final-project-byzantine-empire

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Primary Source #1 - Art

Focus: Mosaics

When studying ancient societies, some of the best insights can be gained from analyzing the art of the time period. Art has the ability to give us an illustrated account of a culture’s beliefs, values, and ideas. It is not often as censored as written works, which can be edited and skewed to fit the writer’s personal views and bias. Instead, art evokes emotion in the viewer, and is able to tell a story about important events and people of the time while giving us a sense of what it would be like to be present in the scene. In some societies, their art was carefully preserved and made the long journey through time into the museums of the present. However, Byzantine religious art suffered through a period of destruction called “The Iconoclasm.” During this time, any artwork or relics that depicted religious icons were banned or destroyed, and some pieces were permanently lost to the ages.

Image source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chludov_Psalter#/media/File:Clasm_Chludov.jpg

Of the pieces that survived, some of the most striking imagery often synonymous with the Byzantine empire were the mosaics. While Byzantine artists experimented with many different forms of art, often influenced by Greek and Roman origins, the mosaics were some of the most popular forms of media (“Byzantine Mosaics”). Mosaic art pieces are made up of small multicolored pieces of material such as stone, mineral, glass, tile, or shell (“Mosaic”). The pieces are meticulously arranged and set closely together to form an image. Initially, mosaics were used to depict themes of Christianity, the rise of Iconoclasm during the 8th century caused artists to broaden their subject matter. Instead of religious icons and scenes, they included themes of animals, nature, and important social figures.

Image source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/jere7my/4201822789/

One iconic mosaic that has been successfully preserved is this depiction of Empress Theodora, wife of Emperor Justinian. Her likeness is made up of hundreds of tiny, brightly colored tile pieces, and adorned with small shards of stones meant to represent jewels and pearls. Her face is in the traditional Byzantine style with large, expressive eyes and a long, slender nose. It is interesting to note the circle of gold tiles surrounding her head, giving a halo effect. This is similar to the halo included in Christ depictions in many forms of art, as the halo represents his holy divinity. This connection between religion and Byzantine rulers is consistent with the Christian beliefs of the rulers at the time, as they heavily associated their rule with Christian theology. In essence, it was believed that the rulers had a strong claim to power just like God, as such, they were seen like Gods on earth. This sentiment is most often associated with the male rulers of the time, as the public opinion of Theodora was often dismissive. In the case of this mosaic, this halo could represent her purity and virtue as a woman, likening her to the Virgin Mary and gaining extra sympathy from her people. It could also serve to further highlight her status as an Empress, reminding the people of her position and power as ruler. In my opinion, it is more likely to serve as a connection between the empress and Christ, as an indicator of a symbiotic relationship. The Christian citizens of the empire would need to feel like their rulers have a close relationship with God, as if they were chosen by him.

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Works Cited:

“Byzantine Mosaics.” Medieval Chronicles, www.medievalchronicles.com/medieval-history/medieval-history-periods/byzantine-empire/byzantine-mosaics/. 

“Chludov Psalter.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 14 Nov. 2019, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chludov_Psalter.

“Mosaic.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., www.britannica.com/art/mosaic-art.

Thorpe, Jeremy. “The Empress Theodora (Corrected Perspective).” Flickr, Yahoo!, 21 Dec. 2009, www.flickr.com/photos/jere7my/4201822789/.

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Primary Source #2 - Gender & Sexuality

Focus: Empresses

In terms of social constructs, the Byzantine empire was considered a patriarchal society. Like most empires of the time, men controlled most of the power while women were designated to lesser roles. Most records from contemporary Byzantine historians of this time are written from a male perspective, which means we have less insight for what it meant to be a woman during this time. Limited information has been pieced together to form accounts of notable upper class women, who occupied the roles of poets, artists, scholars, and writers. Aristocratic women hailing from wealthy families were usually eligible for these higher statuses, although it was possible for lower class women as well. In this section, we will discuss one of the most complicated roles for a woman at the time -- the role of Empress.

