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Works Cited

Abdullah Frères (Ottoman, 1858–1899). Album of Photographs of Views of the Interior of the Ottoman Military Museum in the Former Church of St. Irene, Constantinople (Vues de Sainte Irène, Constantinople). 1891. Albumen prints, paper, leather, textile, gold, L. 17 3/4 in. (45.1 cm); H. 13 in. (33.0 cm); W. 2 3/8 in. (6.0 cm). Album of Photographs of Views of the Interior of the Ottoman Military Museum in the Former Church of St. Irene, Constantinople (Vues de Sainte Irène, Constantinople) [2016.649]. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. https://jstor.org/stable/community.34623840.

Abdullah Frères (Ottoman, 1858–1899). Album of Photographs of Views of the Interior of the Ottoman Military Museum in the Former Church of St. Irene, Constantinople (Vues de Sainte Irène, Constantinople). 1891. Albumen prints, paper, leather, textile, gold, L. 17 3/4 in. (45.1 cm); H. 13 in. (33.0 cm); W. 2 3/8 in. (6.0 cm). Album of Photographs of Views of the Interior of the Ottoman Military Museum in the Former Church of St. Irene, Constantinople (Vues de Sainte Irène, Constantinople) [2016.649]. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. https://jstor.org/stable/community.34623835.

Ágoston, Gábor, HABSBURGS AND OTTOMANS: Defense, Military Change and Shifts in Power.

Ágoston, Gábor, Firearms and Military Adaptation: The Ottomans and the European Military Revolution, 1450-1800.

ANDRADE, TONIO. The Gunpowder Age: China, Military Innovation, and the Rise of the West in World History. Princeton University Press, 2016. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvc77j74.

Börekçi̇, Günhan. “A CONTRIBUTION TO THE MILITARY REVOLUTION DEBATE: THE JANISSARIES USE OF VOLLEY FIRE DURING THE LONG OTTOMAN—HABSBURG WAR OF 1593—1606 AND THE PROBLEM OF ORIGINS.” Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 59, no. 4 (2006): 407–38.

Brummett, Palmira. “Foreign Policy, Naval Strategy, and the Defence of the Ottoman Empire in the Early Sixteenth Century.” The International History Review 11, no. 4 (1989): 613–27.

Dean, Sidney E. “Ziska’s Wagenburg: Mobile Fortress of the Hussite Wars.” Medieval Warfare 6, no. 1 (2016): 43–46. 

Górski, Szymon, and Ewelina Wilczynska. “Jan Žižka’s Wagons of War: How the Hussite Wars Changed the Medieval Battlefield.” Medieval Warfare 2, no. 3 (2012): 27–34.

Grant, Johnathan, Rethinking the Ottoman “Decline”: Military Technology Diffusion in the Ottoman Empire, Fifteenth to Eighteenth Centuries.

Hoffman, Philip T., Prices, the military revolution, and western Europe’s comparative advantage in violence.

Ligozzi, Jacopo (Italian, Verona 1547–1627 Florence). A Janissary “of War” with a Lion. ca. 1577–80. Watercolor, gouache, gold paint, gum arabic, and burnishing, 11 1/8 x 8 13/16in. (28.2 x 22.4cm). A Janissary “of War” with a Lion [1997.21]. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. https://jstor.org/stable/community.18691204.

Kadercan, Burak. “Strong Armies, Slow Adaptation: Civil-Military Relations and the Diffusion of Military Power.” International Security 38, no. 3 (2013): 117–52. 

Khan, Iqtidar Alam. “Gunpowder and Empire: Indian Case.” Social Scientist 33, no. ¾ (2005): 54–65.

Pálffy, Géza. “SCORCHED-EARTH TACTICS IN OTTOMAN HUNGARY: ON A CONTROVERSY IN MILITARY THEORY AND PRACTICE ON THE HABSBURG—OTTOMAN FRONTIER.” Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 61, no. ½ (2008): 181–200.

Tellis, Gerard, J. How Transformative Innovations Shaped the Rise of Nations: From Ancient Rome to Modern America.

*Note: I cannot do hanging indents.

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Gunpowder in the Ottoman Empire

Gunpowder was first invented in Ancient China and served medicinal and mystical purposes. It was first used through the Mongols in their invasions of the Middle East in the 13th century. As they conquered parts of China, the knowledge of gunpowder got out and got spread through trading. After scholars studying the substance, it led to people understanding its potential outside of its traditional uses.

The Ottoman Empire got ahold of the delicacy through the Silk Road, as the other "Gunpowder Empires" (Safavids, Mughals) did as well. It took scholars to understand gunpowder before recognizing it as something that could be applied in the military. They understood gunpowder as something important and powerful and further studied it before they were manufactured and received from European neighbors.

Gunpowder allowed a shift from bows and swords to cannons, grenades, and firearms. It allowed them to breach walls quicker, fire faster, and do significant damage from far away. The Ottomans were able to fortify their cities from the use of gunpowder weaponry as well as improved their defenses.

It allowed military tactics to improve since there was a shift from cavalry to artillery and infantry on the battlefield. This included the start up of Janissaries, the Ottoman Empire's elite troops, their difficult training, improvements to cavalry, the Imperial Navy, and tactics made possible through gunpowder such as guerrilla warfare, siege warfare, and hit-and-run attacks.

