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I started this blog for my a levels. Now, I have gotten my dream results, partially with help from this silly little blog, as inactive as it’s been. I don’t know where this blog will go, as I enter university, but I guess I’ll have to wait and see.

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Thomas Hobbes

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New Religious Ideas

These are Lollardy, Humanism, Lutheranism, and to a lesser extent, anti-clericalism.

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Christianity and Pluralism

Religious pluralism is the idea that all religions are more or less valid reflections of Ultimate Reality, with no single path to salvation: there are many paths to the top of the mountain (or mountains?). Christians have many different views on this. 

Tolerance of religious diversity is the act of cooperating with those of different faiths, and leaving them untroubled. Pluralism is the belief of salvation, tolerance is living, action and relationships. 

Christian universalism is a family of views that is united around the idea that all people will ultimately be reconciled to God through Christ. They are most definitely not pluralists. 

Pluralistic universalism is the idea that everyone will get saved no matter what based on their own religion. Universalism is the idea all will be saved, Christian is that this is only done through Jesus, pluralistic is that this is all done through everyone’s respective religion.

Inclusivism is the idea that one religion is the best and final way to salvation, with other religions having partial truths and partial access to God’s saving work. Jesus supposedly died for everyone. “Not everyone who says to me, ‘Lord, Lord,’ will enter the kingdom of heaven, but only the one who does the will of my Father who is in heaven.” (Mt 7:21). The Vatican says that other religions have a ‘seed of the Word’ and people who cannot have the gospel, may be saved.

Exclusivism is the idea that one particular religion is the final and only valid way to salvation/God.

“Love the Lord your God with all your heart and...all your soul and with all your strength.” (Dt 6:5).

“I am the way and the truth and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me.” (Jn 14:6). 

“Salvation is found in no one else, for there is no other name under heaven given to mankind by which we must be saved.” (Acts 4:12). 

“If you violate the covenant of the Lord your God, which he commanded you, and go and serve other gods and bow down to them, the Lord’s anger will burn against you, and you will quickly perish from the good land he has given you.” (Joshua 23:16).

John Hick: white light is Ultimate Reality, prism is the world, rainbow is different religions. Everyone is touching different parts of the elephant, which is God (Christians: the element is Jesus). 

We need a Copernican Revolution in theology: it was once people putting their own religion at the centre of the universe (Christocentric), but now we put Ultimate Reality in the centre (theocentric), religions orbit around it. Religious experience is the common core, as an experience of grace and ultimate reality, which we interpret into our own religion. “Can we then accept the conclusion that the God of love who seeks to save all mankind has nevertheless ordained that men must be saved in a way that only a small minority can in fact receive this salvation?” His most critiqued quote is “If salvation is understood as the actual transformation of human life from self-centeredness to Reality centredness, this is not necessarily restricted within the boundaries of any one historical tradition.”

Degree Christology shows that Christ is not unique: otherwise Christians would be more holy for having more of the truth, but according to their own law, they aren’t, so there are flaws. Others must also be right. Other religions have people that are on a scale of holy (God-consciousness). 

Criticisms: Catholics condemn pluralism. It waters down salvation, and is unhelpful, Christ died for the many, not all. Religious experience cannot be talked of, and concepts lead to experience, so it’s an unstable base for a common core. Christ is unique: kenosis, claimed stuff (bad, mad or real). Also anonymous Christians: grace is all from Jesus, even if it's unknown. Also: one ultimate reality?

Kant: noumenon realm beyond our experience, we interpret everything through sensory phenomenon. Hick: religion is a phenomenon of the noumenon, not the noumenon itself. 

Paul Knitter: Jesus’ followers exaggerated the ‘son of God’ thing in fear of the apocalypse, ‘son of God’ was symbolic, used for Roman leaders. Jesus is one of God’s many revelations of a larger Christ. Anyway, he legit said ‘love your neighbour’ so do that, Christians.

Karl Rahner believed we all have an awareness of the beyond, a ‘wider horizon’ we wish to reach to: Baptism of Desire. God is also reaching out to us: “we are always exposed to the influence of the divine (and this may be from within whichever religions we have been exposed to).” This means non-Christians are also being saved by Jesus, making them ‘anonymous Christians’. He came up with the Four Theses: 

Christianity is the absolut religion, but those before Jesus must have a way. 

 “A non-Christian religion can be recognised as a lawful religion” and ‘God-pleasing pagans’.   

Becoming a Christan is the final step, highest state of an anonymous Christian’s development.

God is greater than the Church, so can’t possess the whole truth, we are all ‘one communion’. “Theology has been too long and too often bedevilled by the unavowed supposition that grace would be no longer grace if it were too generously distributed by the love of God!”

Issues: imperialistic, meaningless, unfair, will excuse Nazis, lose motivation, Christianity isn’t best.

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The Long March

1934 – 1935: Long March from South East to the North of China for survival of the CCP – leading to Mao becoming leader of the CCP. The March was a 6000 mile trek, across 18 mountain ranges and 24 rivers resulting in the relocation of the change in the communist base from southeast to northwest. 

Between 1930 and 1934 Chiang Kai-shek launched a series of five military encirclement campaigns against the Chinese communists in an attempt to annihilate their base area. Communists successfully blocked off the first four due to guerrilla warfare. After this, Mao was lost from leadership, and instead the Communist Central Committee used normal tactics and suffered a heavy defeat from their opponents, also using new European tactics, with an army of over one million. 

The remaining 86,000 troops, leaders and 30 women broke through the Nationalist line (via secrecy and trickery) to march westwards. In the initial march morale was low and there was constant firing from the Nationalists. Everyone carried their supplies on their backs, and they often walked at night. They brought what they could: typewriters, furniture, and 2 million rounds of ammunition. Women were forced to leave behind crying babies. Yet they remained loyal. 

In the Battle of Xiang River the communists lost 40,000 soldiers in two days, its single greatest defeat during the Long March. There were also thousands of desertions to the Nationalists. During a conference in response to this, in 1935, Mao had enough support to establish his dominance of the party. He set eight rules which were enforced whenever possible. This made them popular with peasants certainly over other armies, which were much harsher. 

speak politely and help people whenever you can

return doors and straw matting to their owners

pay for any damage caused

pay a fair price for all goods; be sanitary--build a latrine away from houses

don't take liberties with the women

don't ill-treat prisoners; don't damage the crops. 

There were splits in the walk, such as between Mao and Zhang Guotao and Gao Gang. Some were deliberate tactics from Mao, in order to confuse the Nationalists. Mao increased the length of the journey by a third to loop back round, and access the Soviet border to collect arms. Stalin said whoever arrived first would get his support. This lead to more casualty but was twisted obviously. There was a huge struggle in some places, where they had to force peasants to give food, or boiled leather for beef soup. Other places were quite happy with the communists and helped them with supplies and sickness. 

Then came physical struggles with tall mountains (altitude sickness and low oxygen), grassland and mudflats. One described the situation as: “That damn place was really strange. Just grass, no trees. It wasn’t mountainous, just flat land.... At first, the vanguard troops sank into the bog. If you tried to pull them out, you would sink too. They couldn’t climb out and they couldn’t be rescued either. You could only watch them die.”

He finished with 8000 survivors. Some had left to mobilise the peasants, many had suffered and perished, including two of Mao children. They joined with 7000 Red Army soldiers there, and Zhang admitted Mao was the better leader (and later sent coded messages against Mao, they were huge rivals), where they fought with the Japanese to gain respect. They formed the Ya’an Soviet. The place of location was rather active, with them locating very near to the village from which a revolutionary which helped to take down a dynasty lived. 

Some think that it was far from a victory, but rather managed by Chiang. He needed good relations with the USSR for the war, and by weakening and confining Communist forces to one area in the North made them easier to control. Ultimately it has been the most romanticised event in the CCP, used as propaganda of the greatness of the CCP. One example was where a few disorganised warlords fled seeing the Red Army being turned into fierce victory against Nationalists. It was hailed as a rebirth. That still lasts today, with Xi Ping calling people to unite and form a ‘Long March’ spirit and video games and tourism linked to it. 

The bravery of the event inspired many young chinese to join the CCP. With skillful organizational and propaganda work, the Communists increased party membership from 100,000 in 1937 to 1.2 million by 1945. Red Army members recall experiences as though they were one large family, appealing to many. They had a stronger base point when it comes to tactically in the civil war, and they could regroup. It also helped them in the Sino-Japanese war, for it allowed them to take places like Manchuria easier. 

Mao was not just established as a leader, but a successful leader, with good military leadership but also humanity, as he often talked to his soldiers and took care of a vegetable patch. It also established his trust in peasants over intellectuals (leaders had been purged but peasants were loyal beyond his own impagination) which would go on to influence some of his ideas. It also led to him believing sacrifice and unexpected and ambitious leaps to be good, also influencing his further decisions. It helped the CCP survive and added more colour to Mao’s personality. 

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John Finnis’ Natural Law

John Finnis is a legal philosopher (Jurisprudence) who developed the theory of Classical Natural Law, by Aristotle and Aquinas,  in order to address certain issues. These issues are: physicalism (as suggested by Vardy, having to be a ‘prisoner to biology’), secularity, the naturalistic fallacy and the issue of the theory becoming too naturalistic. This was discussed in his book ‘Natural Law and Natural Rights’.

Finnis begins by moving away from the boundaries of biology, however keeps it in the realms of natural law in addressing the natural common human ‘nature’ which extends beyond biology: rather individual interests and culture is included in our nature. Finnis suggests that we don’t have an ultimate purpose or telos as Aristotle does, however there are some ‘self-evident goods’ which motivates humans. There is no duty to reach these, however it is simply reasonable to aim for them. 

Similar to Aquinas and Aristotle, reason is a reliable basis and part of human nature and thus should be used in our moral decision making. These seven goods and reasons do not require God, and if humans have no objective telos then it implies that God plays little role in his Natural Law, since nobody has a duty to God either. Since we don’t have a duty, we don’t have to (or ought to) do anything, thus Finnis’ New Natural Law does not face the issue of the naturalistic fallacy. We seek out the goods for themselves, not out of duty. It is each person themselves who should use their reason to come up with their own unique life project which will result in flourishing, which will involve achieving some of the seven goods, and follow this. This also avoids legalism as you cannot prescribe universals if everyone’s life plan is different and unique.

The seven fundamental basic goods should cover every human desire. They are all equal and to directly reject any is always wrong, for example murder is always wrong since it prevents the first of the seven goods, life. Since they aren’t a duty, they can be rejected, but that would be unreasonable and prevent one flourishing. Anything else that seems good is that which allows you to reach these goods, such as freedom. 

Life (similar to Aquinas’ primary precept of self-preservation) is the respect for humans, and includes our desire for good health and procreation. 

Knowledge is simply theoretical ideas that are good in themselves, or reaches some objective such as calculating a cost, both of which helps one move towards flourishing. Finnis also makes it clear that “‘knowledge’ unlike ‘belief’, is an achievement-word” thus indicating the process of acquiring knowledge is good. 

Aesthetic experiences are the literal sensory experiences we receive that are enjoyable and good in themselves. 

Play describes physical experiences we partake in for they are good in themselves: this includes cultural traditions, social, individual, intellectual, physical and all different types of activity. 

Sociability is our freedom to interact with people on any level, from simply a common relation to all humans to friendship. 

Practical reasonableness is the good of being able to achieve the other goods, and was developed more by Finnis. 

The final good for Finnis is ultimate reality: reaching our own truth and understanding of the world, and which could be a religion.

