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Bone Cancer

There are various types of primary bone cancers depending on the type of cells of their origin. The most common primary bone cancer is osteosarcoma (osteogenic sarcoma) that arises from the osteoid tissue and usually affects long bones of the arms & the legs. The second most common primary bone cancer is chondrosarcoma that arises from the cartilage. The third most common primary bone cancer is Ewing’s sarcoma that arises from the immature nerve tissue in the bones. Other primary cancers of the bone include fibrosarcoma that arises from connective tissue within the bone marrow cavity, malignant giant cell tumour that arises from the connective tissue of the bone marrow and chordoma that arises from cellular remnants of the foetal spinal cord. The exact cause of primary bone cancer is not fully understood but the researchers believe that it is caused by over-activity of the bone cells. Studies have shown that there is a much higher risk of bone cancer in those persons, who had taken radiotherapy or chemotherapy with alkylating anticancer drugs during their childhood.

Full Article:  Bone Cancer

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Skin Cancer

Common types of skin cancer include basal cell carcinoma arising from the basal cells; squamous cell carcinoma arising from the squamous cells; and malignant melanoma arising from the melanocytes. Kaposi's sarcoma and mycosis fungoides are other cancers of the skin. Exposure to ultraviolet radiation is considered as the most common cause of skin cancer. Other causative factors of skin cancer include exposure to radium, coal tar and arsenic compounds. The people with fair complexion and those living near equator have the highest risk of skin cancer. Incidence of skin cancer is much lower in black races due to a higher content of melanin in their skin.

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Bone Cancer

There are various types of primary bone cancers depending on the type of cells of their origin. The most common primary bone cancer is osteosarcoma (osteogenic sarcoma) that arises from the osteoid tissue and usually affects long bones of the arms & the legs. The second most common primary bone cancer is chondrosarcoma that arises from the cartilage. The third most common primary bone cancer is Ewing's sarcoma that arises from the immature nerve tissue in the bones. Other primary cancers of the bone include fibrosarcoma that arises from connective tissue within the bone marrow cavity, malignant giant cell tumour that arises from the connective tissue of the bone marrow and chordoma that arises from cellular remnants of the foetal spinal cord. The exact cause of primary bone cancer is not fully understood but the researchers believe that it is caused by over-activity of the bone cells. Studies have shown that there is a much higher risk of bone cancer in those persons, who had taken radiotherapy or chemotherapy with alkylating anticancer drugs during their childhood.

Full Article:  Bone Cancer

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Conventional Treatment of Cancer

The conventional approach to treat cancer is to cut it (surgery), burn it (radiotherapy) and poison it (chemotherapy). When a cancer is localised, it can be removed by surgery. But in most of the cases, it is practically impossible to detect cancer in such an early stage. The cancerous cells do get killed by chemotherapy and radiotherapy, but both of these therapies also destroy some vital cells in the body, leading to serious side effects. It is extremely difficult for scientists to prepare a drug that could kill the cancerous cells selectively without harming normal cells of the body. Another major drawback of chemotherapy is drug resistance. Moreover, recurrences are commonly seen after chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Other conventional techniques used in the treatment of cancer including bone marrow transplantation, peripheral stem cell transplantation, hormone therapy, photodynamic therapy, immunotherapy and gene therapy have their own limitations.

Radiotherapy

In radiotherapy, therapeutic doses of radiation (which are many times higher than the diagnostic doses) are used to kill the cancerous cells. A single large dose of radiation may kill the cancerous cells, but it will also burn the adjoining healthy tissues. Therefore, the required doses of radiation are usually fractionated into smaller doses, however, damage to the healthy tissue still occurs. Radiotherapy has proved more effective in the treatment of tumours of the food pipe, testes and the brain. The history of radiotherapy goes back to 1895 when Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen discovered X-rays for diagnostic purposes. Two years later, in 1897, it was disclosed in a meeting of the Vienna Medical Society that a mole has disappeared after repeated exposures to the X-rays. Since then, X-rays have been used to treat various tumours. Later, during the 1950s, an artificial radioactive isotope of cobalt was developed that delivered radiation deeper into the body as compared to the X-rays. These were named gamma rays, which were similar to X-rays except that these have a shorter wavelength. The X-rays and gamma rays are almost outdated now and their place has been taken up by the high-energy electron beam generated by linear accelerators. In the past, the doses of radiation were used to be measured in rad (radiation absorbed dose), but this unit has recently been replaced by gray (1 Gy = 100 rad). Radiotherapy can be given internally or externally.

Internal Radiotherapy

In internal radiotherapy, the radioactive implant (a sealed container of radioactive substance) is placed directly into the tumour or in one of the body cavities. The radioactive implant is usually kept in the body for 1 to 7 days but sometimes it is implanted permanently. In the afterloading technique of internal radiotherapy, an empty container is first placed in the body and then the radioactive substance is inserted into it. In some patients, the radioactive substance (in the liquid form) is administered orally or by injection. There are three different techniques for giving internal radiotherapy. These are intracavitary radiotherapy, interstitial radiotherapy and brachytherapy.

