hydrogen technologies:

Renewable Hydrogen at Scale:

The production of renewable hydrogen needs to be scaled substantially if hydrogen technologies are to survive. The creation of "green hydrogen" has the potential to grow in popularity and profitability with improvements in electrolysis technology and growing use of renewable energy sources.

Hydrogen as an Energy Storage Solution:

The requirement for effective energy storage technologies grows as the share of renewable energy sources rises. Future advancements in hydrogen storage technologies, such as novel materials and creative storing techniques, may improve the hydrogen storage systems' capacity, efficiency, and affordability, allowing for a larger integration of renewable energy sources into the grid.

Hydrogen-Based Synthetic Fuels:

Methanation and methanol synthesis are two techniques that can use hydrogen and collected carbon dioxide to create synthetic fuels. These fuels offer carbon-neutral replacements for fossil fuels in the infrastructure and applications now in use, such as industrial processes, heating, and transportation.

Hydrogen Infrastructure Development:

Establishing a strong infrastructure for hydrogen is essential to achieving the full potential of hydrogen technology. Prospective avenues for growth entail the construction of a vast hydrogen distribution infrastructure, including pipelines, filling stations, and storage facilities, in order to facilitate the broad acceptance of hydrogen-powered automobiles and facilitate the effective conveyance and application of hydrogen in diverse industries.

Hydrogen for Grid Flexibility and Sector Coupling:

Sector coupling and grid flexibility may be improved by incorporating hydrogen technology into the electrical system. Moreover, by utilizing hydrogen as a common energy carrier to connect several energy sectors, including industrial, transportation, and power, hydrogen can facilitate sector coupling and enhance system flexibility and optimization.

Hydrogen for Space Exploration:

Because of its excellent propulsion qualities and high energy density, hydrogen has long been employed in space travel. Prospective avenues for hydrogen technology development encompass progressions in hydrogen-dependent propulsion mechanisms, including liquid hydrogen engines, for space exploration expeditions, encompassing crewed trips to Mars and beyond.

Key Components and Processes Involved in Hydrogen Technologies

Hydrogen technologies encompass a range of parts and procedures that make it possible to produce, store, distribute, and use hydrogen as a source of energy. Let's examine the essential elements and procedures of hydrogen technologies:

Hydrogen Production:

There are numerous ways to create hydrogen, including:

Steam Methane Reforming (SMR): The most popular technique of producing hydrogen involves reacting natural gas with steam to create carbon dioxide and hydrogen.

Electrolysis: Electrolysis is the process of employing an electrical current to divide water (H2O) into hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2).

Thermochemical Processes: Using high-temperature chemical reactions, thermochemical processes like gasification and pyrolysis can transform a variety of feedstocks, including waste or biomass, into hydrogen.

Hydrogen Storage:

Storage of hydrogen is essential to its effective use and transportation. There are several ways to store hydrogen, including:

Compressed Gas: At pressures between 350 and 700 bar, high-pressure tanks can be used to compress and store hydrogen. Applications related to transportation frequently use this technique.

Liquid Hydrogen: In insulated tanks, hydrogen can be stored after being liquefied at a very low temperature of -253°C.

Hydrogen Carriers: Compact and secure hydrogen storage is made possible by hydrogen transporters, which include metal hydrides and chemical compounds.

Hydrogen Distribution: Depending on the amount and goal of the distribution, there are several ways to spread hydrogen:

Pipelines: It is possible to adapt or repurpose existing natural gas pipelines for the distribution of hydrogen. But there are issues with hydrogen embrittlement and permeability that call either special hydrogen pipelines or improvements to existing pipelines.

Hydrogen Trucks and Tankers: Transporting hydrogen in liquid or compressed gas form requires the use of specialist trucks and tankers.

On-Site Generation: On-site hydrogen production is possible with the use of specialized systems like reformers or electrolyzers. For confined hydrogen supply, this method works well.

Hydrogen Utilization: Depending on the needs and application, there are several ways to use hydrogen:

Fuel Cells: The sole byproduct of fuel cells, which are electrochemical devices that transform hydrogen and oxygen into energy, is water vapor. They are used as stationary power sources, backup power, and vehicle power.

Combustion: In engines or burners, hydrogen can be used directly to produce heat and mechanical power, just like traditional fuels.

Industrial Processes: Metallurgy, refining, and chemical manufacture are just a few of the industrial uses for hydrogen. It serves these operations as a heat source, reducing agent, or feedstock.

Hydrogen Blending: It is possible to gradually move towards a hydrogen-based energy system without requiring major infrastructure upgrades by blending hydrogen with natural gas in already-existing gas pipelines or distribution networks.

Key Challenges for Hydrogen Technologies in The Future

Hydrogen technologies have great potential, but before they can be successfully implemented and widely used in the future, a number of important issues must be resolved:

Cost Competitiveness: Compared to traditional fossil fuel-based alternatives, the cost of producing hydrogen, especially green hydrogen from renewable sources, is now greater. Hydrogen production, storage, and infrastructure development come with significant capital and operating expenses, which makes it difficult for hydrogen technologies to become widely used.

Infrastructure Development: A strong hydrogen infrastructure must be established before hydrogen technologies may be widely used. The construction of pipelines or other alternate distribution systems, refueling stations, storage facilities, and hydrogen generating facilities are all included in this.

Energy Storage and Conversion Efficiency: Energy storage problems can be solved with hydrogen technology, although efficiency and storage capacity are not without problems. Because of its low energy density, hydrogen requires high pressure storage methods or enormous storage volumes.

Safety Considerations: In order to avoid mishaps, hydrogen must be handled and stored carefully because it differs from conventional fuels in terms of safety. Strict safety precautions and laws are required for the storage, transportation, and use of hydrogen due to its extreme flammability.

Scalability and Supply Chain: Ensuring a sustainable and dependable hydrogen supply becomes imperative as hydrogen technologies expand.

Policy and Regulatory Framework: The regulatory and policy environments must be favorable for the successful implementation of hydrogen technologies. The adoption of hydrogen technology can be sped up by implementing policies that encourage funding, R&D, and the creation of suitable safety norms and regulations.

Steam Methane Reforming (SMR): For industrial hydrogen production, steam methane reforming is the most popular technique. Carbon dioxide and hydrogen gas are created when high-temperature reactions between steam and methane, which is usually obtained from natural gas, occur.

Electrolysis: The process of electrolysis divides water (H2O) into hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) using an electrical current. It provides a means to create "green hydrogen" while using renewable energy. There are two primary approaches for performing electrolysis:

Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) Electrolysis: Solid polymer electrolyte is used in PEM electrolysis to separate the oxygen and hydrogen gasses. It can produce hydrogen locally and decentralized, as at hydrogen fueling stations, and operates at relatively low temperatures.