Image source: https://www.ancient.eu/image/8529/byzantine-empress-zoe/

The title of Empress was not guaranteed through birth, it was attained through marriage, and in some cases, women even ruled as Regents in place of their son. However, even though women held this position of power, the titles of Emperor and Empress were NOT considered equal. In the eyes of the people, the Empress was often likened to a consort rather than an all powerful ruler. The Empress’s power was often minimized by her own husband as well as her subjects. In most cases, the Emperor stood as the figurehead of the empire, in charge of ruling the land and making laws and tactical choices, while the Empress often acted as an advisor to him. However, there are some that argue that this wasn’t true of every Empress. In the case of Empress Theodora, there were some who felt that she was the true ruler of Byzantium, and Emperor Justinian I was acting through her decisions (Cartwright).

Image source: https://www.ancient-origins.net/history-famous-people/theodora-0011005

Theodora rose up to become an Empress after a past filled with poverty and prostitution. Because of her past, the people of Byzantium were reluctant to accept her, even though she proved herself to be a capable and intelligent ruler. She helped her husband handle the Nika riots of 532, and she was one of the first rulers to fight for the rights of women. She helped pass strict laws to limit sex trafficking of girls, and altered divorce laws to give greater benefits to women (“Theodora”). During a time where patriarchy and religion were closely bound together, Theodora was a true icon for women in the Byzantine empire, and fought to improve their lives.

Another standout is Empress Irene, who reinstated religious iconography after a long period of Iconoclasm, which had limited religious depictions in art (“Byzantine Conference”). This was a risky decision, as it could have far reaching complications with religious groups who still believed iconography and relics were sinful. Nevertheless, Irene took the chance and worked towards reinstating the beloved art and mosaics of the past.

Image source: https://www.ancient.eu/image/8528/byzantine-empress-irene/

While the role of Empress was traditionally seen as restrictive and powerless, multiple Empresses proved that the gender roles of Byzantium could be challenged. By resisting the patriarchal limitations placed on their position, these women helped set in motion the fight for equal rights for men and women, and the feminist movements we’ve experienced in recent history.

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Works Cited:

Byzantine Conference, 10 Oct. 2017, www.byzconf.org/famous-byzantines/.

“Byzantine Empress Irene.” Ancient History Encyclopedia, Ancient History Encyclopedia, www.ancient.eu/image/8528/byzantine-empress-irene/.

“Byzantine Empress Zoe.” Ancient History Encyclopedia, Ancient History Encyclopedia, www.ancient.eu/image/8529/byzantine-empress-zoe/.

Cartwright, Mark. “Women in the Byzantine Empire.” Ancient History Encyclopedia, Ancient History Encyclopedia, 14 Oct. 2020, www.ancient.eu/article/1212/women-in-the-byzantine-empire/.

“Theodora.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., www.britannica.com/biography/Theodora-Byzantine-empress-died-548.

“Theodora: How a Poverty Stricken Prostitute Became an Empress.” Ancient Origins, Ancient Origins, 14 Aug. 2019, www.ancient-origins.net/history-famous-people/theodora-0011005.

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Primary Source #3 - Politics

Focus: The Justinian Code

By examining the politics of a society, insight is gained about the ethical beliefs and values of a culture. The laws of the Byzantine empire can be traced back through hundreds of years, all the way back to the Justinian code. This code served as a major update of Roman laws, and set a basis for modern laws we follow to this day. In a society, laws are meant to govern the behavior of the people, and secure protocols for social situations. For example, what happens when two people get married or divorced, who has control over property and businesses, and what happens to your estate when you die. In the Byzantine empire, laws acted as an outline for every facet of life in Byzantium from religion to prostitution. By using these laws as a source, the Justinian code can give us insight into every aspect of everyday life in Byzantium.

Image source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_of_Justinian

Emperor Justinian I had a vision of re-working the outdated Roman code of previous ages, and enlisted the help of legal experts and scribes to reassess the current laws of Byzantium. The team had the goal of eliminating inconsistencies and redundancies in the law, correcting issues, and making the laws easier to understand for all. By the completion of this task, the group had sorted through 2000 books, 3 million lines of legal text, and created a new legal system which would be used for over 900 years (Cartwright). This legal system serves as an outline for Byzantine values and beliefs, and placed emphasis on religious allowances.

