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Jeroboam and the Samaritans

Jeroboam's Rebellion marks a significant turning point in the history of Israel, leading to the division of the united monarchy into the northern kingdom of Israel and the southern kingdom of Judah. Jeroboam, the son of Nebat, was an Ephraimite from Zeredah and a servant of King Solomon. He was a capable and industrious man, and Solomon appointed him over the entire labour force of the house of Joseph (1 Kings 11:28).

The seeds of rebellion were sown when the prophet Ahijah the Shilonite met Jeroboam on the road. Ahijah took hold of the new cloak he was wearing, tore it into twelve pieces, and said to Jeroboam, "Take ten pieces for yourself, for this is what the LORD, the God of Israel, says: ‘Behold, I will tear the kingdom out of the hand of Solomon and give you ten tribes’" (1 Kings 11:31). This prophetic act symbolized the impending division of the kingdom due to Solomon's idolatry and disobedience. Jeroboam fled to Egypt after Solomon tried to kill him and lived under the protection of the pharaoh Shishak, probably Shoshenq I.

After Solomon's death in 931 BC, his son Rehoboam ascended to the throne and Jeroboam returned from Egypt. Rehoboam, having been advised to show no weakness to the people, increased the taxes. The people of Israel, led by Jeroboam, approached Rehoboam at Shechem, requesting relief from the heavy tax burdens, which Rehoboam refused. Rehoboam, rejecting the counsel of the elders, responded harshly to the people's plea. Following the rejection, ten of the tribes withdrew their allegiance and proclaimed Jeroboam their king. Only the tribes of Judah and Benjamin remained loyal to Rehoboam in the new kingdom of Judah. Jeroboam established idolatrous worship at Bethel and Dan (1 Kings 12:29).

In 722 BC the Assyrian Empire conquered the Northern Kingdom. Many Israelites were exiled, and Assyrians resettled foreigners into the region (2 Kings 17:24–41). These newcomers intermarried with the remaining Israelites, forming a mixed population.

The people left in the land, along with the Assyrian immigrants, developed a distinct religious identity. They worshipped Yahweh, but with a different focus. They accepted only the Pentateuch (first five books of Moses) and not the rest of the Old Testament like their neighbours. Their holy site became Mount Gerizim, not Jerusalem. Over time, this group became known as the Samaritans.

Samaria was a central region of ancient Israel, and still called that in Jesus' time (1st century AD). The Samaritans were ethnically and religiously distinct from the Jews of Judea and Galilee. Jews and Samaritans had deep mutual hostility, based on: 1. The Samaritan claim to be the true Israel. 2. Their separate temple on Mount Gerizim. 3. Their mixed ancestry and divergence from Jewish traditions.

This context is critical in understanding stories like:

The Good Samaritan (Luke 10:25–37) – portraying a Samaritan as a moral example.

The Samaritan woman at the well (John 4:1–42) – where Jesus speaks of "salvation is from the Jews" but also reveals himself to a Samaritan woman.

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How Jeroboam Became a Bottle Size

In the 18th and 19th centuries, European winemakers — particularly in France — began naming larger wine and champagne bottles after biblical kings. These names were chosen to evoke grandeur, power, and age, reflecting the status and capacity of these oversized bottles.

Here are a few examples of these naming conventions:

Jeroboam ruled over the larger portion of the divided kingdom (10 tribes vs. 2), which may have symbolized "more" or "greater volume."

Note: Bottle Size Can Vary

In champagne, a Jeroboam is 3 liters (4 standard bottles).

In still wine (especially Bordeaux), a Jeroboam is often 5 liters (6.66 bottles).

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Y term "Iddewiaeth"

Yn wreiddiol, cyfeiriodd y term "Iddew" at aelodau teyrnas hynafol Jwda, un o ddeuddeg llwyth Israel. Daw'r enw "Jwda" o'r enw Hebraeg "Yehudah," sy'n golygu "canmoladwy" neu "ddiolchgar." Dros amser, esblygodd y term i gwmpasu'r holl bobl a oedd yn uniaethu â'r hunaniaeth grefyddol, ddiwylliannol ac ethnig sy'n gysylltiedig â disgynyddion yr Israeliaid hynafol.

Wrth i Iddewiaeth ddatblygu fel crefydd fonotheistaidd fawr, ehangodd y term "Iddew" i gynnwys nid yn unig y rhai o lwyth Jwda ond hefyd unigolion a ddilynodd y ffydd Iddewig, waeth beth fo'u llinach hynafol. Daeth i gynrychioli hunaniaeth grefyddol ehangach y tu hwnt i'r cysylltiad llwythol penodol, ac mae'n parhau i gael ei ddefnyddio yn yr ystyr ehangach hwn hyd heddiw.

Dechreuodd y term "Iddewiaeth" yn y ganrif 1af OC, tra bod y term "Iddew" yn dyddio'n ôl i'r 6ed ganrif CC. Mae gan y ddau derm wreiddiau hynafol ac maent yn gysylltiedig â hunaniaeth grefyddol a diwylliannol y bobl Iddewig.