Finnis’ sixth good--practical reasonableness--is slightly different to the other goods as it is not an experience or concept, it's a skill, a virtue. It is one similarity to the classical Natural Law, for it is phronesis, suggested by Aristotle, and is the ability to balance the achievement of the other six goods relative to their personal life plans. It is an awareness of the basic goods, and the ability to apply this to real life scenarios, differing from the good of ‘knowledge’ which is based around an objective which is not related to goods directly: “practical philosophy is a discipline and critical reflection on the goods that can be realised in human actions”. To develop how this should be used, Finnis suggests nine principles of practical reasonableness. 

First, one needs to plan their life as a whole. 

Second, actions chosen should be efficient in terms of resources to provide for such a choice. 

Third, people need to be motivated and committed. 

Fourth, one should not become obsessed with that kind of good. 

Fifth: what is prioritised should have a good and justified backing, and this is common for “any commitment to a coherent plan of life is going to involve some degree of concentration on one or some of the basic forms of good”. 

Sixth, one must act on their own conscience and ability, not on another’s authority. 

The next three are not based on oneself but rather the community, which introduces his idea of the common good. 

The seventh is to be concerned for others at all times

The eighth is to think of the common good of the community as a whole, and if one’s action can help the community

The final principle is to not commit acts which harms or goes against the basic rules even if it benefits another good.

Finnis’ concept of the common good is based on how we’re social beings who are most productive when working/cooperating with others. This means that all the goods are able to work together. The common good is organising social living in communities to effectively allow people to participate in the basic goods for themselves. However all this requires coordination and management: a source of authority to balance individual freedom and the common good. And the best, most effective authority for this is the law. Some laws directly protect the common good (e.g no murder) while others help create a stable society, so people feel to seek the common goods. A legal system is just if it supports the goods in accordance with practical reason, and in return it is reasonable to accept a just legal system. If one accepts a legal system, you’re legally and morally obliged to obey every law or accept every punishment.

Based on all this, people have high freedom to choose between several actions, none of which are wrong unless they literally clash with the goods, such as murder or perhaps enforcing censorship over someone. Every other choice which leads to a good is preferable, from doing art, to meeting up with friends, to revising for exams. Based on the nine principles the decision could be swayed by which would be best to do based on the amount of time one has, or based on their life project. However, since this project is an overarching theme across a life, it doesn’t have to define every detail, and you can seek what doesn’t contribute to one’s project if it is good. As all seven are equal and good, to choose any non-harmful action is morally good, thus not logically contrary, and it is simply up to human free will which route to follow: “Each is fundamental. None is more fundamental than any of the others, for each can be reasonably focused on”.

Overall it can be seen that Finnis addressed and revisited the Natural Law formed by Aristotle and Aquinas. I changed an overall human purpose (Eudaimonia or Beatitudo) to a personal choice of life plan that should be strived for through the use of practical reasonableness to achieve the goods that motivate us, is desired by all humans in our common human nature, and lies at the end of the plan. We have no duty to do so, so there is no issue regarding the naturalistic fallacy, though it is only reasonable to achieve these goods, and morally wrong to harm the goods. This does not extend simply to us: another part of our human nature is to live in co-ordinated groups, and so we have a common good that must be preserved. Finnis believes this can be done through obeying the law, which provides everyone with a society in which we can strive to access the seven goods we desire, and eventually--via practical reasoning--achieve our life plan.

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Mary Daly

Feminist theology is an examination of theology and religious history in regards to women: essentially that religious played a fundamental role in the oppression of women. Mary Daly is a self proclaimed ‘radical lesbian feminist’ who demonstrated how the oppression of women has resulted in much evil in the world, and so she had to challenge the very nature of God and human purpose to establish what should be done, however she ultimately concludes that this is still not possible, and thus because a ‘post-christian’.

Daly explains how society has created a ‘sexual caste system’, where women have been placed below men, and cannot challenge their place or else the system is to collapse, which is portrayed as negative. The Church has helped this system thrive and is hugely intertwined with it. One example of how the Church does this is through stress on original sin. Mary Daly advocates for the fall simply being a story establishing men’s dominance over women, rather than anything about salvation. If there is no fall, there is no judge nor punishment, thus there is no need for an actual saviour, and all these ideas are simply there to assert men’s desired dominance over women. 

Furthermore, this system is maintained by the stereotypes given to women. By giving them the characteristics of being gentle and self-sacrificial, which seems noble, they are actually ensuring that they don’t rebel, as it goes against their expectations, and should they rebel, they become outcasts, and are thus powerless in trying to dismantle the patriarchy and sexual chaste system.

Another thing fundamentally wrong with the Church, demonstrating why this is wrong, is how they treat and view God. God is portrayed as a static and unchanging creator and ruler, like an object, which in turn supports the objectification of women. Furthermore, the static, unchanging God is the misogynistic, punishing and discriminating God of the Old Testament, so if God is portrayed as unmoved, then it shows the Old Testament God is true, and this supports the oppression of women such a God advocated for. Such a God is constantly proven to be wrong too, for the static God is the ‘God of gaps’ which constantly disproves God. Daly considers “the widespread conception of the Supreme Being as an entity distinct from this world but controlling it according to plan and keeping humans in a state of infantile subjection has been a not too subtle mask of the divine patriarch.” 

Furthermore, Jesus is objectified as a male human to be followed, which too contributes to sexist ideals and thus the oppression of women, for though they can follow his lead, they can never be the same gender as him, and thus they can reach the same spirituality as him, making women inferior. However, the solution to this issue is not to turn God into a woman, for she would still be objectified as a noun.

[TW MENTIONS OF R/PE] This concept of God as a male noun has helped to uphold the sexual chaste system, thus there is continuing oppression of women. Treating women oppressively objectifies them, and this is the heart of human violence, as demonstrated in the ‘unholy trinity’ of rape, genocide and war. All of these occur due to objectification, as objectification means that they have no purpose, and you stop seeing the power of becoming in that group of people, despite that being their purpose as humans, and they simply become means through which one can seek pleasure and pain. 

Thus, if they are seen as objects, it is easier to have violence occur--and society has no plans for this to stop. A patriarchal society, for example, has a vested interest in the continuation of rape, since it gives to illusion that women are objects which have to be protected by men, which could explain why the police held scepticism towards rape claims. The link between parts of the unholy trinity, such as rape and genocide, through objectification is seen in the Bible:  “Now therefore kill every male among the little ones, and kill every woman that hath known man by lying with him. But all the women children, that have not known a man by lying with him, keep alive for yourselves.” (Numbers 31:17-18).

The way to combat this issue is having God transformed into a verb, so not an object at all. God as a verb is the active, transforming power, a power of becoming, the progression of humanity essentially. This takes out his masculinity, and makes him truly universal. Salvation too is no longer passive acceptance, but an active effort from humans to become individuals, to become themselves. This further means that to worship God passively is idolatry, and to insist God is patriarchal is Christolatry or Bibliolatry, which are wrong. 

To believe in God is to believe in the power of being and becoming in all people, to believe that human purpose is to grow freely, to be creative, free, healthy. Daly describes this process with multiple verbs, such as changing and moving, and describes this real liberation as “not merely unrestricted genital activity (the sexual revolution) but free and defiant thinking, willing, imagining, speaking, creating, acting. It is be-ing.”

Daly believes that the Church is too bound to patriarchy to stop the oppression and objectification of women. Therefore, she moves beyond Christianity, calling herself a post-Christian, and believes women to leave the ‘anti-Church’. The patriarchy is too strong, so women must accept becoming outcasts to society, and must move to the fringes of society to be able to fulfil their own purpose of becoming. 

This is difficult, and they shall be considered man haters and unfeminine, and may even get criticised by women too brainwashed or influenced by the patriarchal society, thus women need to bind together and form a sisterhood where there is no hierarchy or major expectations but equal support to each woman, to help escape their ‘biological destiny’, determined by the patriarchy, and instead seek their true purpose of becoming, which also generally involves developing an androgynous nature, forbidden by the patriarchal society and it’s rigid rules.

To summarise, Mary Daly sees the Church as a crucial part in patriarchal structures such as the sexual chaste system and the concept of biological destiny, restricted by men’s expectations. This is all amplified by the Church presenting God as a noun, making him static, a judge, a patriarch, which helps in continuing oppression of women, despite it being idolatry. God is actually a verb, meaning humans becoming, which should never be restricted. However, in ignoring this and objectifying people, it allows for violence, including the unholy trinity, as the people subject to violence, if seen as objects, are also seen as purposeless. The Church cannot stop this, so enlightened women must become outcast post-Christians, living on the fringes of society, away from the patriarchy in an equal sisterhood where they can achieve the becoming they deserve.

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Rosemary Ruether

Feminist theology is an examination of theology and religious history in regards to women: essentially that religious played a fundalmental role in the oppression of women. Rosemary Reuther is one feminist theologian who contributed in highlighting the flaws in the historical and biblical views of good women, the implications of this regarding mass scale opression of the female sex, and also proposed solutions which could be employed to correct this, though they would require massive change.

Ruether summarised the attitude and history of Christianity regarding gender as ‘androcentrism’: the belief that men are the pinnacle of humanity, the better of the sexes. This is perhaps best seen in the hostile reaction when God is referred to as a ‘she’, as if it degrades God, while he/him pronouns are accepted even though many agree that God is beyond gender. Furthermore, in scripture, they stress how women should be subject to men, such as in Paul’s letters: “women should remain in the Churches. They are not allowed to speak, but must be in submission...they should ask their own husbands at home.” 

Philosophy is also guilty of androcentrism, where they value rationality and intellect, associated with men, while women’s stereotyped characteristics, such as being emotional and sensual are rejected in most parts of philosophy. Most philosophers were men, and their ideas prioritised men; Aristotle saw women as misbegot males who didn’t make it true humanity, while Augustine and Aquinas believed male dominance was God’s will, and thus the natural order and good.

Ruether protests against androcentrism, since it has led to the oppression of women, but also by nature, is wrong. She believes that bar roles in reproduction, ‘male and female’ are not biological concepts. They are formations of culture, and our true human nature is androgynous--falling in between a spectrum of male and female characteristics, rather than the two being distinct ends. Thus, to prioritise one ‘gender’ is wrong, since everyone is adrogynous, a combination of male and female characteristics. For example, people may use one side of the brain more, with the left and right brain having some differences in function, however everyone still ultimately uses both sides. Such should be the case when looking at gender, both are necessary and good. 

Furthermore, Ruther argues that androcentrism has come from a misunderstanding. Indeed, Jesus saved all humans, and Jesus was co-incidentally a male, however people viewed Jesus’ gender as more important than it was, and used it to conclude that if a male saved humans, men must be closer to God than women. This misunderstanding is no accident: “distortion of humanity as male and female into a dualism of superiority and inferiority. This is fundamentally a male ideology which has served two purposes: the support for male identity as normative humanity and the justification of servile roles for women.”

Ruether also criticised the role models for women within the Church. The ideal woman is said to be Mary, mother of God. Her perceived virtues were being a virgin, passive, meek, and obedient: essentially a woman who accepts her position as lower than men, the ideal women of a male-dominated society. Sexuality is thus viewed as evil and to be avoided, in a clash against spirituality. 

On the other hand, the kind of woman to be avoided is seen clearly in Eve: she was naked, suggesting sexuality, curious, and a ‘temptress’. By ensuring she was responsible for the fall of such women who act independently to men, women's inferiority was enforced, and suggests that women are responsible for men’s problems . The ‘role models’ presented to women are only ideals for men enforced on to women.

