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1. The Life and Death of Joan of Arc: A Brief History

During the plight of The Hundred Years War, Joan of Arc (b. 1412) was raised by her family, on their farm in the isolated village of Domrémy (Wilken, 2009). The war, which entered its third phase when Joan was nearly a year old, saw both King Henry V of England’s invasion into France, and the ending of the Great Schism of the Roman Catholic church. Although there is not much known about Joan before February 1428, it is assured that during her undocumented lifetime, political tensions were high, and the people of France were uncertain of their future (Neillands, 2001). 

At the age of 13, Joan claims she received her first vision from God. These visions, which included images of Saint Michael, Saint Catherine, and Saint Margaret, communicated a mission for her. Joan was shown herself leading the charge to remove the English from occupied France, and accompanying Charles VII (the French heir) to his inauguration in Riems, France (Wilken, 2009). These visions, which would come to Joan in both auditory and visual formats, would often last for several minutes and continue throughout her life (Nicastro & Picard, 2016). 

In 1428, at the age of 16, Joan left her home with a relative, and traveled to her local military base. Here she encounters Robert de Baudricourt, and informs him of her visions from God. She requested to speak to Charles VII, so she can tell him of her visions and reclaim France. Unsurprisingly, Joan is mocked, turned away, and told to return home (Wilken, 2009). However she persisted, and after a few months of telling prophecies that came true to the commander, and rumours of her loudly scolding him about his lack of faith, she was taken to see Charles VII in Chinon (Wilken, 2009)(TheUntoldPast, 2021).

Charles VII agrees to meet with Joan on March 7th, 1429 (or somewhere around that date, as it is still unconfirmed). He subjected Joan to a a set of testing pertaining to her visions, and after passing his tests, he believed her (Wilken, 2009). He agrees to help Joan with her mission, and allows Joan to stay there while they continue to strategize. After a few months, Joan was allowed by Charles VII to enter the battlefield (Neillands, 2001). 

At the time, the heart of the battle was being had in Orléans (Southey, 1806). Although they had been fighting there for six months, and were on the verge of defeat, Joan’s arrival changed the course of the war. Nine days following her arrival, France broke through and retook the city. By July of that year, Joan had helped the French army take back Troyes, Paris, and Reims. And in less than three months since her arrival, Charles VII had been crowned king (Southey, 1806)(Wilken, 2009). 

Although France was winning and regaining territory, Joan was captured and given over to the English in 1430. She was publicly called a heretic by English priests, and was put on trial for her crimes against God (Wilken, 2009). This resulted in twelve charges being brought against her. The charges, which were put into three distinct categories, were on the basis of diabolical influence, blasphemy/irreverence, and unorthodox presentation of religious devotion. There was a large focus on her desire to present masculinely, and refusal of women’s dress. They also focused heavily on Joan’s interpretation of the saints who had spoken to her, and believed that she did not have sufficient evidence to support her mysticism (Dolgin, 1951).

 It was clear that the capture and trial of Joan was not only because of England's belief of her being a heretic, but also because they saw her as a threat. The purpose for her trial was not only to kill the French revolutionist, but to also mitigate her followers. The trial was meant to publicly embarrass her, discredit her character and message. However, because Joan was able to out-speak the lawyer who represented the Church, the latter half of the trial was held in private. England was once again concerned with her ability to persuade and captivate the people around her, so they ultimately sentenced her to death (Dolgin, 1951).

Joan was tried for her crimes, and burned at the stake on the 30th of May in 1431, at the age of nineteen. Clutching a wooden cross, Joan was burned surrounded by 10,000 English soldiers. Accounts of her death state that she continued to say “Jesus, Jesus, Jesus” as she burned (Wilken, 2009). Although she died upon the initial burning, some accounts claimed that they were unable to burn some of her organs (most accounts claim that they were unable to burn her heart). This resulted in the English burning her body twice more, to ensure that her body was reduced solely to ash, which would be spread in the local river (Dolgin, 1951).

2. The Legacy of Joan After Death and Before Canonization: A Brief Exploration into Failure

There was some success in the smear campaign against Joan of Arc, as for-telling by the length between her death and her canonization.  Although she died in 1431, Joan was not beatified until 1909, and wasn’t canonized until 1920. Possible reasons for the length between her death and canonization is three-fold, with the first two specifically related to her public perception following death.  