Credir bod addoliad mewn adeiladau o'r enw synagogau wedi dechrau tua'r 3ydd ganrif CC yn ystod y cyfnod Helenistaidd. Gwasanaethodd synagogau fel mannau gweddi, astudio, a chynulliadau cymunedol i'r bobl Iddewig, yn enwedig yn y rhanbarthau y tu allan i Jerwsalem lle nad oedd y deml ganolog yn hygyrch. Dros amser, daeth synagogau yn ganolfannau hanfodol ar gyfer bywyd crefyddol a chymunedol Iddewig.

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Paul Tillich

Paul Tillich, German Protestant theologian and philosopher, was born on August 20, 1886, in the small village of Starzeddel, Province of Brandenburg, then part of Germany (modern-day Starosiedle, Poland). He taught at various universities. His writings upset the Nazis and when they came to power in 1933 he lost his teaching post at Frankfurt University. He emigrated to the U.S. and died there in 1965.

Paul Tillich’s main contribution to theology was his development of a "method of correlation", which sought to bridge the gap between Christian theology and existential philosophy/contemporary culture. His goal was to make theology meaningful to modern people by interpreting Christian doctrines in light of human existential questions.

Key Contributions:

1. Method of Correlation

Tillich proposed that theology must respond to the deepest questions of human existence—such as anxiety, meaninglessness, guilt, and death—with answers drawn from Christian revelation.

He correlated philosophical questions with theological answers.

Example: If philosophy asks, “What is the meaning of life?”, theology responds with the concept of God as the "ground of being."

2. God as the "Ground of Being"

Rather than seeing God as a being among other beings, Tillich described God as Being-Itself or the Ground of Being.

This avoids anthropomorphic conceptions of God.

It aligns with existential and ontological concerns about the nature of existence itself.

3. The Courage to Be

In this influential work, Tillich explores how humans confront the anxiety of non-being (death, meaninglessness, guilt) and how faith—understood not as belief in doctrines but as ultimate concern—provides the courage to affirm life in the face of these anxieties.

4. Faith as "Ultimate Concern"

Tillich redefined faith not as intellectual assent, but as the state of being ultimately concerned.

Everyone has an ultimate concern, whether it's God, nation, success, etc.

True faith, however, orients this concern toward the ultimate reality, which for Tillich is God.

Summary:

Tillich’s theology is existential, philosophical, and deeply engaged with the human condition. His major legacy is a theology that engages modern existential questions seriously and interprets Christian faith in light of them, making faith intelligible and relevant in a secular, questioning age.

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Aquinas

The main contribution to theology by Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) was the systematic integration of Christian theology with Aristotelian philosophy, creating a comprehensive theological and philosophical framework that has deeply shaped Western Christianity.

Key Contributions:

1. Synthesis of Faith and Reason:

Aquinas argued that faith and reason are not in conflict, but rather complement each other.

He believed that truths revealed by God (faith) and truths discovered by reason (philosophy) ultimately come from the same source—God—and therefore must be compatible.

2. Natural Theology and the Five Ways (Quinque Viae):

In his major work, the Summa Theologiae, Aquinas presented five logical arguments for the existence of God based on observation of the natural world.

These are known as the Five Ways, and they include arguments from motion, causation, contingency, perfection, and teleology (design).

This became a foundational framework for natural theology—knowledge of God based on reason and observation rather than revelation alone.

3. Scholastic Method:

Aquinas perfected the scholastic method: a rigorous, logical way of analyzing theological and philosophical questions.

His Summa Theologiae is structured around questions, objections, and reasoned replies, a method that influenced centuries of theological education.

4. Doctrine of Analogy:

Aquinas taught that we speak of God analogically, not univocally (same meaning) or equivocally (completely different meaning).

This idea helped theologians speak meaningfully about God’s attributes without reducing God to human terms.

5. Ethics and Natural Law:

Aquinas developed a rich theory of natural law, rooted in reason and the purpose of human nature.

He argued that human beings, by nature, seek good and avoid evil, and that moral law can be known through reason.

His moral theology remains influential in Catholic thought, especially on law, politics, and bioethics.

Summary:

The main theological contribution of Thomas Aquinas was the harmonization of Christian faith with Aristotelian philosophy, especially in the areas of:

God’s existence (Five Ways),

Natural law and moral reasoning,

And the use of scholastic logic to explore theology systematically.

He is considered the greatest theologian of the medieval Church and remains a central figure in Catholic theology, honored as Doctor Angelicus (“the Angelic Doctor”).

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Baruch Atah Adonai

Y geiriau “בָּרוּךְ אַתָּה יְיָ אֱלֹהֵינוּ מֶלֶךְ הָעוֹלָם” (Baruch Atah Adonai Eloheinu Melech ha’Olam) sy’n agor llawer o weddïau, “Bendigedig wyt Ti, Arglwydd ein Duw, Brenin y Bydysawd” (Bendigedig wyt ti Arglwydd Dduw yr holl greadigaeth).

Nid yw’n ddyfyniad uniongyrchol o’r Beibl Hebraeg (Tanakh). Yn hytrach, mae’r fformiwla hon yn rhan o litwrgi rabinaidd (Talmud) — mae’n dod o’r bendithion (berakhot) a ddatblygodd y rabïaid yn ystod cyfnod yr Ail Deml ac wedi hynny. Mae un enghraifft uniongyrchiol i’w weld yn y Beibl, mae'r Brenin Dafydd yn dweud, “Bendigedig wyt Ti, ARGLWYDD, Duw Israel ein tad, am byth ac am byth” (1 Cronicl 29:10).