Alkaline Water Electrolysis (AWE): Alkaline electrolyte solutions are used by AWE to speed up the electrolysis process. Because of its great durability and efficiency, it has been frequently employed for large-scale hydrogen production.

Biomass Gasification: Gasification of biomass entails using a thermochemical process to transform biomass feedstock such as wood chips, energy crops, or agricultural residues into a gas that is high in hydrogen.

Nuclear: Hydrogen can be produced using nuclear power by thermochemical reactions or high-temperature electrolysis. Utilizing the surplus heat produced by nuclear reactors, high-temperature electrolysis increases the electrolysis's effectiveness.

Photobiological: Hydrogen is produced by photosynthesis by photosynthetic microorganisms, such as algae or cyanobacteria, in a process known as photobiological hydrogen production. Even though research on photobiological hydrogen production is very promising, there are still many obstacles to overcome in terms of efficiency, scalability, and cost-effectiveness.

Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cells (SOEC): Utilizing a solid oxide ceramic electrolyte, Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cells (SOEC) allow for the direct conversion of steam into hydrogen and oxygen at high temperatures.

Thermochemical: A variety of chemical reactions involving high temperatures and certain catalysts are included in the thermochemical techniques used to produce hydrogen. Water splitting via metal oxide cycles, such as those based on iron or cerium, can be one of these processes.

Recent technological developments and innovations in each of the hydrogen production technologies:

Steam Methane Reforming (SMR):

Carbon Capture and Utilization (CCU): Efforts are being made to capture and use the carbon dioxide produced during SMR, a process known as carbon capture and utilization (CCU). The environmental impact of SMR can be lessened by carbon capture technologies, such as carbon capture and storage (CCS) or carbon capture and utilization (CCU), which capture CO2 and use it for storage or other industrial activities.

SMR with Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS): By combining CCS technology with SMR, carbon dioxide emissions can be captured and then stored, lowering the total carbon footprint of producing hydrogen.

Electrolysis:

Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) Electrolysis Advancements: The goals of recent developments in PEM electrolysis technology have been to increase cell cost-effectiveness, durability, and efficiency. The increased efficiency and extended longevity of PEM electrolyzers can be attributed to the use of novel materials, enhanced catalysts, and sophisticated cell designs.

Alkaline Water Electrolysis (AWE) Innovations: The goal of research and development is to increase AWE systems' scalability and efficiency. In order to improve the efficiency and reduce the costs of AWE, innovations include the creation of new electrode materials, improved electrolyte compositions, and optimized cell designs.

Biomass Gasification: Optimization of the Gasification Process: In order to increase hydrogen yields and decrease unwanted byproducts, researchers are looking into ways to optimize the gasification process.

Integration with Bioenergy Systems: To improve overall sustainability, biomass gasification for hydrogen production might be combined with bioenergy systems.

Nuclear: High-Temperature Electrolysis (HTE): Research is being done to better utilize the extra heat produced by nuclear reactors for the efficient synthesis of hydrogen.

Hybrid Systems: High-temperature nuclear reactors combined with hydrogen production technologies are the subject of research into hybrid nuclear-hydrogen systems.

Photobiological:

Genetic Engineering: Enhancing photosynthetic microorganism productivity and efficiency for photobiological hydrogen production is being done by researchers through genetic engineering. The potential for photobiological systems to produce hydrogen is being maximized by exploring advancements in culture strategies, such as photobioreactor design, light management techniques, and nutrition optimization.

Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cells (SOEC): Better Electrolyte Materials: Advanced electrolyte materials with improved stability, durability, and ionic conductivity are the subject of research.

System Integration: By combining SOECs with other renewable energy sources, including solar or wind power, or by utilizing waste heat from industrial processes to increase the electrolysis process's energy efficiency, system integration innovations seek to maximize the overall performance of SOECs.

Practical applications for all hydrogen-related technologies

Steam Methane Reforming (SMR):

Practical Use Case: Manufacturing Hydrogen

For the large-scale industrial production of hydrogen, SMR is now the leading technique.

Electrolysis:

Transport-Related Use Case: Renewable Hydrogen

"Green hydrogen" can be produced via electrolysis using renewable energy sources for use in transportation.

Biomass Gasification: A Practical Application: Carbon Capture and Storage Combined with Sustainable Bioenergy (BECCS).

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) in conjunction with biomass gasification has the potential to remove CO2 from the environment and produce low-carbon hydrogen. This technology is a component of the BECCS (Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage) concept, which uses gasified biomass feedstock to produce hydrogen, captures and stores the resulting CO2 emissions, and uses hydrogen for a variety of purposes, including power generation and transportation.

Nuclear:

Practical Use Case: Production of Nuclear Hydrogen

Efficient hydrogen production can be achieved by thermochemical processes driven by nuclear energy or high-temperature electrolysis. Nuclear power facilities can supply the high-temperature heat required for thermochemical or electrolysis processes, which can produce hydrogen with low or no carbon emissions.

Photobiological: A Practical Application: Producing Hydrogen Using Algae

A sustainable method for producing hydrogen can be found in photobiological hydrogen production, which uses cyanobacteria or microalgae. Algae growth and hydrogen generation can be supported by the organic nutrients found in wastewater, which can be utilized by integrating algae culture systems with wastewater treatment facilities.

Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cells (SOEC):

Practical Use Case: Combining Renewable Energy Sources

Clean hydrogen can be produced by combining SOEC technology with renewable energy sources, such solar or wind power.

Key players in each of the Hydrogen Technologies:

Steam Methane Reforming (SMR):

Air Liquide

Linde

Air Products and Chemicals, Inc.

Shell

BP

Chevron

TotalEnergies

ExxonMobil

Electrolysis:

Nel Hydrogen

ITM Power

Siemens Energy

McPhy Energy

Ballard Power Systems

Hydrogenics

Enapter

Proton OnSite

Biomass Gasification:

Mitsubishi Power

Valmet

Nexterra Systems Corp.

DP CleanTech

Biomass Engineering Ltd.

Choren Industries

PRM Energy Systems Inc.

Zilkha Biomass Energy

Nuclear:

X-energy

Framatome

General Atomics

Idaho National Laboratory

TerraPower

Westinghouse Electric Company

NuScale Power

Lightbridge Corporation

Photobiological:

Synthetic Genomics

Algenol

HyperSolar

Cyanotech Corporation

Aurora Algae

Sapphire Energy

Heliae Development, LLC

Algenuity

Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cells (SOEC):

Sunfire

SolidPower

Elcogen

Ceres Power

Nexceris

Haldor Topsoe

Cummins

Fraunhofer IKTS

Finally, hydrogen technologies are extremely promising for a low-carbon, sustainable energy future. Cooperation and additional research are necessary to realize their full potential.