The first reason was due to her crimes sentenced by the English church. Although she was later acquitted of these charges, and given the title of Martyr in 1456, there was concern about her canonization by the Vatican. This is evident in the rumours, that even though it had been nearly 500 years, Pope Benedict XV asked Queen Victoria (the sitting monarch of England during that time) permission to beatify her (Dolgin, 1951). 

A second possible reason is due to the misogyny in the Catholic church, and Joan’s gender expression. Although she was considered a holy transvestite, the title was still accompanied with shame. There were several rumours of her lack of purity, and lots of confusion and disdain from the Catholic church because of her refusal to wear feminine dress. As well, regardless of gender expression, by being born female, Joan was less likely to become a saint due to the Churches reluctance to pursue the causes of female saints (Dolgin, 1951). 

The final possible reason was rooted in history. Following the One Hundred Year war, Joan was officially recognized as a martyr. Previously, all martyrs of the faith were declared saints. However, in 1243, under Pope Gregory XI, the canonization process became centralized. Though, with the Great Schism happening around the time of Joan’s death, there is a possibility  that local French Churches were uncertain about how saints were going forward (Smith, 1970). So although not an official saint in Rome, Joan was often considered a saint by the French, and several people observed her feast day before her canonization (Dolgin, 1951). 

So up to this point, Joan is not officially seen as a saint, and there is not much of a push to make her one. Several people in her community considered her a saint, and celebrated her feast day accordingly. Following her being declared innocent, Joan’s family was never heard from again (Wilken, 2009). During the French Revolution, Joan became unpopular in France, and several of her relics were destroyed. Meaning that until the mid 1800s, Joan's cult was unsuccessful (Sexsmith, 1990). 

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Second Class Relics, and First Class Fakes:

(Wallion, 1898)

(Trostle, Unknown)

This is an image of the Holy Water font that was used by Joan (top), and a baptismal font used for her baptisim (bottom).

(Frolick, 1984)

Crucifix venerated by Joan.

(Janvier, 1984)

Stepping stone that Joan used to mount her horse, as she left Poitiers.

(Clarke, 2000)

This is an image of what was once believed to be first class relics of Joan of Arc. The “relic” was found in 1867, and found to be fake in the early 2000s. (Fouchet, 2007)

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2. The Legacy of Joan After Death and Before Canonization: A Brief Exploration into Failure

There was some success in the smear campaign against Joan of Arc, as for-telling by the length between her death and her canonization.  Although she died in 1431, Joan was not beatified until 1909, and wasn’t canonized until 1920. Possible reasons for the length between her death and canonization is three-fold, with the first two specifically related to her public perception following death.  

The first reason was due to her crimes sentenced by the English church. Although she was later acquitted of these charges, and given the title of Martyr in 1456, there was concern about her canonization by the Vatican. This is evident in the rumours, that even though it had been nearly 500 years, Pope Benedict XV asked Queen Victoria (the sitting monarch of England during that time) permission to beatify her (Dolgin, 1951). 

A second possible reason is due to the misogyny in the Catholic church, and Joan’s gender expression. Although she was considered a holy transvestite, the title was still accompanied with shame. There were several rumours of her lack of purity, and lots of confusion and disdain from the Catholic church because of her refusal to wear feminine dress. As well, regardless of gender expression, by being born female, Joan was less likely to become a saint due to the Churches reluctance to pursue the causes of female saints (Dolgin, 1951). 

The final possible reason was rooted in history. Following the One Hundred Year war, Joan was officially recognized as a martyr. Previously, all martyrs of the faith were declared saints. However, in 1243, under Pope Gregory XI, the canonization process became centralized. Though, with the Great Schism happening around the time of Joan’s death, there is a possibility  that local French Churches were uncertain about how saints were going forward (Smith, 1970). So although not an official saint in Rome, Joan was often considered a saint by the French, and several people observed her feast day before her canonization (Dolgin, 1951). 

So up to this point, Joan is not officially seen as a saint, and there is not much of a push to make her one. Several people in her community considered her a saint, and celebrated her feast day accordingly. Following her being declared innocent, Joan’s family was never heard from again (Wilken, 2009). During the French Revolution, Joan became unpopular in France, and several of her relics were destroyed. Meaning that until the mid 1800s, Joan's cult was unsuccessful (Sexsmith, 1990). 