Fodd bynnag, cafodd yr agoriad safonol penodol — Baruch Atah Adonai Eloheinu Melech ha’Olam — ei ffurfioli gan y Doethion (y rabïaid) yn ystod y cyfnod ôl-feiblaidd cynnar (tua amser canrifoedd diweddarach yr Ail Deml ac ar ôl ei dinistrio yn 70 OC). Daeth yn agoriad safonol ar gyfer y rhan fwyaf o fendithion Iddewig (berakhot) — dros fwyd, mitzvot, gweddïau fel yr Amidah, Kiddush, ac yn y blaen. Felly, er bod y cysyniad a'r iaith wedi'u gwreiddio yn y Beibl, mae'r fformiwla litwrgaidd fanwl gywir yn rabinaidd, nid yn Feiblaidd.

Dyma rai adnodau Beiblaidd sy'n dangos o ble mae'r cysyniad a'r iaith y tu ôl i "Baruch Atah Adonai Eloheinu Melech ha’Olam" yn dod:

📜 1. Blessing God directly — example from King David

1 Cronicl 29:10–13

Yr oedd y Brenin Dafydd hefyd yn llawen iawn. Bendithiodd yr ARGLWYDD o flaen yr holl gynulleidfa a dweud, “Bendigedig wyt ti, ARGLWYDD Dduw Israel ein tad, o dragwyddoldeb hyd dragwyddoldeb.

Therefore David blessed the LORD before all the assembly; and David said: ‘Blessed are You, LORD God of Israel, our Father, forever and ever. Yours, O LORD, is the greatness, the power and the glory, the victory and the majesty; for all that is in heaven and in earth is Yours…

(v. 10: וַיְבָרֶךְ דָּוִד אֶת־יְהוָה לְעֵינֵי כָּל־הַקָּהָל; וַיֹּאמֶר דָּוִד: בָּרוּךְ אַתָּה יְהוָה אֱלֹהֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל אָבִינוּ מֵעוֹלָם וְעַד־עוֹלָם)

This is one of the closest direct parallels. It even uses Baruch Atah Adonai (Blessed are You, LORD).

📜 2. The Psalms — blessing God continually

Salmau 103:1–2

“Fy enaid, bendithia'r ARGLWYDD, a'r cyfan sydd ynof ei enw sanctaidd.”

“Bless the LORD, O my soul; and all that is within me, bless His holy name! Bless the LORD, O my soul, and forget not all His benefits…”

Hebrew: בָּרֲכִי נַפְשִׁי אֶת־יְהוָה (Barakhi Nafshi et-Adonai)

Here the verb is barakhi — an imperative: Bless, O my soul. Not exactly the same formula, but the same root idea.

📜 3. Daniel — “King of Heaven”

Daniel 4:34–35 (Aramaic)

“Ymhen amser, codais i, Nebuchadnesar, fy llygaid i'r nefoedd, ac adferwyd fy synnwyr. Yna bendithiais y Goruchaf, a moli a mawrhau'r un sy'n byw yn dragywydd. Y mae ei arglwyddiaeth yn arglwyddiaeth dragwyddol, a'i frenhiniaeth o genhedlaeth i genhedlaeth.”

“…I blessed the Most High, and I praised and honored Him who lives forever: For His dominion is an everlasting dominion…”

Daniel uses blessing language for God’s eternal kingship.

📜 4. Nehemiah — praising God as Creator and King

Nehemeia‬ ‭9‬:‭5‬-‭6‬

“… Codwch, bendithiwch yr ARGLWYDD eich Duw o dragwyddoldeb i dragwyddoldeb: Bendithier dy enw gogoneddus sy'n ddyrchafedig goruwch pob bendith a moliant. Ti yn unig wyt ARGLWYDD. Ti a wnaeth y nefoedd, nef y nefoedd a'i holl luoedd, y ddaear a'r cwbl sydd arni.”

“…Stand up and bless the LORD your God forever and ever! Blessed be Your glorious name, which is exalted above all blessing and praise! You alone are the LORD; You have made heaven…”

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Most important theologians in the history of Christianity 500-1900

Medieval Period (6th–15th Centuries)

Boethius (480–524) – Bridged classical philosophy and Christian thought.

John of Damascus (c. 675–749) – Defender of icons; influential in Eastern theology.

Anselm of Canterbury (1033–1109) – Developed the ontological argument and satisfaction theory of atonement.

Peter Abelard (1079–1142) – Known for his ethical theory and dialectical method.

Bernard of Clairvaux (1090–1153) – Mystic and opponent of scholasticism.

Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) – Central figure in scholasticism; wrote Summa Theologiae; synthesis of Aristotelian philosophy and Christian theology.

Bonaventure (1221–1274) – Franciscan theologian; integrated mysticism with scholastic method.

John Duns Scotus (c. 1266–1308) – Emphasized the will and divine freedom.

William of Ockham (c. 1287–1347) – Known for nominalism and Ockham's Razor.