Multi-Stakeholder Collaboration: To promote innovation, exchange knowledge, and develop laws and regulations that are helpful, governments, business leaders, academic institutions, and international organizations should work together.

Research and Development: To solve technical problems, increase productivity, and cut expenses, research must continue. Programs for system integration, innovative materials, catalysts, and hydrogen generation technology optimization should receive funding for research and development.

Pilot Projects and Demonstration Plants: Pilot projects and demonstration facilities should be established in order to demonstrate the feasibility and scalability of hydrogen technologies, with cooperation from governments and industry stakeholders.

Infrastructure Development: The development of hydrogen infrastructure, such as manufacturing plants, storage options, transportation systems, and refueling stations, requires teamwork. Governments and business should collaborate to establish incentives and a regulatory environment that will encourage the construction of hydrogen infrastructure.

International Cooperation: Reaching the full potential of hydrogen technologies requires international cooperation. To solve shared issues, standardize requirements, and hasten the worldwide use of hydrogen as an energy carrier, nations should promote cross-border collaboration, knowledge exchange, and cooperative research projects.

Public Awareness and Education: It is essential to raise public knowledge of and educate them about the advantages of hydrogen technologies. To educate and involve the public on hydrogen's role in a sustainable energy transition, governments, businesses, and academic institutions should fund public outreach campaigns, educational initiatives, and knowledge-dissemination platforms.

We can unleash the transformational power of hydrogen technology and build a cleaner, more sustainable future for future generations by embracing collaboration, funding research and development, and cultivating a supporting ecosystem.

Green Hydrogen Systems: For the purpose of producing, storing, and consuming hydrogen gas, renewable energy sources like solar, wind, or hydropower are used in "green hydrogen systems," which are the mechanisms and procedures involved.

Hydrogen Fuel Technology: Transportation, industry, and power generation are just a few of the uses for hydrogen fuel technology, which is the creation, implementation, and exploitation of technologies that use hydrogen as a clean and effective energy source.

Hydrogen Power Systems: When hydrogen is employed as a major energy carrier, hydrogen power systems are the infrastructure and integrated technologies used to produce electricity.

Hydrogen Vehicle Technology: The term "hydrogen vehicle technology" describes the planning, creation, and use of automobiles that run on hydrogen as a fuel source.

New Hydrogen Technology: Innovations and recent developments in the realm of hydrogen-related technologies are referred to as "New Hydrogen Technology".

Hydrogen Fuel Cell Generator: A hydrogen fuel cell generator is a device that uses the electrochemical reaction that takes place inside a fuel cell to directly convert hydrogen fuel into power.

Hydrogen Fuel Cell Technology Companies: Companies and organizations that actively work on the development, production, and marketing of hydrogen fuel cell technologies are known as hydrogen fuel cell technology companies.

Hydrogen Storage Technologies: Technologies for storing hydrogen safely and effectively for later use are referred to as hydrogen storage technologies.

Hydrogen Power Plant: An industrial facility used primarily as a fuel source for the production of electricity is called a hydrogen power plant, sometimes referred to as a hydrogen energy facility or hydrogen power station.

Fuel Cell Technology: The term "fuel cell technology" describes the research, development, and use of devices known as "fuel cells," which produce electricity by reacting electrochemically with hydrogen and oxygen.

Hydrogen Production Technologies: The techniques and procedures used to produce hydrogen gas from various feedstocks are referred to as hydrogen production technologies. Hydrogen is an energy carrier with multiple applications that can be created through different ways, each with its own set of benefits, drawbacks, and environmental considerations.

Hydrogen Energy Technology: The generation, storage, distribution, and use of hydrogen as a clean and adaptable energy source are all included in the wide category of technologies and systems known as hydrogen energy technology.

Hydrogen Technology Companies: Businesses and organizations that focus on the development, manufacture, and commercialization of hydrogen-related technologies across a range of industries, including production, storage, distribution, and consumption, are known as hydrogen technology firms.

Green Hydrogen Technology: The techniques and procedures used to produce hydrogen gas from renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, or hydropower, are referred to as "green hydrogen technology."

Hydrogen Cell Technology: Using an electrochemical process, hydrogen gas (H2) is used as fuel in hydrogen fuel cell technology to produce electricity.

Applications of Hydrogen Energy: Hydrogen energy's adaptability and potential as a clean and efficient energy carrier make it suitable for use in a wide range of sectors.

Hydrogen Fuel Cell Technology: Utilizing an electrochemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen to generate electricity, hydrogen fuel cell technology is a clean and effective energy conversion method.

Fuel Cell Manufacturing: Fuel cell manufacturing is the process of creating fuel cells, which are devices that use an electrochemical reaction to directly transform chemical energy into electrical energy.

Hydrogen Car Technology: The use of hydrogen fuel cells to power automobiles is known as hydrogen car technology. Fuel cell vehicles, or hydrogen cars, are a cutting-edge and sustainable substitute for conventional gasoline-powered automobiles.

Blue Hydrogen Technology: With the use of carbon capture and storage (CCS), blue hydrogen technology produces hydrogen gas while reducing emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2).

Hydrogen Power Companies: The production, distribution, and use of hydrogen as a clean and effective energy source are the main areas of concentration for enterprises engaged in the hydrogen energy sector.

Hydrogen Engine Technology: Hydrogen engine technology pertains to the utilization of hydrogen as a fuel in internal combustion engines or other engine types intended to burn hydrogen to produce electricity.

Hydrogen Generation Technology: Technology related to producing hydrogen gas, a flexible and clean energy source with a wide range of uses, is known as hydrogen generation technology.

Fuel Cell Technology Cars: Technology using fuel cells Automobiles that use hydrogen fuel cells to produce electricity to run an electric motor are referred to as fuel cell vehicles, or FCVs for short.

Together, let's make the transition to a world powered by hydrogen.

Read More -https://www.marketsandmarkets.com/industry-practice/hydrogen/hydrogen-technologies-comparison

[denimbex1986]

'The acclaimed award-winning VFX company DNEG, which made the VFX shots for Christopher Nolan’s Oppenheimer, sheds strong light on the VFX side of the movie. It appears that Oppenheimer contains more than 100 VFX shot elements (which is nothing), in order to help visualize the Atomic explosion phenomena.

More than 100 VFX shots in Oppenheimer

As the film’s sole VFX partner, DNEG delivered over 100 shots on Oppenheimer, crafted from more than 400 practically shot elements – across some of the film’s most important and explosive sequences. DNEG team had to visualize physical phenomena ranging from subatomic particles and huge nuclear blasts to astronomical exploding stars and black holes forming. The pick was on VFX stitching assembling and helping with the Trinity test creation.