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Joan of Arc’s Canonization:

Images depicting Pope Benedict XV being carried down from the Sistine Chapal (left) and Pope Benedict reading the act of canonization (right). ([Joan of Arcs formal canonization], 1920)

Pictures of Mass (top left), decorations inside the Cathedral (top right), the audience (bottom left), and Benediction (bottom right). ([Joan of Arc formal canonization], 1920)

Pictures of people who attended Joan of Arc’s canonization. ([Joan of Arc formal canonization], 1920)

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3. The Cult of Joan: Mystic, Saint, and Success

Before we look at the creation of Joan’s cult, her canonization and model for the church, it is important to understand what it all means. How does someone become a saint? What is a cult? How does Joan’s model fit into these identities? Although the answers to these are rooted in thousands of years of history, we will explore all of them specifically when looking at Joan. By the end we will be able to answer what about Joan makes her a saint, and why her cult is undeniably successful. 

How someone becomes a saint has changed throughout history (something briefly mentioned in the earlier post), the current understanding is that a possible saint has to go through the formal canonization process. Although there are several political and legal aspects of the canonization process, there are only a few things a saint needs to do. They must show heroic virtue during their life, die (although there have been some saints classified as saints before their death, but extraordinarily rare), and perform miracles posthumously. However, there are also specific types of saints (i.e. mystic, martyr, confessor, etc.) that can change the requirements within the canonization process (Dolgin, 1951). 

As previously mentioned, Joan was officially declared a martyr in 1456. Although Joan was also seen as a mystic, her cause pushed for her title of martyr for canonization. This was possibly a strategic move on behalf of the cause, as mystics, especially female mystics, are much less likely to be beatified or canonized (Bennett, 2011). As well, by dying for the cause, a martyr already satisfies the requirement of being an exemplar of heroic virtue.

In regards to Joan’s miracles, because of her martyrdom she was technically exempt from having to perform her first three. However, Joan performed five, which was identified by the local bishop, Félix Dupanloup, who led her cause. She healed three nuns of cancer during her beatification process, and two other women of ailments after she was beatified (Dolgin, 1951). After being beatified, this ensured Joan’s place as a saint. 

Her petition was officially sent in 1869, and her canonization process concluded 51 years later. Although initially rejected in 1902,  Pope Benedict XV made Joan a saint on May 16th of 1920 in St. Peter’s Basilica. There were nearly 60,000 people in attendance in Rome, and hundreds of thousands more globally (Dolgin, 1951).  

Since Joan officially became a saint, she has also begun to have a successful cult. Although the term cult may bring upon the idea of a white man, with long hair, who encourages you to drink kool-aid; the term was originally coined to describe the following around a Catholic saint. The cult of saints is a form of religious expression that allows for individuals within the cult to find another way to have a relationship with God. Although within the Catholic Church worship of anything besides God is blasphemous, those in the cult often find themselves venerating a saint instead (Brown, 1981). Veneration, although close to worship, is primarily focused on the respect and devotion an individual has for another, instead of true worship, which can only be expressed to God. 

There are two forms of veneration within the cult of saints. From the beginning, the cult expressed worship by traveling to the body of a saint, in order to pray. With the idea that the saintly body was a place which would amplify your prayers to heaven. This model demonstrates the two ways of veneration, direct and indirect (Brown, 1981). Direct veneration involves the pilgrimage, where an individual travels long distances to be with the body of a saint, and see where the saint lived. Although inherently similar, Indirect involves praying to imagery, secondary relics, tokens, or anything connected to that saint, in addition to their bones. Although to this day, pilgrimage is still a practice, the primary type of veneration is through indirect worship, largely impart due to the international reach of the Church. 

Though Joan did become a saint, what would have happened to her cult if the Church had fully stopped her case in 1902? Or if there was not enough funding to pursue her cause, and her case was never presented? These are important things to explore when discussing the success of a cult. The first mark of a successful cult is the formal canonization. It’s understood that the Pope does not pick saints, but instead it is God guiding the Pope (Dolgin, 1951). Meaning that regardless of what happened historically, Joan was always meant to be venerated as a saint. If her cause failed, or had never been presented, her cult would’ve been unsuccessful. 

However, a cult’s success is not just based on canonization. The cult of saints has a purpose, with its members being able to use the saint to have a closer relationship with God. Joan, who does not have any remaining tangible body pieces left on Earth, is unfortunately not able to participate in direct veneration (Brown, 1981). Though people can pilgrimage to the site of her life and engage in secondary relics. Not having her body does not result in her cult’s failure, but it’s still an important aspect of her cult, which introduces a barrier for veneration. However, secondary relics are just as sufficient in creating an Earth to Heaven connection for those who participate in the cult of saints (Brown, 1981), ensuring that the quality of the cult is not diminished due to the lack of first class relics. 