Julian of Norwich (c. 1342–after 1416) – Mystic; wrote Revelations of Divine Love, the first book in English by a woman.

Reformation and Post-Reformation (16th–17th Centuries)

Martin Luther (1483–1546) – Initiated the Protestant Reformation; justification by faith alone.

Ulrich Zwingli (1484–1531) – Swiss Reformer; symbolic view of the Eucharist.

John Calvin (1509–1564) – Reformed theologian; wrote Institutes of the Christian Religion.

Menno Simons (1496–1561) – Anabaptist leader; influential in pacifist theology.

Thomas Cranmer (1489–1556) – Architect of the English Reformation and Book of Common Prayer.

Richard Hooker (1554–1600) – Anglican theologian; synthesized tradition, reason, and Scripture.

Francisco Suárez (1548–1617) – Major figure in Catholic scholasticism post-Reformation.

Jacob Arminius (1560–1609) – Opposed Calvinism; emphasized free will.

John Owen (1616–1683) – English Reformed theologian; Puritan leader.

Blaise Pascal (1623–1662) – Philosopher-theologian; famous for Pensées.

18th Century (Enlightenment and Evangelical Awakenings)

Jonathan Edwards (1703–1758) – American revivalist and theologian; key figure in the First Great Awakening.

John Wesley (1703–1791) – Founder of Methodism; emphasized sanctification and free grace.

George Whitefield (1714–1770) – Evangelist and leader in Great Awakening.

Immanuel Kant (1724–1804)** – Not a theologian per se, but profoundly affected theology; challenged traditional metaphysics.

Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768–1834) – Father of modern liberal theology; focused on religious experience.

19th Century (Modern Theology)

John Henry Newman (1801–1890) – Anglican convert to Catholicism; emphasized development of doctrine.

Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855) – Danish philosopher-theologian; existential and Christian ethics.

Horace Bushnell (1802–1876) – American theologian; liberal Protestant and moral theory of atonement.

Albrecht Ritschl (1822–1889) – Emphasized ethics and the kingdom of God in theology.

Charles Hodge (1797–1878) – Key figure in American Calvinism; Princeton theology.

Pius IX (1792–1878) – Pope who defined the Immaculate Conception and issued Syllabus of Errors.

Adolf von Harnack (1851–1930)** – Late 19th c.; famous for historical-critical method and theology of early Christianity.

Eastern Christianity is included in the above list, especially in the early centuries when the Church was still united, but after the Schism, the list becomes Western-dominant. However, to properly reflect the Eastern Orthodox tradition (and to a lesser extent, Oriental Orthodox), it's important to include more figures from:

Byzantine theology (6th–15th centuries)

Russian and Greek Orthodox traditions (18th–19th centuries)

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Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite

Dionysius the Areopagite (c.500), commonly referred to as Pseudo-Dionysius, is one of the most influential and enigmatic figures in Christian theological history. Here's a detailed look at who he was, what he wrote, and why he mattered — especially in both Eastern Orthodox and Western Christian traditions.

🔹 Who Was Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite?

Not the Biblical Dionysius

He took the name of Dionysius the Areopagite, a first-century Athenian convert of the Apostle Paul mentioned in Acts 17:34. However, scholars now agree that the actual author lived much later, probably in late 5th to early 6th century Syria.

"Pseudo" Prefix

The term "Pseudo-Dionysius" is used by scholars to indicate that this person was not the historical Dionysius, but adopted his name to lend authority to his theological works.

🔹 Major Works

His surviving corpus, written in Greek, includes:

1. The Divine Names

Explores how we can speak about God using names drawn from Scripture (e.g., Good, Light, Life), while maintaining that God is ultimately beyond all names.

Central text for apophatic (negative) theology: we understand God more through what He is not than what He is.

2. The Mystical Theology

A short but dense treatise on the soul's ascent to God by stripping away all images, concepts, and affirmations.

Famous for its mystical language, including the phrase:

“Leave behind every mental image and concept... and rise toward the Ray of Divine Darkness.”

3. The Celestial Hierarchy

Describes the nine orders of angels (Seraphim, Cherubim, Thrones, etc.) and their roles in divine governance and mediation.

4. The Ecclesiastical Hierarchy

Discusses the structure and meaning of the Church’s liturgical and sacramental life, paralleling the celestial order with the earthly Church.

5. Ten Letters (Epistles)

Spiritual letters elaborating on themes in the main works.

🔹 Key Theological Themes

✴️ Apophatic Theology (Negative Theology)

God is utterly transcendent, beyond all categories of human thought.

Therefore, we approach God best by negating all limited human concepts.

God is not just above being, but beyond being ("hyperousios").

✴️ Hierarchical Cosmology

The universe and Church are structured in a descending hierarchy — God → angels → clergy → laity → creation.

Knowledge and grace are transmitted through this chain of mediation.

✴️ Mysticism and Union with God

The soul’s goal is theosis (divinization), achieved through purification, illumination, and ultimately union with God.

Emphasizes mystical ascent through love, negation, and surrender.

🔹 Influence and Legacy

🟣 In the East (Orthodox Christianity):

Hugely influential, especially on Gregory Palamas, Maximus the Confessor, and later Byzantine mystics.