The androcentric view of the world presented by the Church and the submissive, weak view of women have led to several historical issues. One example Ruether gives is the fifteenth century witch hunt, where over three fourth of those executed were women, for, as one monk put it: “since women are feebler in mind and body, it is not surprising that they should come under the spell of witchcraft...she is more carnal than a man.” Ruther describes the situation as “Though her [Eve], death entered the world. Even now she collaborates with devils to hold men in fast fetters to the ground. A million women twisted on the rack, smouldered in burning fagots pay hommage to this lie.” 

Another issue is the continuing protest against the ordination of women in most Churches, since they are supposedly inferior and have not the strength of mind and soul to have such roles. The Vatican responded to the concern with: “there should be a physical resemblance between Christ and the Priest”. Ruther scorns this, for it essentially means that having male genitalia means you reflect Jesus enough.

Ruether does suggest that there is hope for the Church without androcentrism, though it would be difficult to achieve. The change would have to be truly monumental: “We need to go beyond the idea of a ‘feminine side’ of God, whether to be identified with the Spirit or even with the Sophia-Spirit together, and question the assumption that the highest symbol of divine sovereignty still remains exclusively male.” 

However, there are examples showing it can be achieved. For example, monasticism gave equal status to men and women, gnostic writings viewed women as potential apostles, Quakers and Shakers had general equality and appointed women as leaders. There have been entire movements indicating a potential to make the Church equal, though none were actually successful and each had their own respective flaws. The prophets preached against oppression as a general concept, however this logically should include oppression of women under the patriarchy, while Jesus advocated against the oppressive nature of culture, which should include the patriarchal structure. This too suggests that there could potentially be equality.

The 18th century romanticism movement saw the attempt to achieve social salvation through embracing ‘feminine’ characteristics, such as sensitivity and anti-egoism, but was too idealistic, and not followed by everyone. Liberalism advocated for women getting education to help enter male-dominanted spaces, however this movement was hypocritical, for there was classism and homophobia, thus containing the very oppression they had hoped to reduce. Marxism too was meant to be equal, however people were too caught up in traditional roles, thus women were still expected to work at home, with men as the breadwinners. While nothing so far has been successful, these movements highlight how there is hope for the Church, and women can work towards achieving the equality they deserve. 

This movement is essential to the Church and the freedom proposed by the Church as “no part of the Church, no part of the world, is liberated until we are all liberated”. A liberated Church, to Ruether, requires women looking for support among each other in ‘base communities’, since they can't access this in the sexist Church. Over time, the prophetic liberation suggested in the Bible will come forth, with the Church eventually dismantling patriarchy, instituting language changes, and supporting the end to the oppression of women. There would also have to be changes to rites and clericalism, since the very concept of such dominating leadership is based in power and patriarchy, to form a new, more equal way of running the Church.

To summarise, Ruether contributed criticisms to the biblical, philosophical and cultural bases for a patriarchal society that oppresses women, seen in examples such as the witch hunt. These bases are in the biblical role models being only meek women, and the influence of philosophy stressing that ‘rational’ males are better than ‘emotional’ females. However, this is wrong, as it gets the very concept of gender wrong (for everyone is androgynous by nature), and it goes against the Church’s teachings for justice, love and liberation. Therefore change has been attempted in multiple groups or movements, but none have been truly successful at creating a new, liberating Church, This would require outside support to build up strength to purge the Church of it’s deep patriarchy and bring forth the, equal, just and loving community the prophets and Jesus advocated for.

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Change and Continuity in Doctrine

Change and continuity in doctrine: liturgy, the eucharist and the Bible; doctrinal disputes as reflected in the Ten Articles and the Bishops’ Book; the King’s Book and the Six Articles.

July 1536 - Ten Articles

Articles related to doctrines: 1. That Holy Scriptures and the three Creeds are the basis and summary of a true Christian faith. 2. That baptism conveys remission of sins and the regenerating grace of the Holy Spirit,and is absolutely necessary as well for children as adults. 3. That penance consists of contrition, confession, and reformation, and is necessary to salvation. 4. That the body and blood of Christ are really present in the elements of the eucharist. 5. That justification is remission of sin and reconciliation to God by the merits of Christ; but good works are necessary. Articles related to ceremonies: 1. That images are useful as remembrances, but are not objects of worship. 2. That saints are to be honored as examples of life, and as furthering our prayers. 3. That saints may be invoked as intercessors, and their holydays observed. 4. That ceremonies are to be observed for the sake of their mystical signification, and as conducive to devotion. 5. That prayers for the dead are good and useful, but the efficacy of papal pardon, and of soul-masses offered at certain localities, is negatived.

It was partly aligned with the schmalkaldic league’s beliefs, but not entirely: Henry wanted to show he was his own man. The three sacraments found themselves in their Catholic form (only one baptism). Similarly, the Eucharist: ‘under the same form and figure of bread and wine, the very selfsame body and blood of Christ is corporally, really, and in the very substance exhibited, distributed, and received unto and of all them which receive the said sacrament.’ 

Justification is mixed between Catholic and Lutheran: sinners attain this justification by contrition and faith joined with charity but it is faith which is the most important. 

As for ceremonies, he’s good with images and saints, as long as they’re not prayed to. Ceremonies too, are useful but none of these ceremonies have power to remit sin, but only to stir and lift up our minds unto God, by whom only our sins be forgiven. He ends by saying the Bishop of Rome cannot deal with these purgatorial prayers.  

August 1536 - Cromwell’s Injunctions

Cromwell clarified how people worshipped in this injunction, rather than introduce new beliefs. It stressed forming religion through education, preaching scripture, and it also encouraged the rich to support these efforts. It required the Pater Noster, Creed and Ten Commandments be taught in English, and an English Bible, accessible to all, available in each Parish. In regular sermons through the year, the Bishop of Rome must be dismissed. 

They had to maintain some ceremonies to maintain order. It restricted pilgrimages and images, and all clergy had to live holy lives, away from pubs, play houses and the like. Every year, money has to be distributed to the poor, education and churches by honest means. 

October 1536

Pilgrimage of Grace. Religious motives could be due to the Dissolution of the Monasteries, or Act of Supremacy, but also some of the more protestant changes seen above

January 1537 - Great Council Called

Mainly in response to the Pilgrimage of Great, this council of nobles and higher clergy discussed doctoral issues in attempt to rectify the evident inadequacy of the Ten Articles. The council overall did little, which could explain why Bigod’s rebellion occurred, as Aske promised this council to be useful to them, when it wasn’t. 

February 1537 - First Synod of the Church of England 

The First synod of the Church of England was called by Cromwell, similar to Papal Legates, but this was without the Pope. The Synod began with a fierce row over the number of sacraments, due to the exclusion of four in the Articles. None of the Bishops invited represented any of the standing monasteries, nor were there many monks or friars, just scholars, demonstrating how Cromwell saw the Dissolution as successful. This Synod was to become a basis for the Bishops’ Book. 

September 1537 - Bishops’ Book

The Institution of a Christen Man, commonly known as the Bishop’s Book, was doctrinal statements from English Bishops. It was generally more conservative, with the seven sacraments partially restored and links to purgatory. However, there was still a Lutheran influence, with no mention of transubstantiation, a Protestant view of justification and images, and rejection of the Bishop of Rome. In the 10 commandments, the one against images was first. Of course Henry hadn't read the book, so hadn’t fully approved of it. 

1937 - Matthew’s Bible published

Matthew’s Bible is produced by John Rogers, under a pseudonym of Thomas Matthew. The New Testament translation was from Tyndale, and parts in the Old Testament were translated by Coverdale, as Rodgers was caught and killed before he could actually complete the Old Testament. There were 2000 notes to help ordinary people understand it better. It was dedicated to the King and was licenced to be distributed, with 1500 copies shipped to England. Cromwell definitely knew a lot of the Bible was based on Tyndale’s translation, which would give it a much more Lutheran bias. Tyndale’s name was outlawed in the nation, and if the King knew of Tyndale’s influence, it would’ve been banned immediately. 

1938

Henry VIII read through the Bishops’ Book, and corrected it much, making it much more conservative. Cranmer opposed it privately (how he survived I really don’t know).

June 1538 - Nice Truce

Pope Paul III, Francis I and Charles V agreed a ten year truce, though their hatred meant the two kings sat in two different rooms, the Pope moving between them. This meant their primary targets were not each other, but could be England, especially with the Pope present.

September 1538 - Cromwell’s injunctions

Cromwell’s second royal injections were published. To outline what these asked: all the King’s injunctions are to be kept; all Churches to have a large print, accessible version of the English Bible; nobody to discourage the reading of the Bible; every Sunday the creed has to be recited; have confession every Lent; sermons clarifying scripture coming first, not images or pilgrimages; every birth, wedding and death must be registered and fast days may not be changed by anyone by the King. There is clearly a Protestant influence in this. 

September 1538

Gardiner returned to England. He was one of the biggest conservative influences to Henry, so this return allowed him to further interact with the King.

November 1538 - Lambert’s execution

John Lambert was Cromwell and Tyndale’s mate. He was tried because he got into a theological debate, where he denied transubstantiation. He even wrote a paper on it, which was passed to Cranmer, who tried him for heresy, ironically. His trial was personally attended by Henry VIII, Cranmer and Cromwell, where he stuck to his view. Henry defended transubstantiation, demonstrating his return to the idea of the ‘Defender of the Faith’. He also wished for Lambert to die horribly as a warning. He was to have a low flame consume his legs, before being stabbed with pikestaffs and chucked on the ground, still alive.  His final words were ‘None but Christ! None but Christ!’. Cromwell wept when he watched Lambert, his friend, die. 

January 1539

An attempt for an  alliance to the Schmalkalden League: theological disputes prevented this.

March 1539 -��Great Bible

The Great Bible was the first English Bible allowed to be read aloud in Church, prepared by Myles Coverdale, employed by Cromwell, though he still had some of Tyndale’s work still. It was to be stocked in every Church. The front depicted Henry in the centre, Cranmer and Cromwell besides him. More than 9,000 copies had been printed by 1541. It was more popular than the increasing romance novels around: people were buying and reading it. 

April 1539

Cromwell remains confined to his house until 10 May, after falling ill.

19 May 1539 - Dissolution Act

The Act for the Dissolution of the Greater Monasteries was passed in this year: ‘the King our sovereign lord shall have, hold, possess, and enjoy to him, his heirs and successors for ever, all and singular such late monasteries’. This granted the king’s right to all monasteries not included in the 1536 legislation, that is to say, all of the rest of the monasteries in England and Wales. Between 1536 and 1540 he took over 800 monasteries, abbeys, nunneries and friaries, which had been home to more than 10,000 monks, nuns, friars and canons.

May 1539 - Statute of Six Articles

Known formally as ‘An Act Abolishing Diversity in Opinions’, informally as ‘the bloody whip with six strings’. The House of Lords attempted to examine religious doctrine, and after a lot of argument, the Duke of Norfolk decided that they should examine six key questions. They seemed to Catholic doctrine on matters of: transubstantiation, the reasonableness of withholding the cup from the laity during communion, clerical celibacy, observance of vows of chastity, permission for private masses and the importance of auricular confession. Anyone who refused faced the death penalty. It is as follows:

First, that in the most blessed Sacrament of the altar, by the strength and efficacy of Christ's mighty word (it being spoken by the priest), is present really, under the form of bread and wine, the natural body and blood of our Saviour Jesus Christ, conceived of the Virgin Mary; and that after the consecration there remaineth no substance of bread or wine, nor any other substance, but the substance of Christ, God and man.

Secondly, that communion in both kinds is not necessary ad salutem, by the law of God, to all persons; and that it is to be believed, and not doubted of, but that in the flesh, under the form of bread, is the very blood; and with the blood, under the form of wine, is the very flesh; as well apart, as though they were both together.