Image source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_of_Justinian

The code not only united church and state, it mandated Christianity as the official religion of the empire, and set the stage for Eastern Orthodox Christianity. Not only would this cause conflicts with neighboring countries, this would cause serious conflicts with the Roman Catholic church, and eventually lead to the East-West schism of 1054 (McLean). However, the Justinian code was updated and amended to keep current Byzantine issues and concerns relevant. In a push from Empress Theodora, laws were made to protect the rights of women and prostitutes.

Without the creation of this code of law, the Byzantine empire may have followed archaic Roman laws without question for the span of their entire empire. This could have led to a stagnation of Byzantine culture as its own entity, separate from Western Rome. It is possible that they would have continued to keep their old values and sensibilities instead of forming their own culture within the empire.

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Works Cited:

Cartwright, Mark. “Corpus Juris Civilis.” Ancient History Encyclopedia, Ancient History Encyclopedia, 11 Oct. 2020, www.ancient.eu/Corpus_Juris_Civilis/.

“Code of Justinian.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 2 Oct. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_of_Justinian.

McLean, Assistant Professor John. “Western Civilization.” The Justinian Code | Western Civilization, courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldhistory/chapter/the-justinian-code/.

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Primary Source #4 - Religion

Focus: Hagia Sophia

Throughout history, religion has played a key part in the formation of a society. It affects not only the trade relations of a country, but the belief system and values as well. When discussing the Byzantine empire, it’s difficult not to bring up religion, because it encapsulated every aspect of their culture. From their art, to their social practices, to their rules and laws. The type of Christianity practiced in Byzantium was called “Eastern Orthodox,” and it is still practiced today in some areas of the world (“Emperor Justinian and the Byzantine Empire”). If not through their neighbors in Rome, Christianity would have spread to Byzantium through trade, just as it did in other parts of the world. Like other societies, Byzantium would shape and reform Christianity to fit their existing practices and beliefs, and then morph the religion again to form an “orthodox” sect of the religion. By forming Eastern Orthodox Christianity, the Byzantine empire would eventually set themselves at odds with the Roman Catholics, and further the divide between the East and the West (“Religions”).

Image source: https://www.britannica.com/topic/Eastern-Orthodoxy

Much of the art in early Byzantium revolved around religious art and iconography. Scenes depicting Christ, saints and apostles were common in the mosaic medium as well as paintings. While many religious relics and art pieces were destroyed during the Iconoclasm, some items and structures still exist to this day. One such ancient relic of the Eastern Orthodox faith is the Hagia Sophia, which is located in what’s currently known as Istanbul, Turkey. It was first built in 360 A.D. as a Christian basilica in what was formerly known as the capital of the Byzantine empire, Constantinople (History.com Editors).

Image source: https://www.hagiasophia.com/

The Hagia Sophia is both an architectural, historical, and religious masterpiece. It has functioned as a place of worship as well as a sanctuary for Byzantine art and mosaics. For over a thousand years, the Hagia Sophia has been protected despite its multiple conversions of religious purpose (HAGIA SOPHIA). Throughout the years, thousands of citizens must have flocked to the Hagia Sophia as their place of worship. It would have housed religious events and ceremonies, and became the jewel of Christianity in Byzantium. 

This building was tantamount to the faith of the people in the Byzantine empire, and was meticulously taken care of and preserved. It would have acted as a physical religious symbol to entice the unfaithful to explore the religion of Eastern Orthodox Christianity. Through the years, many would come to worship inside the beautiful building and marvel at the art pieces within.

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Works Cited:

“Eastern Orthodoxy.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., www.britannica.com/topic/Eastern-Orthodoxy.

Emperor Justinian and the Byzantine Empire, www.penfield.edu/webpages/jgiotto/onlinetextbook.cfm?subpage=1679589.

“HAGIA SOPHIA.” Hagia Sophia, www.hagiasophia.com/.

History.com Editors. “Hagia Sophia.” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 12 Jan. 2018, www.history.com/topics/ancient-greece/hagia-sophia.