His language and theology helped shape hesychasm, the Eastern mystical tradition.

Treated with near-patristic authority despite the pseudonym.

🔵 In the West (Catholic Christianity):

Translated into Latin by John Scotus Eriugena in the 9th century.

Became a cornerstone for Medieval Scholasticism, especially in:

Thomas Aquinas (used extensively in his Summa Theologiae)

Albert the Great, Meister Eckhart, and Nicholas of Cusa

⚪ Criticism

Martin Luther disliked Dionysius, calling his theology “a cloak for paganism.”

Modern scholars debate whether Dionysius represents a Christianized Neoplatonism more than biblical theology.

🔹 Why Is He Important?

1. Bridged Christianity and Neoplatonism – Especially Plotinus and Proclus.

2. Shaped Mystical Theology – East and West.

3. Created a Christian Angelology – Still widely accepted.

4. Contributed to the Idea of Sacred Hierarchy – Both celestial and ecclesiastical.

5. Enduring Appeal – His ideas continue to inspire theology, philosophy, and spirituality, even beyond Christianity (e.g., in interfaith and philosophical mysticism).

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The Church Fathers

The most important theologians in the Early Church (1st–5th Centuries)

1. Paul the Apostle (d. c. 64–67) – Early Christian missionary and epistle writer; foundational to Christian theology.

2. Irenaeus of Lyons (c. 130–202) – Key opponent of Gnosticism; emphasized apostolic tradition.

3. Origen of Alexandria (c. 184–253) – Early Christian scholar and theologian; allegorical interpretation of Scripture.

4. Tertullian (c. 160–225) – First major Christian Latin writer; coined the term "Trinity".

5. Athanasius of Alexandria (c. 296–373) – Defender of Nicene orthodoxy against Arianism.

6. Basil the Great (c. 330–379), Gregory of Nazianzus (c. 329–390), and Gregory of Nyssa (c. 335–395) – The Cappadocian Fathers, crucial for Trinitarian theology.

7. Augustine of Hippo (354–430) – Hugely influential; developed doctrines of grace, original sin, and just war.

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Anselm

The main contribution to theology by Saint Anselm of Canterbury (c. 1033–1109) was the development of the ontological argument for the existence of God, as well as his formulation of faith seeking understanding (fides quaerens intellectum).

Key Contributions:

1. Ontological Argument (from Proslogion):

Anselm's ontological argument is a philosophical reasoning for God's existence based purely on logic and definition.

He argued that God is “that than which nothing greater can be conceived,” and that existing in reality is greater than existing only in the mind. Therefore, God must exist in reality.

This was a groundbreaking move in theological and philosophical reasoning, though it has been debated ever since (notably critiqued by Gaunilo and later by Kant).

2. "Faith Seeking Understanding":

This is the idea that faith is the starting point, but reason and intellect can deepen one’s understanding of divine truths.

For Anselm, reason does not replace faith; it supports and enriches it. This became a foundational idea in scholastic theology.

3. Atonement Theory – Cur Deus Homo ("Why God Became Man"):

Anselm also made a significant contribution to soteriology (the study of salvation).

He argued that human sin created a debt to God that only a perfect human—Jesus—could repay.

This "satisfaction theory" of atonement influenced Western Christian theology deeply, especially in the Catholic and Protestant traditions.

Summary:

Saint Anselm’s most enduring theological contributions are:

The ontological argument for God's existence,

The concept of faith seeking understanding, and

His satisfaction theory of atonement.

He is often called the "father of scholasticism", as he helped set the stage for later thinkers like Thomas Aquinas.

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Jürgen Moltmann

Jürgen Moltmann (8 April 1926 – 3 June 2024) was a German Reformed theologian who was a professor of systematic theology at the University of Tübingen and was known for his books such as the Theology of Hope, The Crucified God, God in Creation and other contributions to systematic theology. His works were translated into many languages.

Jürgen Moltmann's main contribution to theology is his development of a "theology of hope," that re-centers Christian faith on the resurrection of Christ and emphasizes God's love and suffering alongside humanity, and the promise of a better future through resurrection. His influential works, such as "Theology of Hope" and "The Crucified God," have shaped contemporary Christian thought on eschatology and the nature of God.

At its core, Moltmann's theology insists that:

Christianity is fundamentally eschatological — it lives from the future.

The resurrection of Christ is not just the end of the story, but the beginning of a new creation that transforms the present.

🔷 Main Contribution: Theology of Hope

Moltmann’s seminal work, Theology of Hope (1964), argues that:

Christian faith is anchored not in the past, but in the future promises of God.

The resurrection is the beginning of the end — the in-breaking of God's future into history.

Hope is not wishful thinking, but a revolutionary force that resists despair, injustice, and fatalism.

This theology reframes:

The Cross as the place where God enters into human suffering.

The Resurrection as God's vindication of the crucified, and a promise of renewal for all creation.

🔷 Key Themes of Moltmann’s Theology

1. The Crucified God

In The Crucified God (1972), Moltmann makes a profound claim:

God suffers and dies on the cross — not just in empathy with humanity, but in God’s very being.

This challenges classical theism by asserting that God is not impassible (unaffected by suffering).