No CGI: Based on practical effects

As described by DNEG: “The team embraced old-style practical effects techniques and compositing treatments to create the VFX shots in the movie by combining together only real elements, without any reliance on CGI. Thus, it confirmed what Nolan has said before —that Oppenheimer has zero CGI shots. Furthermore, 100 VFX shots are considered a portion of what it’s expected in this kind of movie. For instance, Top Gun: Maverick which was proudly stated that it was based on practical shots, seemed to have more than 2,000 VFX shots. Hence, 100 VFX shots in Oppenheimer constitute a solidly modest amount.

Highlights for the DNEG team included:

Compositing together live-action elements created from multiple practical experimentations, inspired by the subatomic world of electrons, protons, and neutrons. Recreating the first nuclear tests by combining multiple practical simulations, from huge explosions to miniature effects, to show the scale of an atomic blast without actually being able to film one. Compositing together practically filmed pyro and particle elements to show how stars and suns are born and die, the creation of black holes, and how atomic explosions are smaller versions of these occurrences. As it sounds super intriguing, it’s also very undefined. We’ve reached DNEG for more info regarding the explanation of how those VFX were implemented without any CGIs, but were declined for the answer —“Unfortunately, we are unable to move forward with an interview. Apologies for the inconvenience”, there said. Nevertheless, VFX can be implemented regardless of CGI utilization.

VFX vs CGI

Just a basic explanation about the key differences between VFX and CGI: Computer-generated imagery (CGI) is a style of animation or illustration that relies on computer programs to create characters and motion. Visual effects (VFX) focuses on adding effects to existing imagery or film. VFX professionals may use computer-generated imagery but put more focus on blending their work into the existing visuals. This blending takes place during post-production, but visual effects artists may have input into filming or animation during production to better add visual effects during post-production. Visual effects involve any kind of effect that is not shot directly in the camera and is created virtually in the post-production process. CGI involved meddling with 3D objects, a digital platform, and rendering out images of those objects. Hence, VFX can be applied without using CGI.

100 VFX shots are nothing

As explained, implementing 100 VFX shots crafted from more than 400 practically shot elements confirms that Nolan kept his promise running low in the VFX gas, capturing as much as he could, in-camera, and practically. But let’s remember that Oppenheimer is a dramatic movie rather than an action-packed movie. Nolan preferred to enhance immersiveness by utilizing new analog methodologies and shooting with IMAX film cameras and screening it on 70mm 1570 projectors and other high-end theaters. Therefore, all the VFX efforts have been concentrated on demonstrating quantum physics and the Trinity test. As we wrote before, It appears that in every movie, Nolan tried to reduce the amount of VFX. For instance, the Dark Knight (2008) featured 650 VFX shots, The Dark Knight Rises (2012) had 450, Inception (2010) around 500, and Dunkirk (2017) contained only 429 visual effects shots. However, Tenet had only 280 VFX shots, less than most romantic comedies. And now it’s a record! Only 100 VFX shots! But again, Oppenheimer is very different, and justifies the brag about practical and emotional cinematography, as compared to Tom Cruise who said the same with TGM but had more than 2,000 VFX shots...'

[qiuwen]

genshin as chemistry (mond ver.)

a/n: i didn't do all of them because i have no more brain cells and is simply so dead i wanna sleep // abt 470 words! not proofread

cw: one (1) swearword in fischl's part, otherwise none applicable

Diluc- Proton. Silently carries out his work, has a perpetual rivalry with kaeya (electron), a key factor of the atom (mondstat). Has a positive attraction (pyro vision), both are INTJ 1w9. Likely to be commonly ignored and labeled as “doormat”.

Kaeya- Electron. Bastards. Negative charge (cryo vision), hates protons but is ironically stuck with them. Flexible as to where they belong and is quick to adapt to new situations. Will kick you for absolutely no reason.

Albedo- Neutron. Grey area, sketchy, will look at you with a straight face and say “i simply do not care.” Has a steady charge because he does not have any, will wake up at three am to ask “how does spongebob pee” and “how much poison is required to knock out an elephant” and end up on the fbi watchlist. Typing (writing) nearly every word wrong when googling (note-taking) and waking up the next day to a detailed explanation of why “guidfd > yuiyik”.

Venti- Helium. Light, invisible, mischievous, submissive and breedable. Is air (anemo vision), will mess your hair up on the one day you need it to be nice. Will attack the last page of your essay on the day of the deadline and whisk it away to the netherlands. Is friends with electrons, scared of protons, likes cake, hates math, and don't touch grass.

Jean- Pearl. Pretty, shiny, overworked, treasured amongst all. Is a gift to us bastards, we don't deserve her. The ultimate. Can attack, heal, and defend at the same time. Is such a mom. Worships Helium, does not know her workload was supposed to be theirs. Will trust you if you tell her that bananas are not supposed to be yellow, genuinely nice.

Eula- Antimatter. Different. Sexy. Anomaly. Scientists hate her because they dont know what is going on in her brain. Rare, not much antimatter exists and so is Eula. Both are so extra in the best way possible, insanely detached from the human era.

Mona- Dark Matter. Filled with curiosity and has a heart of gold. But is probably broke so will carve heart out and sell it. Intelligent and dumb at the same time, blind to the human eye, as in we can see her but choose to ignore it because we dont believe such an absurd thing can happen.

Fischl- Lapis Lazuli. What do you mean i went to pdb and put “elements and matter infp” and chose this because of the fancy name? What? That's bullshit. Associated with royalty this miraculous stone can only be too fitting for our very own prinzessin der verurteilung.

Amber- Fluorine. Fluorine is critical for the production of nuclear material for nuclear power plants.

Lisa- Plutonium. Is used to make nuclear weapons.

Klee- bomb.

if you liked this piece please leave a like/rb to lmk!! my requests are open if anyone wants to make any + feel free to dm me if you want to talk about anything at all!

[tomeandflickcorner]

Episode Review- The Real Ghostbusters: Hanging by a Thread

I was thoroughly impressed by this episode.  Of course, I’ve been interested in Greek Mythology since I was a child, so I suppose that might have made me slightly biased.