Thirdly, that priests after the order of priesthood received, as afore, may not marry, by the law of God.

Fourthly, that vows of chastity or widowhood, by man or woman made to God advisedly, ought to be observed by the law of God; and that it exempts them from other liberties of Christian people, which without that they might enjoy.

Fifthly, that it is meet and necessary that private masses be continued and admitted in this the king's English Church and congregation, as whereby good Christian people, ordering themselves accordingly, do receive both godly and goodly consolations and benefits; and it is agreeable also to God's law.

Sixthly, that auricular confession is expedient and necessary to be retained and continued, used and frequented in the Church of God.

Evangelical bishops Latimer and Shaxton resigned their sees. Cranmer debated furiously with himself, but remained Archbishop of Canterbury.

May 1539

Due to clerical celibacy, Archbishop Cranmer sent his German wife abroad.

March 1540

Waltham, the last surviving monastery, surrendered: the end of the dissolution.

June 1540 - Cromwell’s downfall

Thomas Cromwell arrived for a Privy Council meeting late, where Thomas Howard  shouted ‘Cromwell! Do not sit there! That is no place for you! Traitors do not sit among gentlemen.’ Howard ripped off his chains. He was arrested there. The reasons could be association with heretics, Anne of Cleves, or Gardenier’s whispers into Henry's era, growing awareness of his beliefs. He was charged with treason, heresy, felony and corruption. He was sentenced to be hung, drawn and quartered. Who wrote to Henry, admitting ‘I have meddled in so many matters under your Highness that I am not able to answer them all’, and ended with ‘Most gracious prince I cry for mercy, mercy, mercy.’ Henry still sent money to him in prison, and had his sentence changed to decapitation, despite Cromwell being of low birth. On the same day, he got married to Katherine Howard. He was cheerful on his day of death, and on the scaffold, likely ironically talked about being Catholic, but more meaning ‘universal’ than the religion. He maintained innocence until the end: ‘Many have slandered me, and reported that I have been a bearer of such as I have maintained evil opinions; which is untrue.’ His execution was a botched, awful job, a nasty end for, in Henry’s words, ‘the most faithful servant I had ever had.’

July 1540 - Barnes’ execution

Robert Barnes was a bright scholar and Lutheran preacher, and Augustinan Friar. He used his house arrest in London to help distribute Lutheran texts. Ten years before his death, he fled to Wittenburg, where he studied under Luther too. His writings made him known to Cromwell, who used him as an envoy for messages between Luther and Henry, and later Princes and Henry. He was extremely loyal to Henry despite his protestant preaching. Once Cromwell had fallen, Barnes lost his protector, and ended up burnt as a heretic. 

August 1541

Three Windsor Martyrs’: burnt for refusing Easter Eucharist, denying transubstantiation.

March 1543

Cranmer was accused of heresy, but lived due to accepting Henry's change to the Bishop’s book and a parliamentary statute that restricted Bible reading to gentry and nobles. 

1543 - The King’s Book

Henry finally wrote something for himself, entitled ‘The Necessary Doctrine and Erudition for Any Christian Man’ or the ‘King’s Book’. It was a revision of the Bishop’s Book, which continued attacks on images, and stressed royal supremacy but supported and backed the six articles, defending transubstantiation, good works involved in justification, free will, prayer to Mary, and educational sermons. Overall, it looked like he was straining Catholicism without the Pope. 

1543 - Act for the Advancement of True Religion

Parliament enacted that ‘no manner of persons, after the first of October, should take upon them to read openly to others in any church or open assembly within any of the King's Dominions, the Bible or any part of the Scripture in English, unless he is so appointed thereunto by the King ... on pain of suffering one hundred month's imprisonment.’ Those who were unable to read it ever were ‘women nor artificers, journeymen, serving men of the degree of yeomen or under husbandmen nor labourers’ Those who could read it could only do so privately. This was in fear that they may misinterpret the text. Many other books were banned in an attempt to unify thought. Basically it was just Chaucer  and autobiographies left.

March 1544 -Third Act of Succession

Mary and Elizabeth were restored to the line of succession, with Edward and his potential descendents first in the line, and then after, Mary and Elizabeth. He also reserved spaces for his own potential future kids...haha. 

June 1544- English Litany

This was published to be used in processions, especially in troubling times, such as in famine. Henry noticed people were unable to respond due to language barriers, so he wanted something in English. It was drawn up by Cranmer, using sources both from Luther and Greek Orthodox Litanies. In conservative Milton, Kent, they refused to say this in Church, so said it outside, in Latin. Overall, the piece seems neutral, but there is an anti-Catholic favour in some parts, like, ‘From all sedycion and privey conspiracie, from the tyranny of the bisshop of Rome and all his detestable enormyties’.

May 1545 - King’s Prymer

This Prymer, edited and authorised by the King, listed the Calendar, the Creed, the Ten Commandments, the Lord's Prayer, the Salutation of the Virgin, the seven penitential psalms, a litany, and prayers for various occasions, the only one authorised for use in England. It was a shift again from Latin to English, and had removed certain Catholic ideas. Every young person had to learn some of the prayers in English. 

January 1546

'Creeping to the Cross' added to the list of forbidden practises. It involved approaching the cross barefoot and on your knees, a sign of reverence and humility. It was particularly despited by Protestants. Henry didn’t fully authorise it in his old age, but his son certainly didn’t mind doing so when he inherited the throne the following year.

Doctrinal Disputes: A Summary

‘England was starting to become a Protestant country and a series of radical religious changes were implemented from 1536 to 1540, in particular the dissolution of the monasteries which started in 1536. This was followed by the Ten Articles of 1536 which rejected Catholic doctrine and they were followed by the Royal Injunctions. In 1537 the Bishop’s Book continued the drift towards Protestantism, which was followed by the publication of the Matthew Bible. In 1538 Cromwell issued further Royal Injunctions to the clergy to impose greater religious conformity in England. In April 1539, the English Great Bible was published which endorsed the authority of the King over the Church in England. However, Henry VIII remained a conservative and the Six Articles, published in 1539, confirmed this. Many Catholic beliefs remained. Transubstantiation, clerical celibacy and masses for the dead remained. The final religious changes under Henry VIII were the King’s Book of 1543 which confirmed much of the Six Articles. Images and relics remained and the Bible was afforded little importance.’ (Source : eGUIDE // History)

[cactusnotes]

Closing the Development Gap

Globalisation appears to be closing the development gap in bringing countries closer, and ensuring they have to work and support each other due to increasing interdependence. Asia certainly reflects this, especially China. The USA : China GDP ratio is now 4.2:1...

However this doesn’t reflect the whole picture. A third of China’s property and industrial wealth is owned by the richest 1% (a ‘super elite’ group), so within countries, there is a gap. Zooming out, while countries in general have been developing economically, there is a much higher rate of growth in developed and emerging countries than in developing countries. In 1980, advanced economies had 10,000$ GDP per capita, while Sub-Saharan Africa was at 1000$ GDP pc. In 2012, advanced economies were at 40,000$ GDP pc, while Sub-Saharan Africa had only advanced to 3000$ GDP pc. This means the development gap has actually been expanding.

One issue in dealing with economic indicators is in how measuring money is difficult, especially with several kinds of currencies which might not be readily converted. However, in global comparison, US$ is generally used as a universal currency, and there are several single indicators. Gross National Income is a measure of the value of the goods and services earned by a country, including overseas. Gross Domestic Income is the same as GNI, but without overseas income. Per Capita are equal distribution of measures across individuals. Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) balances earnings to the cost of living, what they will buy, representing their spending power. 

There are also composite indicators,using multiple measures, such as the Economic Sector Balance, which looks at the percentage of the working sectors contributing to GNI. The lower the income, the higher the primary sector. Malawi’s is 30%; UK’s is only 0.6%. Vietnam’s was 50% in 1990, to 22% in 2014. Socioeconomic measures can be used too, such as HDI, which considers life expectancy, education levels and GDP per capita ppp. It is converted to a number on a scale of 0 to 1, 1 being the best. Composite measures are often better off since single figures may be anomalies that don’t reflect the whole picture, while composite measures are more likely to give an all-rounded perspective of a country’s development.

Gender inequality exists in every single country, and a general correlation is seen in the more gender inequality, the less developed the nation. Often in LEDCs, women are seen as future mothers, so they generally get less education and care: the men are prioritised as workers and better in general. The UN has developed a gender inequality index, which considers reproductive health (fertility and maternal mortality rates decrease, age of first child rises), empowerment (more empowered, more women in politics) and education/employment (school and uni opens up more opportunities to women). The country with the highest gender equality is Switzerland, which also has the second highest HDI as of 2018. Their index is 0.037, with 5 deaths per 100,000 live births, and 30% of seats in Parliament held by women. Meanwhile the country with the highest gender inequality index, Yemen, is ranked 13th last according to HDI. There are 385 deaths per 100,000 live births, 0.5% of seats in Parliament, and 0.6% of women go into the workforce. It’s good as a compound measure, considering the healthcare, value system and economic situations, since you see how much they can afford to spend on the ‘second sex’. For the UK, ranked 27th on the GII, adolescent pregnancy is the main concern to be addressed.

Environment quality is often reduced with economic development, as energy use, industrial processes and transport are needed in economic development, all releasing pollutants like sulphur dioxides and nitrogen oxides, which also cause respiratory problems. HICs often reduce their pollutants through controlling emissions or outsourcing manufacturing. While most countries measure air pollution, it is done in different ways, which could make it difficult to compare. OECD had an international database on different indicators of environmental progress, such as % of the GDP in Environmental tax. 

The 2018 Environmental Performance Index (EPI) ranks 180 countries on 24 performance indicators across ten issue categories covering environmental health and ecosystem vitality. It certainly shows an indirect relation between developing and environment. Developed countries generally score high, with Switzerland being first, UK sixth, USA 25th, due to scoring badly on issues such as deforestation. Emerging countries are all over. India is fourth last (177), China is 120th, Brazil at 69, being more environmentally conscious due to tourism, perhaps. Of the bottom third of countries, 36 are from the 46 Sub Saharan countries, 15 are from the 26 Asian countries, 1 Caribbean (Haiti), 2 are from East Europe/Eurasia, 2 are from the Middle East or N. Africa, 2 from the Pacific, 1 from Latin America. Overall it’s clear it’s developing and emerging nations at the bottom.

The Gini Index is a measure of difference of income within a country, showing what percentage of the population owns what percentage of the income. It is a cumulative curve, with individuals being added to the percentage population, depending on the income, so the initial percentages represent the lowest incomes, and the data added for the final percentages of population are based around the highest earning individuals of that population. A direct correlation from 0% to 100% on both axes is total equality, and would have a Gini coefficient of zero. The Lorenz curve represents the actual figures of a population. The further away it is from the normal, the higher in inequality gini index, with the maximum of a hundred. A benefit is that it measures inequality within a nation, rather than a general equal distribution of wealth.

This curve can be used for the whole world population, and rather looks like the one above. In 1988, 30% of the population owned just 4% of global wealth. The richest 30% owned almost 80% of global wealth. This has gotten worse, going from 0.9% of global wealth owned by 10% then, in 2013, it was 0.9%. Meanwhile the top 1% went from owning 8.3% to 8.5%, which is a lot. Essentially, certain people have gotten a lot richer, mainly owners of TNCs and the like, while the poor become increasingly poor, and the index is increasing.