It grounds divine love in solidarity with the oppressed, making the cross the center of a theology of protest and liberation.

2. Eschatology as Transformative

Eschatology is not just about the end of time — it is the starting point of theology.

The Kingdom of God is coming, and this future breaks into the now, calling us to act, resist, and hope.

The Church is not a fortress of tradition, but a messianic community aligned with the coming of God’s reign.

3. Political and Liberation Theology

Moltmann's theology has deep social and political implications.

He was influential in shaping political theology, arguing that theology must engage with history, politics, and structures of power.

Hope demands praxis — real-world commitment to justice and peace.

4. Trinitarian and Ecological Theology

Later in life, Moltmann made vital contributions to:

Trinitarian theology: emphasizing the mutual love and openness of the Trinity as a model for community and politics.

Ecological theology: God’s future includes creation’s renewal, not just human salvation.

🔷 In Summary

✅ Moltmann’s Main Contribution:

A revolutionary reorientation of Christian theology around hope, grounded in the resurrection of the crucified God, with profound implications for:

Suffering and protest

Political engagement

Liberation and justice

Ecological responsibility

The renewal of theology as an active force in history

Moltmann’s work gave Christian theology a new voice after Auschwitz, rejecting fatalism and calling the Church to embody God’s future in the present.

Here's a powerful and representative quote from Jürgen Moltmann’s Theology of Hope:

"From first to last, and not merely in the epilogue, Christianity is eschatology, is hope, forward looking and forward moving, and therefore also revolutionizing and transforming the present."

This line captures the essence of Moltmann’s theology: Christianity is not about preserving the status quo — it’s about hope that changes everything.

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Comparing Edward Schillebeeckx and Jürgen Moltmann

Edward Schillebeeckx and Jürgen Moltmann were two groundbreaking theologians who sought to rearticulate Christian faith in the wake of modern suffering, particularly the trauma of war, oppression, and secularity. Though from different traditions — Schillebeeckx a Catholic, Moltmann a Reformed Protestant — their work converges in significant ways, while also diverging in method and theological emphasis.

Key Similarities

1. Theology Rooted in History and Suffering

Both begin theology in the concrete experience of suffering and human struggle.

For Schillebeeckx: Human experience, particularly the experience of injustice and hope, is a locus of revelation.

For Moltmann: Theology must be forged in the “furnace of suffering” — especially the Cross and Auschwitz.

2. Christology from Below

Both emphasize the historical Jesus and his liberating ministry as central to understanding salvation.

Schillebeeckx: Salvation began with Jesus’ acts of healing and inclusion; the resurrection affirms the truth of his life.

Moltmann: Jesus is the Crucified God, revealing divine solidarity with human suffering and abandonment.

3. Eschatological Orientation

Both have a strong future orientation:

Schillebeeckx emphasizes God’s future breaking into history through human liberation.

Moltmann centers theology around hope, arguing that God’s future transforms the present.

4. Liberation and Praxis

Both influenced liberation theology and insisted that theology must have practical, political, and ethical consequences.

They reject purely metaphysical or abstract theological approaches in favor of transformative engagement with the world.

Tone and Theological Style

Schillebeeckx: Emphasizes dialogue, historical critical method, and pastoral sensitivity. His theology is narrative, evolving, and inductive, grounded in human experience.

Moltmann: Bold, prophetic, and more systematic. He writes “from the underside of history”, confronting suffering with eschatological hope and revolutionary theology.

Both men sought to recover the liberating and transformative essence of Christianity, but Schillebeeckx leans toward encounter and mediation, while Moltmann leans toward confrontation and promise.

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Edward Schillebeeckx

Edward Schillebeeckx was a Belgian Catholic theologian born in Antwerp. He entered the Dominicans and was ordained a priest. He was conscripted into the army which was disbanded when the Germans occupied Belguim in 1939. His main contribution lies in his reimagining of Christian theology — especially Christology and sacramental theology — through the lens of historical consciousness, human experience, and modern critical methods, while remaining rooted in the Catholic tradition.

Here’s a summary of his core contributions:

1. Christology: Jesus as the Revealer of God in Human History

Schillebeeckx’s Jesus: An Experiment in Christology (1974) and Christ: The Experience of Jesus as Lord (1980) revolutionized post-Vatican II Christology by:

Emphasizing Jesus’ humanity and historical reality as the starting point.

Arguing that the experience of salvation began with Jesus' earthly ministry — his compassion, healing, and proclamation of the Kingdom.

Viewing the resurrection not as a reversal of death, but as a vindication of Jesus’ life by God, experienced by the early community.

Claiming that the risen Christ is encountered in human experience, especially through acts of liberation, justice, and love.

“God is not the opposite of man, but the deepest ground of what it means to be truly human.”

This approach tied Christology closely to lived experience and social transformation — a shift from metaphysical formulations to existential encounter.

2. Sacramental Theology: Encounter with the Divine in Human Signs

In Christ the Sacrament of the Encounter with God (1960), Schillebeeckx redefined sacraments as:

Not magical rites, but visible, historical signs of God’s grace.

Rooted in the incarnation: Jesus himself is the primordial sacrament — the ultimate sign of God’s presence.