“Religions - Christianity: Eastern Orthodox Church.” BBC, BBC, 11 June 2008, www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/subdivisions/easternorthodox_1.shtml.

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Secondary Source - Map & Timeline

Image source: https://www.britannica.com/place/Byzantine-Empire/images-videos#/media/1/87186/109222

The map illustrates the Byzantine empire in three different time periods. The first red line shows the vase extent of the empire until Justinian I, what many historians consider one of the most powerful periods for Byzantium. The light pink illustrates the beginning of the sharp decline for the empire, as they began to suffer more attacks from outside forces and the losses of once conquered countries. The dark red shows the empire at its smallest, close to the complete fall and conquer by the Ottomans.

* This timeline serves to illustrate key events during the Byzantine empire, but does not include a complete timeline of wars and conquests.

Works Cited: 

“Byzantine Empire: Media.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., www.britannica.com/place/Byzantine-Empire/images-videos.

Chronology of Byzantine Empire (330-1453 A.D.), www.thelatinlibrary.com/imperialism/notes/byzantinechron.html.

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Secondary Source - Historian

When analyzing pieces of the past, it can be helpful to consult contemporary sources to help explain events in a way that is easy to understand from a present day perspective. Ancient historians are able to provide insights into ancient societies and the people who lived within them, but at the risk of adding personal bias. For example, historians during the Byzantine empire might record events with a view on what occurred from their own perspectives, instead of seeing the big picture. Modern historians have the ability to be objective about past events and societies with all its consequences, being able to take into account the past, present, and future simultaneously.

In researching the Byzantine empire, one of the best contemporary sources on the subject is Warren Treadgold. Treadgold is a history professor who has written numerous books and articles on Byzantine political, economic, military, social, and cultural history.

Image source: https://www.slu.edu/arts-and-sciences/history/faculty/treadgold-warren.php

In addition to teaching university classes centered on the Byzantine empire, Byzantine history, and Byzantine-Western relations, Warren also researches the accounts of Byzantine historians to further his understanding of Byzantine society. One of his books, “The Middle Byzantine Historians” focuses on the scarce accounts from contemporary historians during the “dark ages” of the Byzantine empire, because scholars were devoted to working on theological publications at the time (Treadgold).

“One of the best reasons for doing research on Byzantium is that so much remains to be learned about it, in comparison with other branches of history of comparable importance to the modern world” (Treadgold). The truth in this statement lies within the fact that the Byzantine empire spanned ages of constant change and turmoil, and much of the artifacts that could have explained the days of Byzantium are lost to time. Through the consultation of contemporary accounts of the time, Treadgold believes that we learn new causes, effects, and facts within the empire.

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Works Cited:

Treadgold, Warren T. The Middle Byzantine Historians. Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.

“Treadgold, Warren.” SLU, www.slu.edu/arts-and-sciences/history/faculty/treadgold-warren.php.

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Secondary Source - Argument

To better understand the present, we must study the past. Time and time again, we find patterns in the study of history. These patterns can revolve around anything from politics and economic practices to cultural and social phenomena. These patterns help us see where we’ve been to better understand where we are in the present, and in some ways, they can help us predict the future. How then, can we make these connections between ancient cultures so different from our own? 

Compared to western societies, the Byzantine empire might seem strange and foreign. However, every aspect of their culture including their art, religion, gender roles, and political ideas can find relevance in our modern beliefs and practices today. For example, ancient Byzantine mosaics are cherished in the art community and have been carefully preserved for years. Eastern Orthodox religion took root in Byzantium and still continues on in the modern age. Some of the first laws protecting women’s rights were installed by a female Byzantine ruler. And some western laws in the modern age have origins that can be traced all the way back to the Justinian code.

The Byzantine empire is worth studying to identify these patterns from past to present. While their society wasn’t perfect, they were innovators and chameleons who were able to adapt and survive through the ages. In fact, the Byzantine empire spanned a time period rivaling China in terms of length, and they were constantly reinventing their laws, their culture, and their beliefs with every changing era. From religion, to art, to languages, and laws, the Byzantine people were adapting like we often do in the modern age. Through identifying these patterns we can make connections with the Byzantine empire of the past to the origins of our culture in the present.