Although there are some barriers for direct veneration, Joan has large success in indirect veneration within her cult. There are over 500 paintings that depict Joan of Arc (though that number is likely three times that size), hundreds of plays and films depicting her, several different medallions depicting Joan, and thousands (if not more) prayer cards containing her face. She has been considered one of the most depicted saints in history, and has had tremendous global reach (Dolgin, 1951). This veneration indicates the usefulness of her cult, and the continued heroic virtue she models. 

Finally, success can also be marked by the example that a saint sets. Not only is Joan a saint, but she is also one of the patron saints of France (Dolgin, 1951). By being a patron saint, she sets an example for the people of France, and is often a saint that they gravitate towards venerating (Wilken, 2009). Although no longer on the calendar, the people of France continue to celebrate her feast day (May 30th), and display images of Joan throughout their country.

In conclusion, although the process for Joan to become a saint was not easy, nor quick, it was undeniable that she is one. She exemplified a model during her lifetime who showed heroic virtue, and upon her death, performed miracles. Her model would go on to inspire others, and bring them closer to the Church, and closer to God. Her several depictions would help to show how successful her cult was, how vast her veneration extends, and how her model is cherished by her followers. 

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Paintings to Prayer Cards: Veneration of Joan of Arc

Both of these paintings depict Joan experiencing visions, the one on the right is her in her families garden (Bastien-Lepage, 1879) and on the left is her being visited by St. Michael (Thirion, 1876).

Not only are these images similar in depiction, but also similar due to the timing of their creation. Following the application for Joan’s cause being submitted to the Vatican (1869), there was a resurgence of art being created of Joan!

Both of these image depict Joan in the same power stance, the one on the left is of Joan attending the coronation of Charles VII (Ingres, 1854) and Joan standing outside of Notre Dame Catherdral in Chartres France (Lynch, 1903).

Although Joan is commonly depicted receiving visions or in uniform, she is also painted during her time imprisoned by the English, as depicted here. (Delaroche, 1824)

This is a prayer card that depicts Joan, and are quite similar to other prayer cards that show Joan.

This is one of the medallions that are for sale that depicts Joan, though there hundreds of different ones available.

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4. The Patron Saint of 2SLGBTQ+: Conflict, Understanding, and Sin

Trying to navigate the Catholic Church, the 2SLGBTQ+ community, and saints is a difficult task. Although some saints have been connected with the 2SLGBTQ+ community, there is no patron saint for queer people. As of right now, the Catholic church stands that homosexuality should not be involved in Christian society (Gutterman, 2011), and even with the more tolerant views from Pope Francis, homosexuality is still classified as a sin.

However, the opinions of the Church does not stop queer people from engaging within it. Some queer people are Catholics, and some desire to model their lives after Christ. Though, for those that are in the Church and queer, they can often feel at times isolated and removed from the Church. So I pose the question, should there be a Catholic saint for queer people, and would this be successful?

For the purpose of this question, I will be using Joan as the model for a possible queer Catholic saint. As previously mentioned, Joan is already a saint with a very successful following. However, she has also been central in several conversations about being transgender and possibly queer. Following the publishing of Saint Joan or Arc by Vita Sackville-West, several plays depicting Joan as queer, and several books examining the possibility of her queerness, Joan is now connected with queer people within and outside of the Church (Dolgin, 1951). 

In the United States, a Catholic Church with Joan’s namesake often participates in pride events. There is the undeniable connection that queer people impose on Joan within that local community, as they connect with her and depict her as a queer person (Vezner, 2008). Naturally, it can be assumed that individuals pray to Joan about their queer experiences currently, which means that making her a patron saint for queer people would not be unfounded.

Though, it is important to address why there is not a queer saint. As previously mentioned, it is considered a sin by the Catholic Church. They do not wish to give space, or a platform for individuals who are queer. By making a saint who is queer, they are not expressing a model that they wish to put forward (Gutterman, 2011). As well, in regards to sexuality when modelling Christ, there is no answer in the bible for Jesus’s sexuality. Though he may not have been straight himself, it is not addressed and therefore cannot be an exemplar of Jesus.

However, there is still a purpose to exploring a queer saint. During the colonization of what will become Canada, the Catholic Church used St. Kateri Tekakwitha as an exemplar for other Indigenous people (Shoemaker, 1995). By sharing her story, and showing her connection with Christ, they were able to spread Catholicism throughout Canada. Perhaps, by designating a queer saint, or platforming a queer Catholic, this would have a similar effect.