China is one example of internal inequality, due to its income being of exporting low-value products, and despite rising wages there is still not much change from pre-industrialisation. There is also an east-west divide, with income declining as you go further inland, or west. All the major industrial cities are on the east coast, with the 2010 Gini index was 47%, which is increasing. Furthermore, the economic development has led to environmental issues and thus reduced local health. Around the Three Gorges Dam in the Yangtze River, with thousands of premature deaths and an air quality that frequently fails China’s own standards. The economic growth doesn’t benefit those who live there, or those who live in rural areas where they aren’t prioritised. This is as people earn very little, and profits go to company owners.

[cactusnotes]

Act Utilitarianism

‘Utilitarianism’ is derived from the term ‘utility’, meaning usefulness--the ethical theory is about doing the most useful action in each situation. In this essay, I shall outline a few ideas surrounding Act Utilitarianism. 

Act Utilitarianism is often attributed to Jeremy Bentham, a social reformer and barrister: thus very aware of the injustice and suffering in the world. Utilitarian is partly a response to this, and aims to be accessible for all people (having no links to religion, or need of many resources), explained in several of his works such as Principles of Morals and Legislation. 

The theory is teleological or consequentialist, as they focus on calculating the outcome of the actions, rather than the actions itself. It is relativistic, since it must consider each individual situation as an alone case, rather than having broad principles or universal universals. It is objective however, in its definition of happiness, since happiness is given a solid concept, can be calculated.

Act utilitarianism is based on the idea of hedonism. This is the theory that our actions are motivated by seeking pleasure and avoiding pain, or as Bentham puts it “Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, as well as to determine what we shall do.” Since it is what motivates us, there must be something particular about pleasure that makes it special, and therefore good. Furthermore, if anything else becomes the centre of an ethical theory, it would be hard to follow, due to us not naturally being motivated for such a goal. Therefore, for Bentham, pleasure would be very important in his act utilitarianism. 

However, he slightly expands it in coming up with the term ‘happiness’. Happiness is the amount of pleasure, subtracting the amount of pain. Happiness becomes the ‘sovereign good’ therefore, and seeking happiness too must be good. Since it is good to be happy and everyone likes it, it must be a ‘useful’ thing to achieve. This theory is supported in being an ancient one, partly supported by Epicurus: “we must, therefore, pursue the things that make for happiness, seeing that when happiness is present, we have everything; but when it is absent, we do everything to possess it”, indicating that happiness was seen as good and useful.

Thus, in doing the most useful thing in every situation, you are essentially doing what will achieve the most happiness. This concept is called the “Principle of Utility”, and is the ‘one’ rule in the theory, which all actions are relative to (still making it relativistic). Every action must be measured against the principle, which is essentially that the most useful and thus morally correct action is that which brings the best balance of happiness, which is good, over pain, which is evil. Happiness is the only intrinsic good. 

The way to apply this principle is through the ‘greatest happiness principle’, where you calculate what will produce the most net happiness. This is not the concept of ‘most happiness for the most people’, since Bentham finds several things are involved in having an ‘amount’ of happiness--7 ideas surrounding the amount of pleasure. Thus, to properly calculate the amount of happiness, Bentham produced a ‘hedonic calculus’, which assesses these aspects, and through balancing them, you can find out how much happiness is produced through a course of action, noted as an amount of hedons. Pain can also be calculated with the unit of ‘dolors’.  The amount of hedons minus the amount of dollars gives an estimate of the happiness that action would cause. Overall, a course of action calculated to produce the most happiness should be employed.

Intensity is one of those seven elements of pleasure, and expresses how ‘strong’ the happiness is, such as whether someone is simply ‘glad’ or is ‘overwhelmingly ecstatic’. The more intense and strong the happiness causes, the more hedons it is awarded. 

Duration is simply how long or enduring the pleasure is--the longer it is, the better. Certainty is how likely it is for the pleasure desired to actually become reality, or how consistent it is. Driver expresses how “all things being equal, we should go for more certain than less certain pleasures”. 

Extent is the outreach of happiness, how many others are also implicated: a larger extent is more useful. 

Propinquity is how ‘near’ or ‘close’ that happiness is, since closer, or nearer happiness are normally more valued. 

Richness considers the chances of the happiness leading to more happiness or sub-pleasures, and the more subsequent happiness, the richer it is, the better it is. 

Purity is how much of the pleasure is linked or mixed with pain the pleasure is; how free the pleasure is from taints and hints of pain. A low purity pleasure would involve a ‘roller coaster ride’ of happiness and pain intermingling. The more pure the pleasure, the more useful it is. 

Bentham expressed the different aspects in the calculus partly in a poem to make it more memorable and applicable: “intense, long, certain, speedy, fruitful, pure...wide let them extend...If pains must come, let them extend to a few”. The hedonic calculus is meant to be used in every moral situation if possible, rather than basing decisions on ‘prior experiences’, even if they’re similar in nature, since no two situations are ever exactly the same.

One thing clear in the hedonic calculus is that  By relating several aspects to the concept it shows how utilitarianism is not simply the ‘most happiness for the most people’, though often it is the case, since ‘extent’ is only one of seven categories. 

Another view of Bentham, also seen through the hedonic calculus, is how there is no different kinds of happiness, or no type of happiness is placed above the other in value, in the act utilitarianism theory (in contrast to Mill’s higher and lower pleasures in rule utilitarianism), for the value of happiness depends exclusively on the factors in the hedonic calculus. He noted famously in The Rationale of Reward that “the quantity of pleasure being equal, push pin is as good as poetry”. Essentially, if more physical games scored equal to perhaps more intellectual stimulants, such as poetry, then the two happiness causes are equal in value. Overall, Bentham doesn’t see a difference between the 14 families of pleasure, or the 12 families of pain in his theory. Quantity is the only thing that matters, rather than the quality.

Summary: Bentham uses the concept of hedonism to explain why happiness, being pleasure minus pain, is the only intrinsic good, the motive for all humans, and therefore is useful. Despite there being ‘different types’ of happiness, all of them are equal in value, according to Bentham, and all are good and useful. Humans should strive to do the most useful and therefore good thing in each situation, labelled as the ‘Principle of Utility’. To calculate the ‘act’ which will maximise happiness is done using the greatest happiness principle and hedonic calculus, to balance seven elements of happiness to create an objective value of the happiness. The act with the most ‘hedons’ of happiness is the good act, and it is a moral duty to do that act. 

Act utilitarianism is best outlined by Bentham himself however: “Create all the happiness you are able to create; remove all the misery you are able to remove. Every day will allow you--will invite you to add something to the pleasure of others--or to diminish something of their pains.” Every opportunity should be taken to increase happiness.

[cactusnotes]

Timeline of The Pilgrimage of Grace

Arguably the biggest threat to Henry VIII’s reign, the Pilgrimage of Grace was a series of rebellions in the North of England that occurred for many reasons, such as in response to the dissolution, in protest of economic issues, and to try to undermine the hated Cromwell. 

CHAPTER 1 : LINCOLNSHIRE REBELLION

8 SEPTEMBER : Cistercian abbey at Louth Park was dissolved.

28 SEPTEMBER : King’s commissioners arrived to take possession of Hexham Abbey and remove the monks. They found it’s gates locked and barricaded. The monks (wearing armour and holding guns) said they’d die before the commissioners should take it. 

1 OCTOBER : There was an awareness that Cromwell’s commissioners were about to visit the town. They were suspected of theft of the wealth and goods of the places. Thomas Kendall preached a sermon against the Dissolution of the Monasteries. 

2 OCTOBER : Nicholas Melton/Captain Cobbler, and 100 men seized the Bishop of Lincoln’s registrar, and tried to hang him, but he escaped to London to tell the King. Hussey tried to convince the rebels to dispel, but when they didn’t, he did nothing. 

3 OCTOBER : Commoners marched to Caistor and joined around 2,000 rebels The rebellion spread to Horncastle.

4 OCTOBER : Chancellor of the Bishop of Lincoln (religious centre of the area!) was dragged from his horse and impaled with staves, money distributed evenly. One of Thomas Cromwell’s men was also killed. A list of grievances to be sent to the king was drawn up with the help of the local gentry. Robert Aske was caught, and forced to swear an oath of loyalty, and he even took on leadership roles, writing their asks, placing blame on advisors, not Henry. Gentry, nobles and clergy too, were forced or voluntarily joined the rebellion. 

5 OCTOBER : Aske went to raise support for the uprising in other areas of north Lincolnshire. At Hamilton Hill he met the Louth rebels led by Thomas Moigne (forced into service). They burned the commissioner's book here. 

6 OCTOBER : He instructed commons not to rise until they heard the bells of Marshland. Likely as he wanted to control the rising. 

7 OCTOBER : there were around 30,000 rebels. Aske was asked to leave, since his actions put him under suspicion. 

9 OCTOBER : Their grievances were sent to the King (he would refute all) including asking for the arrest of ‘heretics’ such as Cramner, putting the cause of the rebellion as ‘extreme poverty’. The leaders (mainly forced nobles) and commoners faced growing mistrust. The Duke of Suffolk was making his way North to crush it. 

10 OCTOBER : News reached Lincoln of the army approaching. Nobles started to leave. Thomas Darcy said he didn’t have sufficient resources, and asked to retreat to Pontefract. Henry agreed, but was suspicious of the man nonetheless. 

11 OCTOBER : The king’s response arrived...it was not positive. 

“Concerning choosing of counsellors,” the king wrote, “I never have read, heard nor known, that princes’ counsellors and prelates should be appointed by rude and ignorant common people ; nor that they were persons meet or of ability to discern and choose meet and sufficient counsellors for a prince...And where ye alledge that the service of God is much thereby diminished, the truth thereof is contrary ; for there are no houses suppressed where God was well served, but where most vice, mischief, and abomination of living was used : and that doth well appear by their confessions...sovereign lord and king, who doth and hath spent more in your defences of his own than six times they be worth...We charge you, eftsoon, upon the foresaid bonds and pains, that ye withdraw yourselves to your own houses…”

- Extract of Henry VIII’s response

12 OCTOBER : Rebellion was ending. 100 were tried and executed. Some rebels left the banner at a Church, to show they had fought in Christ’s name.

16 OCTOBER : The Duke of Suffolk arrived in Lincoln to pacify, investigate the origins, and prevent the revolution spreading south. 

CHAPTER 2 : THE PILGRIMAGE OF GRACE

8 OCTOBER : Aske returned to Yorkshire to get people to join his rebellion, and people did so for several reasons-Derek Wilson argued "It would be incorrect to view the rebellion in Yorkshire, the so-called Pilgrimage of Grace, as purely and simply an upsurge of militant piety on behalf of the old religion. Unpopular taxes, local and regional grievances, poor harvests as well as the attack on the monasteries and the Reformation legislation all contributed to the creation of a tense atmosphere in many parts of the country". Aske had also previously sent letters to Yorkshire in advance asking the clergy to get ready, and William Stapleton had already formed a group of rebels to greet Aske. 

“Ye shall not enter into this our Pilgrimage of Grace for the Commonwealth, but only for the love that ye do bear unto Almighty God, his faith, and to Holy Church militant and the maintenance thereof, to the preservation of the King's person and his issue, to the purifying of the nobility, and to expulse all villein blood and evil councillors against the commonwealth from his Grace and his Privy Council of the same. And ye shall not enter into our said Pilgrimage for no particular profit to your self, nor to do any displeasure to any private person, but by counsel of the commonwealth, nor slay nor murder for no envy, but in your hearts put away all fear and dread, and take afore you the Cross of Christ, and in your hearts His faith, the Resititution of the Church, the suppression of these Heretics and their opinions, by all the holy contents of this book.”

- Oath for the Pilgrimage of Grace

11 OCTOBER : Aske arrived in Jervaulx Abbey, where they got the Abbot and monks to return to life there. This was close to the location Catherine Parr resided--her home was indeed technically captured!