Full Article:  Conventional Treatment of Cancer

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Chronic Lymphocytic Leukaemia (CLL)

Chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (CLL) is also known as chronic lymphatic leukaemia, chronic lymphogenous leukaemia and chronic lymphoid leukaemia. It is the most common type of leukaemias and usually occurs above the age of 60 years. Its incidence is twofold higher in men as compared to women. Chronic lymphocytic leukaemia is a clonal malignancy of the B-lymphocytes, in which a large number of white blood cells are produced in the bone marrow, lymph system and the haematopoietic system. There is an accumulation of mature long-lived small lymphocytes, which are immuno-incompetent. Chronic lymphocytic leukaemia usually runs an indolent course, but occasionally, the disease progresses rapidly. The common symptoms of chronic lymphocytic leukaemia include fatigue, vague aches, anaemia, fever, loss of appetite, loss of weight and night sweats. There may be cervical, axillary and inguinal lymphadenopathy. Lymphocytic infiltration in the liver and the spleen may lead to hepatomegaly and splenomegaly. Recurrent infections are a common feature due to immunosuppression.

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Genesis of Cancer

Cancer is not a single disease rather it is a general term used to describe various malignant tumours that affect all forms of higher organisms including plants and animals. About 270 types of cancer are known to affect human beings. Every living cell in the human body has the potential to become cancerous (malignant), after which it proliferates indiscriminately usually forming a mass, known as neoplasm or tumour. Cancer can be defined as an abnormal, excessive, uncoordinated, autonomous and purposeless clonal proliferation of cells in any tissue or organ of the body. Cancerous cells have a tendency to spread and grow (metastasise) in other parts of the body. Cancer preys on the host and continues to grow indefinitely, competing with normal tissues for nutrition. Ultimately, a stage comes when the cancerous cells engulf almost all the available nutrients, thus starving the host to death.

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What is Chemotherapy?

Chemotherapy (often abbreviated to chemo and sometimes CTX or CTx) is a type of cancer treatment that uses one or more chemotherapeutic agents (anti-cancer drugs) to destroy rapidly growing cells in the body, such as cancer cells which grow and divide faster than other cells in the body. Chemotherapy is primarily used to lower the total number of cancerous cells in the body and shrink tumour size. In the case of advanced stage cancers, chemotherapy may help to relieve pain.

History of Chemotherapy

The use of chemotherapy to treat cancer began at the start of the 20th century. Several attempts were made to narrow down the chemicals that might affect the disease by developing various methods to screen chemicals using transplantable tumours in the rodents. Chemotherapy was first coined as a word in the early 1900s by a German chemist Paul Ehrlich, who defined it as the use of chemicals to treat disease[1].

During World War I, mustard gas was used as a chemical warfare agent. It was discovered that the gas was a potent suppressor of haematopoiesis (blood production). Similarly, nitrogen mustards were studied during World War II after the effects of an accidental spill of sulphur mustards on troops from a bombed ship in Bari Harbour, Italy[2]. This incident led to an observation that both bone marrow and lymph nodes were marked depleted in those who were exposed to mustard gas. It was believed that an agent which could damage the rapidly growing white blood cells might have a similar effect on cancer. The first chemotherapeutic drug developed from this research was Mustine (chlormethine, sold under the brand name of Mustargen). Sidney Farber collaborated with Lederle Laboratories to develop a series of folic acid analogues. These compounds included aminopterin and amethopterin, now known as methotrexate. Farber tested these antifolate compounds in children with leukaemia and in 1948, the results of these tests showed unquestionable remissions[3]. Farber is regarded as the father of modern chemotherapy.

In the mid-1950s, Charles Heidelberger and his colleagues developed a drug that was aimed at non-hematologic cancers[4]. Heidelberger “targeted” a biochemical pathway by attaching a fluorine atom to the 5-position of the uracil pyrimidine base which resulted in the synthesis of fluoropyrimidine 5-fluorouracil (5-FU). This agent was found to have broad-spectrum activity against a range of solid tumours and to this day, remains the cornerstone for the treatment of colorectal cancer. This agent represents the very first example of targeted therapy which has now become a focus in current cancer drug development, although the target, in this case, was a biochemical pathway instead of a molecular pathway.

Methods

There are a number of methods in the administration of chemotherapeutic drugs used today. Chemotherapy may be given with a curative intent or it may aim to prolong life or as palliative care. Induction chemotherapy is considered as the first line of treatment of cancer with a chemotherapeutic drug. It is usually given with curative intent.