The episode begins in what I’m guessing was Greece, though there’s nothing really concrete to conform that.  All we see are fields filled with grazing sheep.  Inside a cave shrine somewhere, we see three woman in white togas.  These woman are the Three Fates, who, according to Greek Mythology, are charged with controlling the lives of all mortals.  They do this by weaving the mortal’s thread of life, determining how long the thread will be and cutting the thread when it’s time for the mortal to die.  However, it appears that a group of demons, led by the Lord of the Stench (yes, that’s the title they went with), want to control the lives of mortals for their own purposes.  So they attempt to steal the Shears of Fate, which the Fates use to cut the thread of life. When the demons attack, the Fates send the Shears of Fate on a blind jump through time and space, thereby ensuring that it won’t fall into the hands of the demons.  Of course, the demons don’t give up that easily, and they begin to search through time for the Shears of Fate.  Throughout their search, they end up stealing random pairs of scissors at various points in history.  For instance, they appear in 1883 and steal the scissors that Grover Cleveland (who was Governor of New York at the time) was going to use to cut the ribbon during the opening ceremony for the Brooklyn Bridge.  (The demon also severs the cables on the Brooklyn Bridge, apparently resulting in its off-screen destruction.  So I’m guessing a lot of people died here.  Not sure why they included this bit as there doesn’t seem to be any historical record of the bridge actually collapsing.  While there was an incident a week after the official opening that resulted in the death of 12 people with over 35 more injured, that was the result of a grand-scale misunderstanding and panic that caused a stampede, not actual damage to the bridge itself.)  Another demon appears in 1752 to steal a pair of scissors from Benjamin Franklin, forcing him to use a key for his famous kite experiment instead.

The actual Shears of Fate end up reappearing in the 1980s, in Manhattan’s Garment District.  When the demons pop up to find the Shears of Fate and begin to steal any pair of scissors they find, they naturally catch the attention of the New Yorkers. So they immediately call in the Ghostbusters, who were currently having a little downtime with Ray testing his teammates with some sort of ghosts and demons flashcards.  (Is it odd that I want a copy of these flashcards?)  By the time the Ghostbusters arrive on the scene, the demons are everywhere.  They start off by firing their Proton Packs, but I guess there are too many of them because the demons are able to get the better of them, burying the Ghostbusters beneath a pile of random coats and such.  (Remember they’re in the Garment District.)  Still, the Lord of the Stench orders the demons to retreat and regroup, so the demons leave.  And the random civilians begin to thank and cheer for the Ghostbusters, believing they drove the demons away.  Amidst all of this, though, Ray notices that the hose connecting his Proton Pack to the Proton Thrower was loose and he makes a quick patch job by wrapping some sort of adhesive tape around the loose hose to hold in in place until he could properly repair it.  He ends up grabbing a pair of scissors that happened to be nearby to cut the tape and then pockets the scissors when he sees his teammates are leaving.  As the Ghostbusters drive off, we see the Three Fates were watching the scene from the shadows.  They are able to sense the Shears of Fate were there, but now they’re gone.  They announce that they must find the Shears of Fate soon, because if a mortal found them, then that mortal would be in great danger.

This declaration is driven home when the Ghostbusters return to the Firehouse, only to find the demons have all congregated there.  I guess the Lord of the Stench knew the Firehouse was their home base and decided to wait there in order to ambush them. Once again, the Ghostbusters face off against the demons, but like before, they seem to be outnumbered. Egon ends up suggesting they try the Seismic Ripple.  Not entirely sure what the Seismic Ripple is, but I’m guessing it’s a particularly strong setting on the Proton Packs.  The Seismic Ripple does seem to be effective, as the Proton Steams are now washing over the entire Firehouse.  (There’s no indication on how this is affecting Janine and Slimer, who I’m guessing are still inside.)  But Ray ends up getting blown backwards from the backlash of the Seismic Ripple.  As he falls, the scissors he’d pocketed earlier fall out.  When the scissors hit the ground, they instantly revert back into the Shears of Fate. (They were apparently under some sort of cloaking spell.)  When he sees them, the Lord of the Stench manages to swoop down and grabs the Shears of Fate.  After monologuing for a bit about his plans to use the Shears of Fate to enslave mankind, he and the other demons vanish.

After the demons leave with the Shears of Fate, the Three Fates appear before the Ghostbusters.  They explain to them why the Shears of Fate are so important and task them with getting the Shears back from the demons.  As the Three Fates put it, ‘since it is mortals who complicated this, it is you mortals who must resolve this.’  (The fact that they seem to be blaming the Ghostbusters for this seems a bit unfair, but whatever.)  The Three Fates announce that they can teleport the Ghostbusters into the Underworld. Once there, they have exactly one hour to retrieve the Shears of Fate and return back to the designated arrival spot to be transported back.  If they cannot complete their task within the time limit, they will be trapped in the Underworld for all eternity.  (Why is there always a time limit to these things, anyway?)

So the Ghostbusters are teleported into the Underworld, arriving in some sort of lobby area where the demon receptionist has fallen asleep while reading a book.  Egon programs his PKE meter to track down the Shears of Fate, and they set off. Eventually, they come to a river. Particularly the River Styx. Complete with Charon the ferryman, though the episode never directly names him.  Since they determine that the Shears of Fate are located on the other side of the River Styx, the Ghostbusters have to accept a ride across. Charon requests they pay the standard fee of 20 gold pieces.  Of course, the Ghostbusters don’t have any gold pieces.  Instead, they offer Charon what they do have- a lucky rabbit’s foot and a cheese sandwich.  Charon decides to accept the meager offerings and ferries them across the river, though he goes on a tirade about the sandwich being made with white bread instead of wheat or rye, as well as voicing a longing for things like pastrami and roast beef.  It does kinda make you feel bad for Charon.  He probably never gets a break from the ferryman job to go visit a decent sandwich shop.

After reaching the other side of the river, the Ghostbusters bid Charon goodbye and continue on their way, with Egon reminding them they only have 35 minutes left.  After they walk for a while, they reach the lair of the Lord of the Stench, just in time to see him about to use the Shears of Fate to cut their own threads of life, which would effectively kill them prematurely.  No explanation on how he obtained Egon, Ray, Winston and Peter’s threads in the first place, of course, but that’s to be expected.  Before the Lord of the Stench can cut the threads, the Ghostbusters fire their Proton Packs at the demon leader.  This not only stops him, but causes the Shears of Fate to fly out of his hand.  Winston manages to catch the Shears of Fate in a Ghost Trap, but they still have to escape the horde of angry demons and get back to the designated arrival spot in time.  As they run from the pursuing demons, Winston asks Egon how they’re doing on time.  Egon announces they only have a minute and a half left, but that the lobby should be just ahead.  But for once, Egon turns out to be wrong, as they’re actually on the wrong floor.  

For a moment, it seems like things are looking really bad for the Ghostbusters, as they couldn’t possibly make it down to the ground floor in time, particularly since they only have 12 seconds before the time limit is up.  And the demons are still coming for them.  But then Egon decides their one chance is to just jump over a nearby railing.  Because it’s a choice between that and waiting for the demons to catch up to them. So they jump over the railing.  (At least Egon and Ray jumps.  Egon pushes Peter and Winston over the side of the railing.) As they fall, they are transported back into the Mortal World, landing right in front of the Firehouse.