16 OCTOBER : Aske and his army of 20,000 entered York. Here he made a speech: “we have taken (this pilgrimage) for the preservation of Christ's church, of this realm of England, the King our sovereign lord, the nobility and commons of the same...the monasteries...in the north parts (they) gave great alms to poor men.”

17 OCTOBER : Aske settled on the name ‘Pilgrimage of Grace’. A new list of desires was written and sent to the King. 

20 OCTOBER : Aske arrived at Pontefract Castle. Hull fell without battle, and Constable, one of the citizens, became a key leader. The rebellion had spread through to West Riding of Yorkshire, the Yorkshire Dales, Westmorland, Cumberland, Lancashire and Northumberland.  Leader names: Charity, Faith, Poverty, Pity. 

21 OCTOBER : Thomas Darcy quickly gave up his castle, complaining of supplies going low. It seems reasonable, if the castle was taken by force in any way, he should be killed. Henry also ignored his letters and Darcy was elderly and sick. He eventually swore the Oath, and though refused leadership, gave the banner they walked under. 

27 OCTOBER : Meeting between Norfolk’s 8000 and Aske’s 40,000 (roughly one third of the population of the areas involved could have been involved in some way, which is massive). Norfolk knew that a fight was impossible, initially offering a rejected offer of Aske alone, so instead used delaying tactics, buying on the fact that Aske thought Henry would be reasonable enough to accept some of the demands. A truce was called. Sir Robert Bowes and Sir Ralph Ellerker were to visit the king with the demands, a Parliament would be held there, the armies would disband, and a general pardon would be issued. Norfolk felt like he was getting one over Cromwell too. 

29 OCTOBER : Another religious house was seized, and monks returned. When Henry ordered for this to be dealt with, the local nobles said it could not be done. 

5 NOVEMBER : Henry had finalised his response...but decided on a little delay. He would reorganise the Council of the North, stop dissolving houses up North (but not restoring any either), the Six Articles would reinstate Catholicism, Statute of Wills addressed the gentry’s concerns, Cromwell was eventually removed from power and Mary was later restored to succession. Technically, their demands would become true. 

17 NOVEMBER : The pilgrims received the king’s response, which was just another delay. The terms were too vague for him, suggesting Norfolk should discuss the issue with 300 Pilgrims in Doncaster in December. 

6 DECEMBER : The revised Pontefract articles were presented to Norfolk, who gave them the pardon and council, but no guarantee of the monasteries staying. The crowds dispersed. Aske was invited to London. 

7 DECEMBER : Aske addressed the remaining 300, showing written proof of the pardon, and the Pilgrimage of Grace ended. He still believed the king to be good, godly even. 

DECEMBER : Aske was invited to London, where he would spend Christmas. Henry welcomed him with the words "Be you welcome, my good Aske; it is my wish that here, before my council, you ask what you desire and I will grant it." His response was: "Sir, your majesty allows yourself to be governed by a tyrant named Cromwell. Everyone knows that if it had not been for him the 7,000 poor priests I have in my company would not be ruined wanderers as they are now." Henry asked as if he agreed, asked Aske to create a ‘history’ or ‘record’ of the events (Henry had names!), and gave him a crimson silk jacket to ‘show his support’. 

CHAPTER 3 : BIGOD & CUMBERLAND REBELLION

15 JANUARY : Bigod accused Aske and Darcy of betrayal, and feared Henry would seek revenge on the leaders of the Pilgrimage of Grace. Many were suspicious of Aske. Bigod launched another revolt, marching to Hull. This technically broke the ‘truce’. 

16 JANUARY : The stealth attack was a failure. 

17 JANUARY : Lumley, who had managed to get into Scarborough, disbanded his troops, arguing that Henry would keep his Doncaster agreement. 

10 FEBRUARY : 4000 men led by Howard and Aske defeated Bigod, who was captured. Norfolk punished people harshly, leaving body bits in trees and gallows to express his displeasure. Monks were punished cruelly. 

11 MAY : Aske was put under questioning by Cromwell, answering 107 questions well. 

MARCH : 50 or so monks and other religious leaders were executed, along with 150 or so nobles. Almost all the nobles residing in the North were involved, and Henry couldn’t execute them all, so it was a game of luck, half dying, half being forgiven. Margret was denied her marriage and burnt. Miller was executed for simply saying that the military might of the rebels outweighed that of Henry. 

JUNE : Constable, Hussey and Bigod were executed, and Darcy, being noble, was beheaded, away from Doncaster, where he was a popular figure.

12 JULY : Aske was executed (against the will of Jane Seymour, who protested until Henry reminded her of his second wife) by being hung over Clifford’s Tower.  

“Christopher, second son of Sir Robert, ought not to forget the year 1536”.

- Inscription on a church, translated from Latin. The Church had been rebuilt by Robert Aske’s brother, Christopher. 

“Unworthy brother.”

- Also Christopher, when he testified against his brother during Robert’s trial. 

[cactusnotes]

Key Individuals and the Pilgrimage of Grace

The Pilgrimage of Grace was the largest threat to Henry VIII’s reign: partly because it contained several nobles who were meant to help Henry. This post will outline a few individuals involved. 

Lord Hussey was, with his cousin, associated with the Pilgrimage of Grace regarding the laws, rather than any actual participation, leading to his execution. He was once a close friend with Henry, accompanying him to the ‘Field of the Cloth of Gold’ in 1520, signing a petition to get Henry’s divorce and giving evidence of Catherine and Arthur’s marriage in court--however this is no protection. He was put in charge of Mary and his allegiance wavered, and he is reported by Chapyus to be in favour of a national uprising if Charles V invaded, his wife was arrested for calling Mary a princess, and he begged not to be sat in Reformation Parliament (though Cromwell forced him to do so). 

When the Pilgrimage of Grace came about, he was threatened with physical violence by the rebels, but he refused, and instead kept sending the king their letters. However, when asked to repress the rebellion by Henry, Hussey did nothing. He was summoned to Windsor for this, where he wrote a letter to Darcy asking him to secure the ‘traitor’ Aske. Though he initially was released, he came again under suspicion, and was convicted with Lord Darcy--his option way out being naming others involved, which he could not do due to his ignorance to the situation. Though Hussey was technically neutral, his inability to stop the revolt flew against him leading to his execution in 1537. Once his execution was confirmed, he cancelled the debts of those who were indebted to him.

Lord Darcy appeared to be more clear about his allegiance: not Henry. He ended a friendship with Wolsey believing only the Papacy had matrimonial authority, and discussed English invasion with Charles V, leading to him being forced to stay in London for five years, likely making him more bitter when he returned up North a year before the Pilgrimage of Grace. He told Henry of the uprisings and asked to be removed to Pontefract castle: he was meant to protect it, but very quickly ‘lost’ it to Robert Aske, sooner than its strength warranted. He spoke to Aske and joined them, swearing the Pilgrimage Oath, noting it didn’t blame Henry, but his mates.

He didn’t lead, but sent soldiers and marks of support, including the five-wounds banner.  Like Hussey, he appealed to not be in the Parliament on account of ‘illness’. Though he partly helped with suppression of it’s aftershock in January 1537, he was summoned to be given ‘thanks’ by Henry, though actually was arrested.  He famously said to Cromwell in prison: "Cromwell, it is thou that art the very original and chief causer of all this rebellion and mischief...though thou wouldst procure all the noblemen's heads within the realm to be stricken off, yet shall there one head remain that shall strike off thy head.”

Earl of Northumberland, Henry Percy, lived a dangerous life...by that, I mean an affair with Anne Boleyn. Though seemed to redeem himself in 1536 when he was a part of the judges which condemned the Queen to death, tormenting him so much that he became terribly ill and collapsed once her death was pronounced. That very year also held the pilgrimage of Grace. His ill health meant he could not take part in this rebellion if he wanted too, which is likely pretty good, since his brothers who did take part, Thomas and Ingram, were arrested, the former being hung drawn and quartered (considered a martyr by many now), the latter died in the Tower of London. His bad health also, to his own word, prevented him from taking military action against the rebellion. 

Aske actually had come to Castle to try to gain his support, or else Percy’s life would be in danger. Henry Percy refused, saying that he didn’t care, death would be welcome--'he fell in weeping, ever wishing himself out of the world’. Aske sent him to York to protect the Earl from his furious followers, who wanted to behead him. However, he did give up his castle, legally and formally, so Aske could direct the rebellion from there. Henry Percy died on 29th June 1537.

Duke of Norfolk, Thomas Howard (uncle of Anne Boleyn and Katherine Howard) was sent North to help suppress the rebellion due to his shared command of the King's forces with the Earl of Shrewsbury. Being Roman Catholic, they hoped they would trust him more. Thomas Darcy, Robert Constable and Francis Bigod  negotiated with him, he initially asked for them to give up Aske peacefully, but they rejected that. Norfolk returned to London, suggesting the king should offer pardon, disband rebels, then punish the leaders easier. Henry did so. He avoided battle by promising a general pardon and a Parliament in York…which never occurred, leading to a relapse in the rebellion the following year, and Howard carried out a brutal retribution due to this. Bigod’s rebellion was met with 4,000 men from Aske and Howard’s forces, since Aske had been accused of betrayal. 

After, Robert Aske, Darcy and Constable were asked by the Duke of Norfolk to return to London to be given Thanks by the King for helping to put down the Bigod rebellion. When they arrived they were arrested, sent to the Tower, tried, and ended up executed.

Lord Dacre was part of the squad that condemned Anne of adultery and incest, despite being a teen. He also dispatched 200 soldiers in the fight against the rebels in the Pilgrimage of Grace, which was quickly disbanded, and also formed part of the group that tried the rebels, including Lord Darcy. In the end, he was executed for a murder he had nothing to do with after illegally goin on someone else’s land.

Robert Aske worked briefly for Henry Percy, and later became a lawyer, associated with the Star Chamber. He was captured by Lincolnshire rebels, and agreed to use his lawyer skills to help them: write up their letters and demands which blamed not the king, but his advisors and leaders, as Moorhouse explained, "Robert Aske never wavered in his belief that a just and well-ordered society was based upon a due recognition of rank and privilege, starting with that of their anointed prince, Henry VIII." Aske returned to Yorkshire, ready to start a Pilgrimage of Grace. In a few days, 40,000 men had risen in the East Riding and were marching on York. They swore the Pilgrimage of Grace oath, and Aske published a declaration obliging "every man to be true to the king's issue, and the noble blood, and preserve the Church of God from spoiling".

Robert Aske and his rebels entered York on 16th October. It is estimated that Aske now led an army that numbered 20,000. Then they went to Pontrefract. Then Lancashire. Then Durham, Westmorland, Northumberland and Cumberland. Here, they got monks and an abbot to return to a closed abbey, and Henry ordered them to be hung without trial. Aske is praised as a good leader. Only one fellow was killed, and he showed force, but not violence, and refused to move South, for his point was of the North, how the North should have a say, and a few of those demands, such as removing Cromwell, not Henry. Then Howard came up North, asked for Aske, got rejected, and came up with the promise of peace, and invited Aske to London.

Robert Aske spent the Christmas holiday with Henry at Greenwich Palace. When they first met Henry told Aske: "Be you welcome, my good Aske; it is my wish that here, before my council, you ask what you desire and I will grant it." Aske replied: "Sir, your majesty allows yourself to be governed by a tyrant named Cromwell. Everyone knows that if it had not been for him the 7,000 poor priests I have in my company would not be ruined wanderers as they are now." Henry gave the impression that he agreed with Aske about Thomas Cromwell and asked him to prepare a history of the previous few months. To show his support he gave him a jacket of crimson silk.

