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Who pays for infrastructure in the United States?

(This is part two in a series of posts on infrastructure investment.)

I imagine a lot of people would be surprised to learn that the vast majority of infrastructure investment is made by state and local governments and not the federal government, considering that debate tends to focus on the latter. I imagine no one would be surprised that infrastructure investment in the United States has remained mostly flat for several decades.

From Barry Bosworth and Sveta Milusheva, Innovations in US Infrastructure Financing: An Evaluation:

It is noteworthy that state and local governments are responsible for an overwhelming proportion (85 percent) of public infrastructure investment, though the federal government does make a financial contribution through its capital grants to the states. Adjusted for inflation, investment spending peaked as a share of GDP in the 1960s and fell sharply during the 1970s. The decline was largely the result of the completion of the interstate highway system and a cycle in the construction of education buildings to meet the needs of the baby-boom generation. Since 1980, the rate of public investment has been relatively stable, averaging about 2.5 percent of GDP. It contrasts with an average of 3.5 percent of GDP during the 1960s. It is also important to note that investment is measured in constant prices because the cost of construction rose much faster than that of GDP as a whole during the 2000s.

State and local government bonds

State and local governments primarily finance capital projects through the issuance of tax-exempt municipal bonds. These are usually amortizing loans (meaning that the government pays the principal amount down annually — this is very different than how the federal government borrows money) with long terms that match the long useful lives of the projects being financed.

There are basically three types of municipal bonds, which are categorized by the types of pledges they involve (i.e., what sources of revenue will be used to repay what has been borrowed with interest):

(1) General obligation bonds — These bonds are backed by the full faith, credit, and ability to levy taxes of the government that is borrowing the funds;

(2) Revenue bonds — These bonds are backed by a specific revenue stream, usually either revenues that are generated by the project being constructed or a lease arrangement with a government borrower; and

(3) Special assessment bonds — These bonds are backed by specific taxes or fees assessed by the government to offset the costs associated with new development in an area.

The question of whether borrowing for capital projects primarily takes place at the state or local level is resolved differently from state to state according to their political structures, legal constraints (constitutional provisions, tax and expenditure limitations, and so on), and cultural preferences.

From Robert Greer in Determinants of Debt Concentration at the State Level:

State governments have determined the debt issuing responsibility, either directly or indirectly, in different ways. For example, some states like Texas and Georgia have maintained a relatively low portion of total state and local debt at the state level. Over the last thirty years in Texas the state government has only issued 20% of the total state and local debt in real per capita dollars. Conversely, states like Massachusetts have issued about 80% of total debt at the state levels. A third category of states that includes New York have switched between periods where the state government issued a larger portion of the debt and where local governments issued a larger portion … The majority of state dominant states are concentrated in the northeast, while the majority of local dominant states are in the south and southwest.

This is a feature of infrastructure investment (and related taxation) that is often overlooked and makes some generalizations unfair. The populations that bear the weight of paying for infrastructure vary depending on which sources have been pledged to retire debt (or to fund projects outright) and how political power is divvied up at the state and local levels.

Read More Here : http://kristiculpepper.tumblr.com/post/107694625407/who-pays-for-infrastructure-in-the-united-states