The Church, in turn, is the sacrament of Christ, and each liturgical sacrament mediates grace not automatically but through faithful, communal participation.

This made sacramental theology more intelligible in the modern world, aligning it with anthropological realism — humans encounter God through human realities.

3. Theology of Experience and Praxis

Schillebeeckx insisted that human experience — especially suffering and liberation — is a locus theologicus, a place where God is disclosed.

He combined biblical theology, critical historical study, and existential philosophy (influenced by phenomenology and hermeneutics).

He saw the Church's task as responding to human suffering, which became central in his theology after witnessing the Nazi occupation and later engaging liberation theology.

His method encouraged a dialogue between tradition and modernity, faith and contemporary consciousness.

4. Ecclesiology and Reform

He supported:

A more participatory, less clericalist Church.

Greater lay involvement.

Theological freedom to explore doctrines in dialogue with historical context.

This drew scrutiny from the Vatican, especially during the 1970s-80s, but he was never formally condemned. He remained a loyal yet critical voice within Catholicism.

Comparing Edward Schillebeeckx and Karl Rahner reveals two of the most influential Catholic theologians of the 20th century — both deeply shaped by Vatican II, modern philosophy, and a desire to reformulate Christian faith for the contemporary world. While they share common ground, they differ significantly in emphasis, method, and theological temperament.

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Hans Kung

Born in Lucerne, Hans Kung (1928-2021), the Swiss Catholic theologian, was the eldest of seven children; his father managed a shoe shop. He became a Catholic priest and theologian. The most important contribution of Hans Küng is widely considered to be his work on church reform and his role in initiating interfaith dialogue and global ethics—particularly through his concept of a “global ethic” (Weltethos).

Here’s a breakdown of his most influential contributions:

1. Critique of Papal Infallibility (1971)

Küng’s 1971 book, Infallible? An Inquiry, was a landmark theological challenge to the doctrine of papal infallibility as defined at the First Vatican Council (1870). He argued that the concept lacked solid biblical and historical foundation and was a major obstacle to church reform and ecumenism.

This book led to the revocation of his license to teach Catholic theology in 1979 by the Vatican, but he remained a priest and continued teaching under the broader university. For decades Swiss theologian Hans Kung has been in the forefront of dialogue between Roman Catholic and Protestant Christians of orthodox creeds. In the academic arena he has heartily joined in the search for contemporary ways to express Christian faith. When he was dismissed as an official theologian of the Roman Catholic Church, on the ground that his writing cast doubt on several of the most basic doctrines of his church, churchmen around the world in a quandary about the commitment of the Catholic Church to ecumenical dialogue.

Impact: However he became a symbol of theological freedom and critical engagement within the Roman Catholic Church.

2. Leadership in the Global Ethic Project (1993–2021)

Küng’s most globally influential work may be the Declaration Toward a Global Ethic, adopted at the 1993 Parliament of the World’s Religions in Chicago. He believed that the world’s major religions share a core of ethical values, such as:

Human dignity

Golden Rule (treat others as you wish to be treated)

Commitment to peace, justice, and sustainability

This work aimed to lay the moral groundwork for peaceful coexistence in a globalized, pluralistic world.

Impact: Küng’s “Global Ethic” initiative became a key resource for interreligious dialogue, ethics in politics and business, and UNESCO’s intercultural programs.

3. Promotion of Ecumenism and Interreligious Dialogue

Küng wrote extensively on Christian unity (The Church, Christianity and the World Religions) and emphasized the need for dialogue with other faiths, particularly Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism. He believed:

"There will be no peace among the nations without peace among the religions. And no peace among the religions without dialogue between the religions."

Impact: He was a theological bridge-builder in a world divided by religious conflict.

4. Modernizing Theology and Making It Accessible

Küng also made major contributions through works like:

On Being a Christian (1974) – a major modern Christology accessible to lay readers.

Does God Exist? (1978) – a comprehensive argument for belief in God in dialogue with atheism and secular philosophy.

Christianity: Essence, History, and Future (1994) – a sweeping analysis of Christian history and its future relevance.

Impact: He helped reframe theology for a secular and postmodern audience.

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Reinhold Niebuhr

Reinhold Niebuhr (June 21, 1892 – June 1, 1971) was an American Reformed theologian, ethicist, commentator on politics and public affairs, and professor at Union Theological Seminary for more than 30 years. Niebuhr was one of America's leading public intellectuals for several decades of the 20th century and received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1964. A public theologian, he wrote and spoke frequently about the intersection of religion, politics, and public policy, with his most influential books including Moral Man and Immoral Society and The Nature and Destiny of Man. Also known for the Serenity Prayer.

As a minister in Detroit he wrote, “The men cannot possibly find any satisfaction in their work. They simply work to make a living. Their sweat and their dull pain are part of the price paid for the fine cars we all run. And most of us run the cars without knowing what price is being paid for them. ... We are all responsible. We all want the things which the factory produces and none of us is sensitive enough to care how much in human values the efficiency of the modern factory costs.”

“about midway in my ministry which extends roughly from the peace of Versailles to the peace of Munich measured in terms of Western history, I underwent a fairly complete conversion of thought which involved rejection of almost all the liberal theological ideals and ideas with which I ventured forth in 1915. I wrote a book Does Civilization Need Religion? my first, in 1927 which when now consulted is proved to contain almost all the theological windmills against which today I tilt my sword. These windmills must have tumbled shortly thereafter for every succeeding volume expresses a more and more explicit revolt against what is usually known as liberal culture.”