As the Ghostbusters get to their feet, the Three Fates once again appear before them.  Winston returns the Shears of Fate to them, and they vanish from sight.  (Without so much as a thank you!  So ungrateful!)  As they return to the Ecto-1 to drive it inside, Peter congratulates Egon on having the foresight to know that, by jumping over the railing, they’d reach the lower lever just as the time limit ran out.  However, Egon admits that he hadn’t known that would work and that he’d simply crossed his fingers and hoped for the best.  Peter, upon realizing that Egon had simply been making a wild gamble, faints.  And with that, the episode ends.

All things considered, I liked this episode.  Especially with the little nods to Greek Mythology. That in particular was enjoyable to me. Not just because of my long-time interest in the subject, but because it often reminded me of how Once Upon a Time, another show I deeply enjoyed, would tie in some elements of Greek Mythology into the show’s mythos.  Of course, while the story itself was good, the episode as a whole was far from perfect. For starters, the animation in this episode was quite poor in quality.  Not that The Real Ghostbusters normally has amazing animation, but this episode in particular seemed rather rough. Plus, the dialogue was a bit broken at times. There were moments where there would be noticeable pauses between the characters’ lines.  Take this part for instance:

Winston: The lord of evil?

Peter: (long pause)

Peter: Yeah, but I’ll bet he can’t dance to save his soul

I suppose this was done to maintain the standard episode length, but it resulted in quite a few moments when the characters would just be standing there, staring ahead blankly as if they forgot their lines.  It was really awkward.

(Click here for more Ghostbusters reviews)

[thequirkdetective]

Investigation 8 (7/8/2020): Acid - Mina Ashido

Mina Ashido’s quirk is rather simple in its effects, at least compared to some other quirks that we’ve investigated. However, many aspects of it need to be examined for a true understanding of it to be reached. The basic premise is Ashido’s ability to - secrete? emit? Is there a word for it that doesn’t sound awful? - acid from her body, with varying levels of both pH and viscosity.

The first thing to examine is the recurring theme of ‘How does [character] not get injured when they force [thing] from their skin?’, followed closely by ‘how does [character] get the materials to make [thing] in the first place?’. Both of these issues are especially pertinent in the case of potent, viscous acid.

To answer these burning questions, we need to figure out the chemical formula of Mina’s acid. Acids are defined simply as chemicals that protonate nearby chemicals, either by donating a proton or accepting an electron. They are then categorised by how readily they undergo this process, via pH values, defined as -log(H+), with H+ being the molar concentration of hydrogen ions, or the number of moles of hydrogen ions per litre of acid. Superacids have a pH less than 0, meaning more than 1 mole of hydrogen ions per litre.

The body already produces a strong acid in the form of concentrated hydrochloric acid (HCl). The main use of this acid is to kill any bacteria in ingested food, as well as create the optimal pH for digestive enzymes. In the stomach, the pH varies between 1 and 2, but when it is first produced it is at a concentration of 160mM, or a pH of 0.8.  The production of such acid is courtesy of parietal cells in the digestive tract. These could theoretically be present on Ashido’s skin, conveniently giving it a pleasant pink-red colour. Sadly, the acid secretion would be rather different from the effects shown in the anime; more a sweat-like dribble than a “super geyser”[1]. In addition, it wouldn’t be grey or viscous, instead water-like in consistency and colour. Also, the acid could cause similar problems externally is it can do internally, such as ulcers and gastrointestinal bleeding. Overall, this system of acid production would not be pleasant nor very useful, doing as much damage to the user as it does to any villain. This means the quirk must have extra effects if it to function as shown.

Mina’s acid being concentrated HCl makes sense for a few key reasons. Firstly, it is easy to produce in the body, needing only chlorine ions and a proton pump. Also it can corrode concrete, although the reaction is slightly messier than the concrete simply disappearing, involving more black chemical waste and chlorine gas than the anime shows.

The first discrepancy between our current model and the quirk proper is the viscosity of the acid. Compounds only become acidic when dissolved in water (mostly, and certainly in the case of HCl), so a viscous solvent would not solve the problem. Instead, the acid must be mixed with a viscous substance. It’s impossible to say for certain what this substance is (the body has many viscous fluids to choose from, and I can’t find any studies detailing hydrochloric acid’s reaction to bodily secretions) but it’s feasible that a compound exists that can fulfil the role and be easily produced.

The next issue is one of velocity. Mina’s acid can be forcefully thrown outwards, rather than just dribbling downwards. A lot of this can be achieved by Mina increasing the viscosity of the acid and flinging it off herself, but it is apparent there is another factor at play. The possible explanation is the possession of slightly modified parietal cells, which possess some sort of valve or seal that can restrict the flow of acid and create a high-pressure flow in a similar way to covering a hose nozzle with your thumb.

The final issue is burns (there isn’t a synonym that starts with ‘v’, sadly). Exposure to acid with a pH of 0.8 is not known to be pleasant; it causes serious chemical burns, especially if the acid in question is oozing from ones skin. The solution that the human stomach employs is a thick mucous membrane that gets replenished as it is destroyed. We already know from Tsuyu Asui that layers of mucous are not animated in BNHA, so it is entirely possible Mina’s skin is similar to the human stomach lining. This, as stated previously, would explain its pink colour, as well as provide a (rather disgusting) answer to what the viscous substance in Mina’s Acid is.

However, skin isn’t the only exposed area of the human body. This is where we get to the second strange aspect of Mina’s appearance; her eyes. Rather than the standard white, she has a black sclera, and is thus I’m sure the envy of goths everywhere. She also has yellow irises, but coloured eyes seem to be standard in the world, either due to the art style or some side effects of quirks in general. Chemical burns on eyes cause them to become bloodshot, but not black. Black eyes can occur in rare and severe cases of hyphema - when blood fills the anterior chamber of the eye, between the cornea and iris. However, this would only affect the iris and pupil, and not the sclera. The complementary injury to hyphema is a subconjunctival haemorrhage, and in this case Mina’s sclera would turn a dark shade of red, near black. It occurs due to a burst blood-vessel in the eye, and affects the whole eye, save the iris and pupil. These aren’t anything to worry about, and can even be caused by sneezing too hard, but they usually go down in a week or two. The fact the blood has clotted to black in Mina’s eye, as well as its permanent colour, points towards regular exposure of the eye to acid, causing regular haemorrhaging. The blood in the conjunctiva then clotted, leaving Mina’s eyes black. This is good news for any extremely dedicated Mina cosplayers, but do note that this method is in no way recommended, and in fact strongly discouraged, by The Quirk Detective. Just get contacts if you’re desperate.

Mina’s horns don’t seem to relate to her quirk, and neither does her pink hair. Indeed, the fact Mina has hair shows either that her scalp has hair follicles and thus doesn’t produce acid, or she wears a wig. If her hair is natural, the hue may be caused by genetic inheritance from her parents (it is possible that the traits caused by a quirk can be passed down without the quirk’s effects) or simply Mina dying her hair. Her horns also could be inherited from a parent.