While this occured, Sir Francis Bigod complained of Aske and Darcy betraying the Pilgrimage of Grace, and started his own rebellion. Aske and Howard joined forces of 4000 to crush this. He was asked back to London, where he was charged with renewed conspiracy after pardon. It was Cromwell, ironically, who questioned him, with 107 written questions. Not only was he unable to lie, but he was unable to hide the truth, he was damn honest! He confessed to his huge involvement in the Pilgrimage of Grace. Still, Cromwell twisted a letter of Aske telling his followers to stay home and not join Bigod’s forces into a case of preventing his followers from joining the King’s army, thus still supporting Bigod. On market day in York, he was dragged through streets, and hung from chains off Clifford’s Tower.

[cactusnotes]

Cultural Globalisation

Cultures and traditions, through globalisation, have been intermingling, creasing a whole array of good and bad impacts, the base for striking debates, and for me importantly: a chunk of what my exams are probably going to be on. Well, here are my notes and case studies:

In 1959, Fidel Castro declared Cuba to be a communist country, separated from Western capitalism. It remained isolated for 50 years, relying on subsidies from communist USSR until 1991, when it collapsed. Cuba seemed to have no other option but to allow in tourism to develop its economy, resulting in increasing awareness of other cultures. 

In 2008, Fidel Castro resigned, and his brother took over, and decided to weaken communism. Free enterprise businesses were allowed to set up, in a relaxed communism that somewhat reflected China’s. Since 2012, Cubans could buy and sell houses, take out loans and start businesses, at the loss of state-employment guarantees and state-owned farmland was sold. This allowed USA-Cuban relations to improve. However, it has increased divisions, with some wealthy Cuban entrepreneurs living in luxury, while some live in tumble-down houses, with no variety in their simple diet--bread, eggs and plantain and state rations. This is as differences in wealth, and person leads to different chances of success. From then, it’s positive feedback, as the poor cannot help their kids do better. Capitalists too, don’t have such incentive to help their workers.

Today, Cuba is in a state of change. Tourists, TV and the internet have allowed Cubans to broaden their knowledge of the wider world, and learn about the challenges to their values and traditions, so globalisation is diluting Cuban culture. This cultural erosion has also led to a detriment in the environment, with the coral reefs at risk as beach-side tourist resorts are erupted.  This process is called cultural diffusion: Western attitudes and values have spread to Cuba, and also to around the world. Maintaining a strong Cuban identity is very difficult.

The economy changes, ways of life changes, attitudes and values change. Global changes are impacting how people view the world, and these global changes can be seen on a local level: called glocal cultures. British cities have been transformed by inwards migration to hubs of cultural diversity, with its own new character, new identity, compared to just a mix of others. These areas are called ethnic enclaves, with some examples being Indian populations in London, South East, and East of England.

There are several key ideas surrounding this concept of globalisation of society: culture is the ideas, customs and social practices of a particular people or society; cultural diffusion is the spread of cultural beliefs and activities from one group (ethnicities, religions, nationalities) to another through communication, transport and technology; cultural erosion is when cultural diversity is reduced through popularisation; cultural imperialism is when one culture of a nation is promoted over another, otherwise known as westernisation. 

The main culprits of cultural imperialism, westernisation and americanisation are, of course, Europe and North America, turning western culture into a global culture. The factors amplifying this today include TNCs, tourism, global media and migration. The main protector of individual cultures is language: things don’t translate straight into each other, something is lost in translation. But as the same groups control global media, which impacts language, there is increasingly common vocabulary.  Global homogenisation is the process of culture everywhere becoming one.

News Corp, owned by Rupert Murdoch, impacts political and cultural thinking worldwide. They have 101 newspapers in Australia (national and suburban); four in the Uk including The Times and The Sun; over 25 papers in the USA including The New York Post and The Wall Street Journal and a 33% share in Russia’s leading financial times paper. Television wise: Fox is theirs; My Network TV; channels in Eastern Europe, Israel, Indonesia and NZ. Their satellites are: BSkyB in the UK, Foxtel in Aus, SKY in NZ/Ita/Ger and StarTV in Asia. Politically, Fox TV in the USA openly supports the Republican Party, while every winning party in the UK since 1979 has been promoted by the Sun (EW, WHY UK?).

IT and digital communication means that the rate and desire of consumption has changed, and the products themselves have changed, as hybrid products are on the rise, where global TNCs create a cultural mix. What we consume generally is based on the work of small groups of big TNCs. 90% of the music market is owned by five companies: EMI, Universal, AOL, Time Warner, SonyBMG. They’ve focused on cutting the range of successful artists: it’s easier to promote one than promote several. This one becomes universal, rather than having different, local artists, contributing to homogenisation in the music world. Globalisation is the new term for cultural imperialism, and helps this musical homogenisation as it promotes the spread of TNCs due to easier connections to promote one thing worldwide, and distribute one product rather than  just producing local music.

Some may consider the change of value as a good thing (the fact that the textbook author portrays this as good literally demonstrates this westernisation, as he proposes that these values are right. Don’t get me wrong, I 100% agree that these values are good, but the fact that he’s portraying them positively is literally proof of what he’s saying and it’s funny. Or is that just me? Just me, sorry, ignore this). One of these is the attitude to disability. In China, 2011, official data reported that only 25% of disabled people could find employment. They were stigmatised, marginalised, abused. Yet, in 2012, they won the paralympics. This helps to destigmatize disability (but boy, have we got far to go!) as described by disabled Australian TV presenter Adam Hills: “Sydney was the first Paralympics to treat Paralympians as equals. London was the first to treat them as heros”. The West is adopting more liberal ideas on ethical issues, such as gay rights (gay rights!), and we can see that homogenisation is far off from total control, with how this contrasts with attitudes in places like Russia and the Middle East.

There is obviously resistance to globalisation. I personally feel like these notes do portray it as negative until the last few paragraphs. It’s perceived to be exploitation of people and the environment. The general criticisms link to: the environment, third world debt, animal rights, child-labour, anarchism, and mostly anti-capitalism and opposition to TNCs. There are many anti-globalisation and environmental pressure groups rejecting globalised culture and TNCs especially (like tax avoidance). The Occupy is one such group, and held demonstrations in cities like London and New York (now that is ironic). The main targets for anti-globalisation movements are the WTO, IMF and World Bank, as well as large US TNCs like McDonald and Starbucks, on the exploitation of the workers, and environment, making it easier for the rich to get away with wrong, and erasing cultures (Americanisation).

Anti-globalisation and rejection of cultural diffusion can even occur on a governmental level. Iran confiscated Barbie Dolls for being un-islamic in the 2000s, but ended up liberalised due to a need for international assistance in dealing with radicalism, and the youth still accessing banned social media, like Twitter and Facebook. Until the 2000s, France led the anti-globalisation movement, limiting broadcasting of foreign material--40% of broadcasts had to be French and no more than 55% American film imports--but has had to liberalise this due to internet downloading of media and due to successful TNCs from France, like EDF energy.

In Norway, for hundreds of years, local fishermen have hunted whales and the food source was considered part of their tradition and culture. The Norwegian representatives claimed that their northern coastal villages depended on hunting and fishing for their livelihoods. Although whaling is not a big part of the Norwegian national budget, it is still considered a crucial source of income for those fishermen who need it. They also argued that the global effort to prohibit the hunting of whales amounted to an imposition of other countries' cultural values that contradicted their own, since it cannot be environmental concerns, for the whales they hunted were not endangered--it’s all based on values. The US Department of Commerce has even suggested that trade restrictions be imposed upon Norway, because it was violating the International Whaling Commission's ban on these kinds of whaling activities. Here, the environment, different values and nationalism clash.

Papua New Guinea has over 7000 cultural groups, with different languages, diets, etc. living in different villages or hamlets, and generally sustained by subsidence farming, fishing and collection. People who are skilled and also generous in getting food are well respected. Then, colonisation meant tribal tensions were crushed, and people were used on plantations and integrated into a new economic and political system. Christianity and western ideals have come forth, with value being placed in well-educated and successful workers, and intermarriage between tribes has lead to losses of languages and direct cultural conflict. Mining took place in one tribal area, meant to benefit all, but the local tribe was doubtful, and resented those on the mainland for allowing the Aussies and Brits to come in and mine. They developed into a revolutionary army, causing conflict in the 1990s, fighting between citizens, youth gangs, riots, looting, returning tribal warfare and huge law and order problems.

The USA and UK have faced increasing nationalisation as a political movement. These are potentially seen in things like the Brexit vote, and election of Trump. Some follow it due to the dilution of their native culture and loss of sovereignty, others due to the low-income and low-level education people in HICs feel as though they have been left out of the benefits of globalisation. While it has the same benefits of protectionism, nationalism can lead to negative impacts, most notably through marginalisation/persecution of ethnic minority groups, ironically emphasising the whole trope and reason for cultural imperialism in the first place.

[cactusnotes]

Global Interconnectedness and Migration

In 2008, the boundary was crossed: over half the world’s population lived in urban areas with more than 10,000 people. 

Furthermore, million cities and megacities (10 million people)  are growing in number, and more cities are growing in international importance as ‘hub cities’, which are cities with major influence (politically, financially, legally, innovative input or technologically). They attract investment, migrants, and are gateways to the country and secondary cities, usually due to airports. Interdependence is the mutual reliance on other nations on a global level.

Core primary cities are hub cities in developed countries, and are major capitals or commercial cities: London, Paris, NY, Chicago, LA, Tokyo, Hong Kong and Shanghai. Semi-periphery primary cities are major capitals or commercial cities in developing countries: Singapore and Rio De Janeiro  currently.  Core secondary cities are less important capitals or commercial cities in developed nations, including: Vienna, Milan, Toronto, San Francisco, Beijing, Sydney, etc. Semi-periphery secondary cities are in developing countries, their less important capitals or commercial cities. Some examples are: Johannesburg, Mexico city, Caracas, Buenos Aires, Seoul, Taipei, Manila and Bangkok. 

Hyper-urbanisation is when the rate of population growth outstrips the rate by which the authorities can provide the basic needs of that population (like sanitation). New Delhi is a city facing hyper-urbanisation as India’s fastest growing city, predicted to grow by 40% from 2010 to 2020. This is partly because of a low death rate, but high birth rate (high rate of natural increase), and one of the fastest rates of rural-to-urban migration. 

Both rural poor and rich move to better their lives and grasp more opportunities. New Delhi has increasing amounts of FDI and an expanding financial zone, with companies like Coca Cola and Microsoft. However, due to rapid growth, many end up living in slums on the outskirts of the city, unable to afford the Metro, and must take more dangerous routes to get to work (especially for girls, with India being India). Background reasons are cities having better communication, investment, connections and better tech generally. Push factors for rural workers: droughts, floods, rural poverty, lack of services, low pay, little investment and few opportunities. Pull factors for New Delhi are the better pay, average better quality of life, increasing outsourcing jobs. 

However, challenges have emerged from this. Half of people living in urban areas live in poverty. Due to incentives offered by the government, TNCs pay less tax, so social development is limited. Furthermore, private companies are usually those which provide facilities like housing and safe water, and as companies they prioritised the rich over the poor. The government has too many other concerns, and often can’t provide a stable facility, while private companies can improve upon it, and be personalised for the people who desire them. LICs end up with many shantytowns, while HICs experience high homelessness. In terms of the environment, in the WHO’s pollution survey, New Delhi came first of 1600 cities, with 153 micrograms of pollution per cubic metre. London had 16mmg. Air pollution is India’s fifth largest--just air. There’s sewage, chemical dumping and fuel spills. 