—  Reinhold Niebuhr, "Ten Years that Shook My World", The Christian Century, Vol. 56, issue 17, page 542

In 1928, Niebuhr left Detroit to become Professor of Practical Theology at Union Theological Seminary in New York. He spent the rest of his career there, until retirement in 1960.

In the 1930s Niebuhr worked out many of his ideas about sin and grace, love and justice, faith and reason, realism and idealism, and the irony and tragedy of history, which established his leadership of the neo-orthodox movement in theology. Influenced strongly by Karl Barth and other dialectical theologians of Europe, he began to emphasize the Bible as a human record of divine self-revelation; it offered for Niebuhr a critical but redemptive reorientation of the understanding of humanity's nature and destiny.

Niebuhr couched his ideas in Christ-centered principles such as the Great Commandment and the doctrine of original sin. His major contribution was his view of sin as a social event—as pride—with selfish self-centeredness as the root of evil. The sin of pride was apparent not just in criminals, but more dangerously in people who felt good about their deeds—rather like Henry Ford (whom he did not mention by name). The human tendency to corrupt the good was the great insight he saw manifested in governments, business, democracies, utopian societies, and churches. This position is laid out profoundly in one of his most influential books, Moral Man and Immoral Society (1932). He was a debunker of hypocrisy and pretense and made the avoidance of self-righteous illusions the center of his thoughts.

According to his biographer, the historian Richard Wightman Fox, Niebuhr understood that "Christians needed the leaven of pure Hebraism to counteract the Hellenism to which they were prone".

Niebuhr argued that to approach religion as the individualistic attempt to fulfill biblical commandments in a moralistic sense is not only an impossibility but also a demonstration of man's original sin, which Niebuhr interpreted as self-love. Through self-love man becomes focused on his own goodness and leaps to the false conclusion—one he called the "Promethean illusion"—that he can achieve goodness on his own. Thus man mistakes his partial ability to transcend himself for the ability to prove his absolute authority over his own life and world. Constantly frustrated by natural limitations, man develops a lust for power which destroys him and his whole world. History is the record of these crises and judgments which man brings on himself; it is also proof that God does not allow man to overstep his possibilities. In radical contrast to the Promethean illusion, God reveals himself in history, especially personified in Jesus Christ, as sacrificial love which overcomes the human temptation to self-deification and makes possible constructive human history.

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Karl Rahner

Karl Rahner was born in 1904 in the city of Freiburg im Breisgau, in what is today southwest Germany, the fourth of seven children. He became a Jesuit priest and theologian who, alongside Henri de Lubac, Hans Urs von Balthasar, and Yves Congar, is considered to be one of the most influential Catholic theologians of the 20th century. He was the brother of Hugo Rahner, also a Jesuit scholar.

Karl Rahner's concept of "uncreated grace" is a central idea in his theology and refers to God Himself as the gift of grace. Uncreated grace is the self-communication of God to the human person. Rahner emphasizes that in salvation, we don’t merely receive something from God, like a gift or an attribute; we receive God Himself. Thus, grace is not only a divine favor or a change in human nature but a relationship of real presence—a personal, intimate participation in the life of God. This idea reflects Rahner's broader theological project: integrating existential philosophy (especially from Heidegger) with traditional Catholic theology, making grace not just a "thing" but a personal encounter with the divine mystery.

1. Created Grace – the effects of God's action in us:

The theological virtues (faith, hope, charity) or anything that drives us towards good or doing good are sanctified by Gods grace and help us act rightly. These are real, created qualities in the human person that make us capable of living a supernatural life. They are like the "tools" or capacities God gives us.

2. Uncreated Grace – God Himself as gift:

Every person is oriented toward God and how God’s self-communication (i.e. uncreated grace) makes possible our knowledge and love of Him. Uncreated grace is not something God does, but God as the gift. Specifically, it refers to the indwelling presence of the Trinity in the soul: God gives Himself to us in love. For Rahner, this means that every experience of grace is fundamentally a personal encounter with God, not just a spiritual enhancement or help.

Example in spiritual life: When a person prays deeply and senses peace, love, or closeness to God, the created grace is the spiritual readiness and capacity to love and understand. But the uncreated grace is what the person is actually encountering in that moment: God’s own self, dwelling in and communicating directly with the soul. In short, Rahner wants to remind us: grace is not just something we have, but Someone we meet.

Also in Vol. 1: “Some Implications of the Scholastic Concept of Uncreated Grace” Rahner revisits medieval theology (e.g., Thomas Aquinas) and develops the idea that uncreated grace = God’s indwelling presence. He clarifies how this differs from created grace and argues that uncreated grace is the more fundamental reality.

Rahner says, “We have infinite longings but finite capabilities. We aspire to love that is imperishable but only manage love that is flawed in some way, not as deep or as essentially we are oriented towards mystery, hardwired for something beyond ourselves. We are not satisfied with a small world. We are seeking more, wanting to know more, wanting to understand mystery.”