In conclusion, Mina’s quirk is caused by her skin being similar to a stomach lining – producing mucous and hydrochloric acid. These mix and become Mina’s Acid, capable of dissolving, skin, muscle, and if concentrated enough, concrete. Her ‘skin’ is coated in a layer of mucous to protect it from chemical burns, but overuse of the quirk could damage this lining. Her eye colour is possibly due to overuse of her quirk as a child. Repeated exposure to acid caused blood vessels to rupture in her eye, causing a subconjunctival haemorrhage. If the bleeding continued and the eye was not allowed time to heal then the blood would clot and become a layer of near black colouring over the sclera. Her horns seem to have no cause, and are likely inherited from one of her parents. Her hair colour is the same, and may either be inherited like Midoriya’s or dyed like Kirishima’s.  

[1] Season 3 Episode 52: Create Those Ultimate Moves

If you liked this investigation and want to have a say in the next one, then make sure to send a recommendation for which quirk I should investigate!

[grailfinders]

Fate and Phantasms #8: Altera

Coming up next in Fate and Phantasms, the harbinger of Civ destruction Altera! For this build, we have three goals: 1, we gotta become the favored child of Mars. 2, we need to be able to destroy any bad civs we find along the way. 3, we need to find our Photon Ray. As per usual, a quick rundown can be found here, an a more in-depth explanation is below the cut.

Race and Background

You are a Human, giving you +1 to every stat. You’re also an Outlander, granting you proficiency in Athletics and Survival. One of the key points to Civ judgement that so few people understand is you need to be able to get an outsider’s perspective before you destroy it for not living up to your standards.

Stats

We’re using the standard array, but feel free to just use this as a general guide for your own rolls. Just make sure you have high enough charisma for multiclassing. Make Strength highest to help crush the bad civ. Second is Constitution, followed by Charisma. This is more for multiclassing purposes, but you are absolutely terrifying, so it fits. After that comes Dexterity. You don’t need to move around much when your target’s are usually stationary, but it helps with defense against those weirdos who don’t want their homes burned to the ground. Finally, put the last two into Wisdom, then Intelligence. Civ judgement is more of an art than a science.

Class Levels

1. Barbarian 1: As a barbarian, you gain proficiency in Light and Medium armors, as well as all weapons. You also get Strength and Constitution saves, and grab Animal Handling and Intimidation. You may be a shepherd, but that’s not what most of Europe remembers you for.

You also get Unarmored Defense, giving you an AC equal to 10 plus your dexterity and constitution modifiers. Most servants don’t really seem that keen on armor, but you make it look good. You also get barbarian’s iconic ability, Rage. With Rage, you gain advantage on Strength checks and saves, bonuses to melee damage, and resistance to the common physical attack types. All for the low low price of not being able to cast spells or wear heavy armor. 

2. Barbarian 2:  At second level, you gain a Reckless Attack, letting you gain advantage on all attacks this turn in return for your enemies having advantage against you until your next turn. You also gain Danger Sense, granting you advantage on dexterity saves against effects you can see.

3. Barbarian 3: At this level you gain you begin your journey down the Path of the Zealot, a subclass reserved for those barbarians so destructive that the gods come down and go “Now that’s a lotta damage!” When you enter the path, you gain Divine Fury, causing the first attack you make each turn while raging to deal 1d6 + half your barbarian level in radiant damage. Your sword is already the world’s scariest rainbow and we haven’t even cleared level 5 yet. You are also marked as a Warrior of the Gods, meaning resurrection spells don’t need material components to raise you, which will make your party’s cleric very happy.

4. Barbarian 4: Grab your Ability Score Improvement and slot it into your Dexterity and Constitution to round them out. Remember that changing your constitution modifier retroactively adds to your health total.

5. Barbarian 5: Fifth level barbarians get an Extra Attack and Fast Movement, adding a second attack to your attack action and 10′ of movement to each round, respectively. Civs typically don’t run away, but the people who make them do, so that’s pretty helpful.

6. Barbarian 6: At sixth level zealots gain a Fanatical Focus, letting them reroll one failed save per rage. Keep your eyes on the prize, and one day all the bad civ will be gone.

7. Barbarian 7: Seventh level barbarians hone their Feral Instinct, giving them advantage on initiative rolls, and if you’re surprised you can rage to act on your first turn anyways. Show them why ambushing a living weapon is a bad idea.

8. Sorcerer 1: Now that we’re pretty safe on the physical front, let’s take a moment out for some spellcasting. First level sorcerers gain a Sorcerous Origin, yours being your Divine Soul. This grants you an extra spell (Bane, because you’re chaotic), and lets you grab your spells from both the cleric and sorcerer spell lists. Speaking of, grab Green-Flame Blade, True Strike, Light, and Thaumaturgy as your cantrips and Sudden Awakening and Healing Word as your first level spells. The combat spells likely won’t get used that much, but Thaumaturgy is great for speaking over panicking crowds. 

First level Divine Soul sorcerers also become the Favored of the Gods, letting you add 2d4 to a failed attack or save once per short rest.

9. Sorcerer 2: Second level sorcerers become a Font of Magic, granting sorcery points equal to their sorcerer level, which currently can be used to get more spell slots. Grab Purify Food and Drink as your spell this level, because food and drink are good civ, you need those to live.

10. Sorcerer 3: At third level you gain two metamagic options, letting you alter your spells slightly at the cost of sorcery points. Grab Careful Spell to help you protect any good civ caught in your NP’s blast, and Empowered Spell for when you want to go ham. Also, grab Shatter. There’s nothing to suggest you could actually use this in-game, but a spell that specializes on blowing up constructs over living things fits your theme pretty well.

11. Sorcerer 4: At fourth level you get another Ability Score Improvement, which will get slotted into Strength. You also get another cantrip and spell, Message and Protection from Poison. It’s not quite Natural Body, but it will do.

12. Sorcerer 5:  As a fifth level sorcerer you get access to third level spells. Grab Lightning Bolt to serve as your Civ ending NP. It’s not quite a Proton Ray, but it’s powerful and destructive, and has a wide enough range to do serious damage to buildings.

13. Barbarian 8: Back on the wild side, you get another Ability Score Improvement, this one going into Constitution for more health and AC.

14. Barbarian 9: At this level you get a Brutal Critical, letting you add an extra damage die of the types used to your critical hits.

15. Barbarian 10: As a tenth level zealot you now have a Zealous Presence, letting you use your bonus action to give up to 10 non-you creatures advantage on attacks and saves until your next turn once per long rest. Are you inspiring them, or are they just terrified of failing you? That’s your little secret. (It’s the latter.)