Combined modality chemotherapy is the use of drugs along with other cancer treatments like surgery, radiation therapy, ayurvedic treatment (such as Cancertame), homeotherapy treatment etc

Combination chemotherapy involves treating a person with a number of different drugs simultaneously. This is one of the most used methods in chemotherapy as it minimises the chances of resistance developing to any one agent. For the treatment of bladder cancer, for example, a combination of Methotrexate, vincristine, doxorubicin, cisplatin is used

Neoadjuvant chemotherapy is given with an aim to shrink the tumour prior to principal treatment such as radiotherapy or surgery[5]

Adjuvant chemotherapy is given after principal treatment. It is an effective treatment if the cancerous cells have spread to other parts of the body

Types of Chemotherapy

1) Alkylating agents are the oldest group of chemotherapeutics in use today. There are several types of alkylating agents used in chemotherapy treatments such as:

Mustard gas derivatives -  Mechlorethamine, Cyclophosphamide, Chlorambucil, Melphalan, and Ifosfamide

Ethylenimines - Thiotepa and Hexamethylmelamine

Alkyl sulfonates - Busulfan

Hydrazines and Triazines - Altretamine, Procarbazine, Dacarbazine and Temozolomide

Nitrosoureas - Carmustine, Lomustine and Streptozocin.  Nitrosoureas are unique because, unlike most types of chemo treatments, they can cross the blood-brain barrier.  They can be useful in treating brain tumours.

Metal salts - Carboplatin, Cisplatin, and Oxaliplatin

2) Antimetabolites are a group of molecules which impede DNA and RNA synthesis such as:

Folic acid antagonist - Methotrexate

Pyrimidine antagonist - 5-Fluorouracil, Floxuridine, Cytarabine, Capecitabine, and Gemcitabine

Purine antagonist - 6-Mercaptopurine and 6-Thioguanine

Adenosine deaminase inhibitor - Cladribine, Fludarabine, Nelarabine and Pentostatin

3) Topoisomerase Inhibitors are drugs which interfere with the action of topoisomerase enzymes which control the manipulation of the structure of DNA necessary for replication

Topoisomerase I inhibitors - Irinotecan, topotecan

Topoisomerase II inhibitors - Amsacrine, etoposide, etoposide phosphate, teniposide

4) Plant Alkaloids are chemotherapy treatments derived from certain types of plants.

Vinca alkaloids (made from Catharanthus roseus) - Vincristine, Vinblastine and Vinorelbine

Taxanes (made from Taxus) - Paclitaxel and Docetaxel

Podophyllotoxins (derived from may apple plant) - Etoposide and Tenisopide

Camptothecin analogues (derived from camptothecin acuminate) - Irinotecan and Topotecan

Side Effects of Chemotherapy

Chemotherapy can produce adverse side effects that range from mild to severe, depending on the type and extent of the treatment. Some people may experience adverse to a few side effects which vary from person to person and the stage of cancer. Toxicities related to chemotherapy can occur acutely within hours to days, or chronically, after weeks to years[6].

Some common side effects of chemotherapy are:

Nausea and vomiting

Hair loss

Skin changes

Nail changes

Fatigue

Hearing impairment

Infections

Bleeding problems

Anaemia

Loss of appetite

Bowel problems

Cognitive and mental health problems

Luckily, due to advancement in medical research, ayurvedic drugs such as Cancertame when taken along with chemotherapy can minimize such side effects providing for a better integrative treatment for cancer patients.

New Treatment Management Protocols

The practice of utilizing chemotherapy for the treatment of cancer began in the 1940s and still remains a fundamental treatment for various types of cancer. Given the poisonous origin of chemotherapy, patients receiving these treatments experienced some severe side effects which create a demand for new treatment management protocols. Research over the past 30 years has led to the discovery of medications aimed at reducing the side effects of chemotherapy.

Targeted therapies became more popular and are one of the major focus of current cancer drug development. Although the very first use of this method was done back in the 1950s, this therapy aims for the specific targets that are specific to cancer cells and do not occur or are rare in healthy cells

Electrochemotherapy is a combined treatment in which an injection of a chemotherapeutic drug is followed by the application of high-voltage electric pulses to the tumour. This treatment enables the chemotherapeutic drugs, which cannot or hardly go through the membrane of cells, to enter cancer cells

Hyperthermia therapy is a heat treatment of cancer that can be very effective if combined with chemotherapy. The heat can be applied locally to the tumour site, which will dilate blood vessels to the tumour, allowing the more chemotherapeutic medication to enter the tumour. The tumour cell membrane will become more porous which will further allow more of the chemotherapeutic medicine to enter the tumour cell

Other medications such as Cancertame can also help to reduce the side effects of chemotherapy by enhancing the immune system of the body, and also helps to fight the growth of cancer by inducing apoptosis (cell death) and inhibiting tumour angiogenesis.

References

DeVita VT, Chu E (November 2008). "A history of cancer chemotherapy". Cancer Research. 68 (21): 8643–53

Krumbhaar EB, Krumbhaar HD. The blood and bone marrow in yellow gas (mustard gas) poisoning. Changes produced in bone marrow in fatal cases. J Med Res 1919; 40: 497–508

Farber S, Diamond LK, Mercer RD, et al. Temporary remissions in acute leukaemia in children produced by folic acid antagonist, 4-aminopteroyl-glutamic acid (aminopterin). N Eng. J Med 1948; 238: 787–93

Heidelberger C, Chaudhuari NK, Danenberg P, et al. Fluorinated pyrimidines. A new class of tumor inhibitory compounds. Nature 1957; 179: 663–6

Rachel Airley (2009). Cancer chemotherapy. Wiley-Blackwell

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Cancertame

Cancertame helps to fight all types of Cancer and reduces side effects of Chemotherapy and Radiotherapy.

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