London is a major global city, founded on mainly knowledge economy, meaning it faces elite migrants, or wealthy, educated migrants, and has become a global property hotspot, likely due to its financial and cultural reputation, and links to various important places: the USA, the EU and Commonwealth, as well as the very fact that we speak English, the overall universal language. The Finance Times reported that foreign buyers were involved in 82% of property deals in Central London. Between 2004 and 2014, a third of foreign property buyers were Russian, and demand was so high that inflation made most properties inaccessible for native Londoners. Economic value generated by London’s 1.8m migrant workers is £83bn per year, roughly 22% of the capital’s Gross Value Added

Meanwhile the UAE and Qatar are locations with small populations and therefore labour shortages. Thus, they employ mass low-wage economic migrants (US$4 per day even) to help build high-end tourism facilities. These workers often do jobs which fall into the 3Ds: dirty, difficult, dangerous. Migrant workers made up 80% of the UAE’s workforce, 1.75 million Indians and 1.25 Pakistanis, with the possibility of being deported after contracts end due to working visa conditions. In 2014, there were 1.4 million migrant workers in Qatar, and injuries were common: 964 died from 2012-2013. This is likely due to low healthcare legislation and bad infrastructure regarding response. 

Voluntary migration is normally based on economic reasons, and benefits the host nation who now have more people to fulfil certain roles, while the source nation suffers. Often, migrants are richer, more educated young people (since they can actually afford to leave) and the source country will lose potentially key workers in doctors and teachers. 30 percent of immigrants to advanced economies between 2000 and 2010 had tertiary qualifications However, illegal migrants lead to administration and management problems for host countries, and some nations in the EU had to put up steel fences to deal with that issue. A survey of 600 businesses in Ireland after the 2008 boom found 50% said that migrants were important in the survival of their organisation.

Summary of the pros and cons of migration--

[cactusnotes]

Global Shifts

Throwback to that time that the industrial revolution meant the Europeans started producing their own silk, cotton and textiles, after Asia had been responsible for that stuff for ages, transporting it down the infamous silk road. Well they didn’t like that, and have now taken manufacturing back.

In the 1970s and 1980s, there was a global shift (movement of roles in the global economic works) back to Asia regarding manufacturing, leading to their economic re-emergence of these countries, found global players in the nations of the Pacific Rim, and by 2013 the value of trade between the Americas and Asia was almost double that between Europe and the Americas. This was due to a mix of new open-door policies, TNCs looking for cheaper manufacturing, and increasing FDI. This increase in FDI is a gradual process, often correlating with new policies, and also the fall of communism in many of the nations. Furthermore, as communication, shipping and trade liberalisation occur, it becomes easier for external places to interact with Asia.

China has been the largest recipient of FDI from 2000, and contributed 10% to global trade in 2013. By 2015, there were 150 cities, from 30 in 2000, with populations of over 1 million, since industrialisation generally is accompanied by urbanisation. The main reason behind this was probably the 1978 open door policy, which brought in SEZs, tax incentives, joining the WTO in 2001, and other methods to increase foreign investment. It came in slowly after, as it was new, and the success of the country was unknown. Furthermore, there were likely issues of trust with the once communist country, and management issues in terms of moving there which required time. Due to this, the FDI was delayed, but once it kicked in, went hard as it proved to be successful and reasonably trustworthy.

This had brought several benefits to the nation, some in terms of transport: they have developed the world’s longest motorway network; all cities and provinces are linked by a huge railway network; the high-speed rail network is the largest in the world; there are 250 airports, and 8 of the 12 largest by freight tonnage. Furthermore, there’s been a reduction of poverty, with 3 million Chinese people being considered middle class, and extreme poverty rates going from 84% in 1980 to 10% by 2006. There has been increased urban income as the population grows relatively slowly, and people become valuable, and wages have increased by 10% per year since 2005, and there has been high disposable income, though this contributes to a rural-urban divide. Education rate has increased, with education compulsory for some years, and 94% of people over 15 are literate. However, this is more due to urban areas, and rural-urban divides continue.

However, there are costs with this. Productive farmland has significantly depleted, with 3 million hectares of arable farmland polluted with heavy metals since 2000. Furthermore, affordable housing has dropped, so informal settlements have formed. Both expansion of village houses and building houses on farmland are illegal yet popular. Pollution is another issue, with one of the worst records in terms of air pollution, 70% of the rivers being polluted, 360 million Chinese people don’t have safe drinking water and one 2015 study calculated that 4400 people die each day due to Chinese air pollution. Land clearance, urbanisation and industrialisation has led to land degradation, erosion, deforestation, over-intensive grazing to 40% of China’s land. Despite China’s plethora of resources, it’s not enough, and there’s deforestation in the Amazon, savanna becoming soy fields and more oil fields for China. WWF has found that 50% of China’s population of terrestrial vertebrates have declined since 1970, and there has likely been loss of biodiversity across the nation.

While the changes in Asia are generally in manufacturing of basic goods, India has developed a technology and English services sector. This is due to its links to England and English being a well-spoken second language in the nation, thus call centres are a popular development, and good technological universities leading to an information sector developing. The main reason was, of course, the 19091 economic reforms after an economic crisis that year, which involved removal of monopolies and trade barriers, issuing more technology licences, reducing trade duties and relaxing tax. This meant foreign investment could start tricking in as the value of the Rupee settled.

India also faces many problems from this global shift. Of the 3000+ towns or cities, only 200 have partial wastewater facilities, 8 have full, and over 100 cities dump wastewater into the Ganges. While some say that money gained from economic globalisation can be put to helping the environment, however others believe that India’s need to keep up with globalisation and economic development has led to environmental degradation as more chemicals and pesticides work to pollute. Ecosystems have been degraded, species have gone extinct, water is no longer pure, deforestation is invading everywhere and pollution is endless. There have been many anti-globalisation groups concerned with the environment, such one movement to restrict soft-drink industries in the nation, since manufacturing them requires drawing groundwater--so much that local areas have struggled to cope.

Evaluation corner! This difficult topic is one I’m certainly going to change my mind on in the future, a lot. However, let's look at it in terms of economic, social and environmental impacts, as well as short and long term. The economic situation improves, and is perhaps somewhat long term. However, a lot of the economy depends on the resources, which depend on the environment, which is facing long term degradation: deforestation and pollution are almost irreversible. Furthermore, socially, it seems neutral, with those in urban areas benefiting, while those in rural areas suffering. Thus, overall, I’d say that, for both countries, it is not positive. The benefits seem to balance out the negatives currently, but the benefits are not sustainable, while the negatives are of a much longer term, so they don’t balance in the future, and the negatives seem to outweigh positives. Currently, it's an unsustainable economic gain for future environmental disaster. Make of that what you will.

HICs are impacted by this global shift too. Leicester is one example, historically a place of thriving mills, with the M&S factory employing 6500 people. Leicester didn’t seem to have enough workers, so the population grew as migrants moved in to help. And then there was deindustrialisation. Some local companies attempt to keep up the textiles industry, but most larger companies go abroad, M&S producing only 12% of it’s clothes in the UK. Industrial land became derelict and this in turn leads to the contamination of the environment. The population fell, unemployment soared, and areas of deprivation appeared around abandoned factories. Many of these areas gained a reputation for crime, though crime rates began falling from 2000, as projects of regeneration, employment and gentrification took place. It could be said that Leicester is a ‘loser’ as it was stripped of its previous role, with no real replacement, certainly not immediately, and the loss of their role in textiles lead to losses in the community and in the environment that would be long-lasting.

[cactusnotes]

Switched On & Switched Off Countries

When it comes to measuring globalisation, it becomes evident that some countries simply aren’t global. There is a two-speed world. 

Some countries are ‘switched on’ to the benefits of connectivity, often economic development, so support globalisation. Others thought it was responsible for corruption and discontent, so have not followed the general trend of globalisation, and are ‘switched off’. Thus, the world globalises and moves in two speeds, with some actively encouraging globalisation, others actively trying to prevent it. 

Globalisation changes can be seen in changes in certain indicators: 

FLOWS - international  trade, migration, FDI.

TECH - internet use, information flows, telecommunications.

MOVEMENT - air traffic.

MEDIA - global advertising, publishing, music and films. 

Increases in these factors indicate a more ‘switched on’ nation. 

The KOF index is produced annually by the Swiss Economic Institute, and considers three factors of interaction, with 24 factors overall. Economic globalisation considers things such as cross-border transactions and volume of FDI. Social globalisation deals with calls, letters, tourists, foreign residence, internet, TV, press and ‘global affinity’ via presence of TNCs like McDonald and IKEA. Political Globalisation considers the number of foreign embassies, membership in international organisations (WTO) and participation in UN peacekeeping. Each is scaled, to produce a value for each of the three factors, some factors being more influential (FDI) before it is averaged. 

However, it comes with several issues, as it’s focus on particular factors exclude others (GDP and manufacturing output, for USA and China, are not counted heavily) as their internal connections are not included, though these are important. The KOF index focuses on external connections and international interactions, which apply more to smaller European nations, which make up 13 of the 15 highest ranked nations. However, it has more indicators, has been used for 45 years (meaning comparison), and has 180 nations. 

The AT Kearney is an alternative index. Political engagement considers participation in international treaties, organisations,  peacekeeping operations; technological connectivity considers number of internet users, hosts and servers; personal contact looks at telephone calls, travel, and remittance payments by migrants sent home; Economic integration considers the volume of trade and FDI. It’s more holistic, and considers factors like internet servers (rather than just users, impacted by population levels) and is generally more complex, making it more liked. However, there are 64 participating nations, and there are only 12 indicators. Both have weightings which favour some factors, like Europe’s need for lots of trade, so both indexes are valid though flawed. 

Switched off nations rank low on both above indexes, and retain few connections to the core global economy. There are multiple means through which this can result from.  Physically and environmentally, there could be a distance from markets, wilderness and harsh conditions, factors affecting hindered agriculture (weather or soil quality) and a lack of or poor quality resources. Political issues impacting this could be: corruption, terrorism, an uncomitted government, civil or tribal tension, lingering colonialism, disadvanged/excluded from trade blocs. Economic reasons for being switched off could include high levels of government debt, weak education levels, poor workforce skills, poor transport/telecommunications/infrastructure, and dependence on certain industries.  

Korea is famously a switched off country. After the Korean War, the nation split in two, with the North coming under Soviet-sponsered communist control, which followed diplomatic and economic ‘self-reliance’ to stop outside influence. After a lot of bad economic management and resource allocation, the nation is almost reliant on China’s aid for food. The war isn’t truly over, just in armistice, with the demilitarised border in ceasefire. The ‘switched off’ nature is mainly attributed to politics. 

Sub-Saharan Africa also faces issues. Despite the increasing FDI and mobile phone (not internet!) use, there are political, economic and physical factors leading to this area being ‘switched off’, mainly as a result of colonisation. 

Zambia is one of the nations: eighth largest producer of copper but landlocked, needs  good political relationships with nations with ports, and the value of copper dropping. However, there are glimmers of hope: the TanZan railway, derelict in 2000, has been recovered due to Chinese investment. There have been increased ‘copper towns’ and reduced debt (159% of GDP in 2014, 31% currently).

 Tanzania is another Sub-Saharan nation, with fertile volcanic soils, but 80% employed in agriculture, especially cotton, so if prices fall, the nation struggles to even import the most basic things. Due to all the uncertainty, the nation is struggling to get ‘switched on’. Until 2000 they were in heavy debt, where the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries Initiative cancelled many, so they can focus on the growing cotton industry. The nation is now establishing links with China, India, Japan and the UAE.