16. Barbarian 11: At this level you gain a Relentless Rage. Now upon dropping to 0 HP while raging, you can make a DC 10 Constitution save. On a success, you drop to only 1 hp instead. Each time you use this ability between long rests, add 5 to the DC. Just keep in mind that you’ll still die if you’re killed.

17. Barbarian 12: Another Ability Score Improvement, another notch in your Strength belt. If you’re using the standard array, you should be maxed out by now.

18. Barbarian 13: Your Brutal Critical improves, letting you add two dice to a critical hit’s damage roll.

19. Barbarian 14: At this level, zealots figure out how to Rage Beyond Death. Now dropping to 0 HP doesn’t knock you unconscious. You still make death saves, and taking damage adds failures, but dying due to death saves still won’t kill you until your rage ends, and even then you’ll survive if you’re at positive HP. Now you won’t die, even if you’re killed!

20. Barbarian 15: To cap things off, you get Persistent Rage. Now your rage will only end early if you fall unconscious, which as we just went over last level, won’t happen.

Pros: Despite your middling AC you can function as a front line fighter thanks to your high HP, high attack, and the fact that you just won’t die. Plus, your low mental scores are made up for by Favored by the Gods and Fanatical Focus, making you surprisingly difficult to hypnotize or control magically. Your spells and abilities also give you a solid mix of attack and damage types for when you need to mix things up.

Cons: Speaking of mixing things, Rage and magic don’t do that, so making use of your skills can require a bit of juggling on your part. Plus your anti-hypnosis skills are on at least a short rest cooldown, so you really only have one extra turn to find that caster and end them before the rest of your party finds out how difficult you are to kill the hard way.

[tutoroot]

What are the Applications of Atomic Theory? 

An atom is the smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of an element. It is composed of subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons. These particles interact to form the building blocks of all matter, from the simplest hydrogen atom to complex molecules. 

Early Ideas of Atomism (Greek Philosophers) 

Democritus (460–370 BCE) theorized that the universe comprises two entities: indivisible atoms and void (space). He believed atoms varied in shape, size, and motion, giving rise to the diverse materials we observe. However, due to the lack of scientific methods during his time, these ideas remained speculative. 

Dalton’s Atomic Theory 

Centuries later, in the early 19th century, John Dalton revitalized atomic theory with his scientific approach. His work marked the beginning of modern chemistry. 

Key Postulates 

Indivisibility: Atoms are indivisible and indestructible. 

Identical Elements: Atoms of the same element are identical in mass and properties. 

Compound Formation: Atoms combine in simple whole-number ratios to form compounds. 

Chemical Reactions: Chemical reactions involve the rearrangement of atoms, but the atoms themselves remain unchanged. 

Limitations of Dalton’s Theory 

Dalton’s theory had several limitations: 

It could not explain the existence of isotopes (atoms of the same element with different masses). 

The idea of indivisible atoms was later disproven by the discovery of subatomic particles. 

Discovery of Subatomic Particles 

The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw groundbreaking discoveries that unveiled the internal structure of atoms. 

Electron: J.J. Thomson’s Cathode Ray Experiment 

J.J. Thomson’s cathode ray tube experiment demonstrated the existence of negatively charged particles called electrons. He observed that cathode rays were deflected by electric and magnetic fields, proving they were composed of charged particles. This discovery challenged Dalton’s notion of indivisible atoms. 

Proton: Goldstein’s Experiment 

Eugen Goldstein, using a modified cathode ray tube, discovered positively charged particles, later named protons. These particles had a much greater mass than electrons and were crucial in balancing atomic charge. 

Neutron: James Chadwick’s Discovery 

In 1932, James Chadwick discovered neutrons, uncharged particles located in the atomic nucleus. Neutrons explained the mass differences between isotopes and further refined the atomic model. 

Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model 

Following his discovery of electrons, J.J. Thomson proposed the “plum pudding” model in 1904. 

Description of the Model 

Thomson envisioned the atom as a spherical cloud of positive charge with negatively charged electrons embedded within it, resembling raisins in a pudding. 

Limitations of the Plum Pudding Model 

While the model explained atomic neutrality, it failed to account for the arrangement of subatomic particles or the existence of a dense nucleus. 

Rutherford’s Nuclear Model 

Ernest Rutherford’s gold foil experiment in 1911 revolutionized atomic theory. 

Gold Foil Experiment 

Rutherford bombarded a thin gold foil with alpha particles and observed their scattering pattern. Most particles passed through, but some were deflected at large angles. 

Observations and Conclusions 

Atoms consist of a dense, positively charged nucleus. 

Electrons orbit the nucleus, with most of the atoms being in space. 

Drawbacks of Rutherford’s Model 

Rutherford’s model could not explain the stability of atoms, as orbiting electrons should lose energy and spiral into the nucleus. 

Bohr’s Model of the Atom 

Niels Bohr refined Rutherford’s model by introducing quantum concepts. 

Postulates of Bohr’s Theory 

Electrons orbit the nucleus in fixed energy levels or shells. 

Electrons can transition between energy levels by absorbing or emitting energy. 

Explanation of Hydrogen Spectrum 

Bohr’s model explained the discrete spectral lines of hydrogen, corresponding to electron transitions between energy levels. 

Successes and Limitations 

While Bohr’s model successfully described hydrogen, it could not account for more complex atoms or the behaviour of electrons as waves. 

Quantum Mechanical Model 

The quantum mechanical model, developed in the 20th century, provided a more comprehensive understanding of atomic structure. 

Introduction to Wave-Particle Duality 

Electrons exhibit both particle-like and wave-like behaviour, as demonstrated by experiments such as the double-slit experiment. 

Schrodinger’s Equation (Basic Understanding) 

Erwin Schrödinger developed a mathematical equation to describe the behaviour of electrons in terms of probability rather than fixed orbits. 

Concept of Orbitals 

Orbitals are regions around the nucleus where electrons are most likely to be found. These are categorized into s, p, d, and f shapes, representing different energy levels and sublevels. 

The evolution of atomic theory reflects humanity’s relentless pursuit of knowledge, from the speculative ideas of ancient philosophers to today’s precise quantum mechanical models. Each advancement has deepened our understanding of matter and driven technological innovation, shaping the modern world. 

For more simplified explanations like the one above, visit the physics blogs on the Tutoroot website. Elevate your learning with Tutoroot’s personalised Physics online tuition. Begin your journey with a FREE DEMO session and discover the advantages of one on one personalised tuitions. 

For students looking to master these concepts and excel in their studies, platforms like Tutoroot provide personalised guidance, interactive learning resources, and expert tutoring tailored to individual needs. With Tutoroot support, exploring the fascinating world of atomic models becomes an engaging and enriching experience.