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In the United States, there are more than 14,000 nonprofit organizations dedicated to domesticated animals, such as cats and dogs. Around the world, thousands of charities care for pets and other domesticated animals such as cattle and wildlife.

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Several medical procedures are dependent on antibiotics to fight infections. Procedures, such as organ transplants, joint replacements, and cancer therapy, require antibiotics. So do chronic diseases, such as diabetes, asthma, and arthritis.

Antibiotic resistance occurs when microorganisms like bacteria and viruses develop immunity to the drugs designed to kill them. Antibiotic resistance makes infections harder to treat, sometimes even impossible to deal with. These antibiotic-resistant infections can result in more medical consultations and extended hospital stays. They may require alternative medications that cost more and are more toxic than common antibiotics.

Antibiotic resistance is considered a global health concern because it can affect patients at every stage of life. It can also impact several fields beyond healthcare, like the veterinary and agricultural fields. In the United States, approximately 2.8 million people are affected by antibiotic resistance every year. Of those affected, about 35,000 die because of antibiotic resistance.

The first antibiotic was penicillin, discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1928. Since that time, three penicillin-resistant germs have been identified. Penicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus was identified in 1942. Streptococcus pneumoniae in 1967, and Neisseria gonorrhoeae in 1976. To date, none of the new antibiotics being developed are expected to be effective against the most dangerous types of antibiotic-resistant bacteria.

Globally, the World Health Organization (WHO) has noted that antibiotic resistance is on the rise. Diseases such as tuberculosis, pneumonia, and gonorrhea, are increasingly becoming antibiotic-resistant. So are foodborne illnesses and blood poisoning. Antibiotic resistance is caused by misuse and poor infection control and prevention.

There are several ways that individuals and organizations can do to prevent antibiotic resistance. Individuals are counseled only to use antibiotics when prescribed by a medical professional. Self-prescription or demanding antibiotics against the advice of a certified health professional is discouraged. Individuals should also strictly follow the instructions given by their doctors on the use of antibiotics. Antibiotics must never be shared with other individuals who have not been prescribed the use of such medicines.

For health professionals, cleanliness is the first line of defense against antibiotic resistance. For such professionals, guidelines are available for dispensing antibiotics. Health professionals should also report the occurrence of antibiotic resistance to help national and global efforts to monitor and control antibiotic resistance. A proactive way for the healthcare industry to combat antibiotic resistance is to continue developing new antibiotics as old ones become less effective.

For national policymakers, the WHO advises creating systems to monitor the occurrence of antibiotic resistance and create programs to prevent antibiotic resistance. This program should include the organized disposal of medicines.

Besides people, animals are also affected by antibiotic resistance. The veterinary community and agricultural industry are also given guidelines to prevent antibiotic resistance in animals. Antibiotic resistance in animals could impact both national and global food supplies. Those raising animals in the agriculture industry are advised by the WHO only to use antibiotics under the supervision of veterinarians. Antibiotics should only be used to combat an existing disease, never for disease prevention or to promote the growth of livestock.

Through the United Nations, the WHO has been spearheading global efforts against antibiotic resistance. The effort aims to improve awareness, strengthen surveillance, optimize the use of antibiotics, reduce the incidence of infections, and ensure adequate investments devoted to funding activities that counter antibiotic resistance.

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An Overview of PCR Technology

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is also known as molecular photocopying. This technique is a fast and inexpensive way to copy a segment of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), a molecule that contains all the information necessary to create and maintain an organism. PCR was regarded as so revolutionary that its inventor, Kary B. Mullis, won the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1993. The Human Genome Project (HGP) is a collaborative international program to map and understand all human genes. This project is reliant on PCR for most of its mapping techniques. PCR is also used in the detection of viruses, particularly AIDS. It is used in DNA fingerprinting, a laboratory technique that links biological evidence with suspects in a criminal investigation. Other uses of PCR are in the diagnosis of genetic disorders and the establishment of paternity. To make new strands of DNA using existing DNA strands as templates, PCR needs a DNA polymerase enzyme. For PCR, this enzyme is the Taq polymerase, which is isolated from a heat-tolerant bacterium that lives in hot springs and hydrothermal vents. The basic steps of PCR are denaturation, annealing, and extension. Denaturation refers to the separation of DNA strands by the heating of a reaction. PCR reaction is the mix of polymerase, primers, template DNA, and nucleotides together with cofactors. These are all mixed in a tube. Annealing refers to the cooling of the reaction to encourage DNA binding. The extension step increases the temperature in the reaction so that the polymerase can extend the primer, leading to copying the DNA segment. To visualize the result of a PCR reaction, a technique called gel electrophoresis is used. With gel electrophoresis, DNA fragments are separated according to size by pulling them through a gel matrix using an electric current. The gel is stained with DNA-binding dye so the DNA strands can be seen by the human eye. The fact that billions of copies are made by PCR allows the microscopic strands to be seen. In crime investigation, forensic scientists use PCR technology in DNA fingerprinting. For example, a forensics lab receives a hair left in the crime scene together with biological samples from three suspects. The fundamental goal is to match genetic markers from the three suspects with the DNA from the hair sample. The markers come in many forms or alleles, and they vary in length. A common marker in forensics is known as short tandem repeats. These markers are from two to five nucleotides long. A group of such markers forms to create a genetic fingerprint. In the case of our example, four genetic fingerprints are made using PCR technology, one for the hair and one for each of the three suspects. The use of gel electrophoresis allows for visual matching of these fingerprints. Looking at an analysis involving 13 markers, the chances of making a wrong call in the identity of a suspect would be 1 in 10 billion. This makes DNA fingerprinting using PCR a useful technique in identifying criminals. DNA fingerprinting is also used to exonerate people who have been wrongfully convicted.