In conclusion, although Joan would possibly make the perfect queer saint, it will likely never happen. The Catholic Church does not wish to engage with the lives of the 2SLGBTQ+ community in a way that celebrates or accepts their existence. Although it may be beneficial in the further spreading of Catholicism, it is not something the Church would do. The inclusion of a queer saint, although beneficial for those who are queer within the Church, would not benefit the universal church and its mission. 

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References:

References: 

Bastien-Lepage, J. (1879). Joan of Arc [Painting]. Met Museum. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/435621

Bennett, O. (2011). Strategic canonisation: sanctity, popular culture and the Catholic Church. International Journal of Cultural Policy:CP, 17(4), 438–455. https://doi.org/10.1080/10286632.2010.544726

Brown, P. (1981). The cult of the saints: Its rise and function in Latin Christianity. University of Chicago Press.

Clarke, E. (2000). Stepping stone [Picture]. St. Joan Center. http://www.stjoan-center.com/2012-frohlick/c_ap04_relics/apen04.htm

Delaroche, P (1824). Joan of Arc is interrogated by the Cardinal [Painting]. ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/joan-of-arc-picture-gallery-4122932

Dolgin, E., E. (1951). Modernizing Joan of Arc: Conceptions, costumes, canonization. McFarland & Company.

Fouchet, J. (2007). Fake relic of Joan of Arc. [Picture]. nature. https://www.nature.com/articles/446593a

Frohlick, J. (1984). Image of holy water font [Picture]. St. Joan Center. http://www.stjoan-center.com/2012-frohlick/c_ap04_relics/apen04.htm

Frohlick, J. (1984). Image of baptismal font [Picture]. St. Joan Center. http://www.stjoan-center.com/2012-frohlick/c_ap04_relics/apen04.htm

Gutterman, T. (2011). Hyperlinking LGBTQ History: Teaching with OutHistory.org. Transformations (Wayne, N.J.), 22(1), 114–118.

Ingres, J., A., D. (1854). Joan at the coronation of Charles VII [Painting]. ThoughCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/joan-of-arc-picture-gallery-4122932

Janvier, K. (1984). Crucifix [Picture]. St. Joan Center. http://www.stjoan-center.com/2012-frohlick/c_ap04_relics/apen04.htm

Lynch, A. (1903). Jeanne d’Arc [Painting]. Wikimedia Commons https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Lynch_-_Jeanne_d%27Arc.jpg

Neillands, R. (2001). Hundred years war. Taylor & Francis Group.

Nicastro, N., & Picard, F. (2016). Joan of Arc: Sanctity, witchcraft or epilepsy? Epilepsy & Behavior, 57(2), 247–250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2015.12.043

[Joan of Arc pendant]. (n.d.). https://catholicsaintmedals.com/joan-of-arc-marines-medal-89707/

[Joan of Arc’s formal canonization]. (1920). https://www.newliturgicalmovement.org/2017/05/photos-of-canonization-of-st-joan-of-arc.html#.Ylc4eC3b1p8

[Joan of Arc’s prayer card]. (n.d.). https://www.catholicfaithstore.com/Store/Products/SKU/d61e/Novena-To-St-Joan-Arc-Laminated-Prayer-Cards-25-Pack.html

Sexsmith, G. (1990). Radicalization of Joan of Arc before and after the French Revolution. RACAR, 17(2), 125.

Shoemaker, N. (1995). Negotiators of change: Historical perspectives on Native American women. NY: Routledge. 

Smith, G. (1970). The great schism, 1378. Hamilton.

Southey, R. (1806). Joan of Arc. Longman, Hurst, Rees, and Orme.

TheUntoldPast. (2021, March 14). The horrific execution of Joan of Arc [Video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2FjRvZhZpD4

Thirion, E. (1876). Jeanne d’Arc and the archangel Micheal [Painting]. ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/joan-of-arc-picture-gallery-4122932

Trostle, D. Drawing of Joan’s helmet [Drawing]. St. Joan Center. http://www.stjoan-center.com/2012-frohlick/c_ap04_relics/apen04.htm

Vezner, T. (2008, November 14). Archdiocese halt mch annual gay pride prayers. TwinCities Pioneer Press. https://www.twincities.com/2008/06/23/archdiocese-halts-churchs-annual-gay-pride-prayers/

Wallion, H. (1898). Letter to the people of Riom [Picture]. St. Joan Center. http://www.stjoan-center.com/2012-frohlick/c_ap04_relics/apen04.htm

Wilken, E. (2009). The Virgin Warrior: The Life and Death of Joan of Arc. Yale University Press.