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Comparison of the Gunpowder Empires and their usage of gunpowder

As mentioned before, the Ottoman Empire adopted firearms early, such as around the 14th century. They had skilled military men, such as the Janissaries and the Sipahis. The Janissaries played an important role and were a driving force of the Ottoman Empire, but the Sipahis were the heart of the Ottoman cavalry. They also dominated the Mediterranean Sea with their navy, which contributed to the empire's expansion of territory and control of trade routes.

The other Gunpowder Empires, such as the Safavids and the Mughals, embraced firearms within their military and had well-trained units as well. They also had a strong cavalry in both empires, such as the Qizilbash cavalry being strong within the Safavid Empire and also known for their loyalty to the Shah. The Mughals also had a strong cavalry which was significant in their military conquests. However, they did not have as good as a naval presence as the Ottomans. They did not play a role in maintaining the Mediterranean and focused more on land-based military campaigns. Despite the Ottomans being well-known for their usage of siege warfare, the Safavids and Mughals also engaged in it. They, however, did not have the same level of expertise as the Ottomans, such as with terrain, but were able to capture fortified cities and castles.

However, all three of the Gunpowder Empires had different tactics to work with since they all had different terrain. The Ottoman Empire was a large empire that had control of parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa, which posed several different geographical challenges and required a large military force. Especially since they needed protection from multiple angles, both on land and sea.

The Safavid Empire was mostly a landlocked territory that only had to worry about the Arabian Sea. They also had a smaller territory which spanned over the Middle East. Their geographical location influenced their military strategies and priorities, such as not having a navy (or a strong one) due to being mostly surrounded by land and mountains.

The Mughal Empire was another empire with a large territory in South Asia, which also had diverse geographical features such as fields, mountains, and deserts. They posed several different challenges and required a large military force as well.

However, with them all being Gunpowder Empires and having access to gunpowder, they were able to develop and advance strong firearms such as muskets, pistols, and cannons. All three empires had units specifically for handling special types of artillery, such as the Janissaries, Sipahis, and Qizilbash.

Cannons made siege warfare a lot easier as large caliber cannons could break down walls easily and quickly. They also led to the construction of new fortresses and tactics, such as star-shaped fortresses to withstand bombardment. With the increasing firearm power, it changed the way wars were fought and the outcomes of them.

Overall, gunpowder was able to advance technology such as going from swords and sabres, to muskets, to flintlock muskets, to pistols, and to cannons that could either break down walls or be on the move. It also allowed them to expand and upgrade their military, like the navy and cavalry, which only allowed them to grow stronger before all three fell.

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Ottoman Cavalry

The Ottoman cavalry was another important role to the military, and greatly aided the Janissaries in war. They had multiple types of cavalry: sipahis, akinji, Deli, and Silahtars.

Sipahis were known as "regular cavalry". They were typically granted land in exchange for their military service. They were often expected to provide their own equipment, such as horse, armor, and weapons, and were organized based on the feudal system. There were various categories of sipahis, ziamets and timars.

Ziamets had larger land grants and timars had smaller land grants. The size of the land determined the amount of troops a Sipahi was expected to have.

The second type, Akinji, were "irregular light cavalry". They were known for their hit-and-run tactics, which are short surprise attacks and then withdrawing before the enemy can respond. They were used for relaying information, raiding enemy territory, and intercepting enemy supply lines.

One of the elite units, the Deli, were heavily armed and well-trained cavalry. They were known for being fearless in battle. They used shock tactics and were placed in the front lines. They were similar to the Hussars, which were members of light cavalry in Central Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries, but were unique to the Ottomans.

Another one of the elite units, the Silahtars, were a bodyguard used in the palace of the Ottoman Empire for the purpose of protecting the sultan.

Over time, the Ottoman Empire changed their cavalry tactics. They used shock tactics, which was when one charged an enemy with lances and swords. They then later progressed to using firearms such as muskets and pistols. The Ottoman Empire's cavalry was known for their speed and mobility due to their high success rate of flanking maneuvers and the pursuit of enemies.

They were also skilled archers, so they could engage in enemies from a long distance before firearms were introduced. Just like the navy, the Ottoman cavalry worked with the infantry and artillery.

The Ottoman cavalry also had a system where they were organized into hierarchal units.

They also had other uses, such as maintaining order, collecting taxes, ensuring the wellbeing of others, and being bodyguards amongst many other tasks.

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The Ottoman Empire and Cannons

Despite the Ottomans not becoming self-sufficient in manufacturing until the 18th century, they began using cannons in the 14th century.

Ways the Ottomans used cannons in their military was for sieges and field battles. With having a lot of different fighting techniques, they had different types of cannons for what they needed.

The Ottomans used large caliber cannons to breach fortifications and walls, allowing for successful assaults on fortified cities.

One type of cannon the Ottomans used were large siege cannons also known as the "Basilica" or "Basilic Cannon". It was first built and introduced in the 14th century with the idea of it being strong enough to smash [fortress] walls. It was a heavy and difficult to move cannon. The cannonball itself could be shot about a mile and weighed 1,200 pounds. It was extremely powerful which often led to it being used to take down fortifications, fortress walls, and even cities. It contributed to the fall of Constantinople from its damage on its walls in 1453.

Other types of cannons used by the Ottoman Empire were medium and smaller range cannons. They were designed to be more portable than the large caliber one [Basilic] and served purposes such as fighting field battles.

They allowed the Ottoman Empire to bring more artillery firepower to the battlefield aside from muskets, flintlocks, swords, and cavalry to name a few.

One of the downsides aside from the Basilic's weight was how slow it fired. Medium and smaller range cannons excelled in rapid-fire, could be deployed quickly, easily moved [through mounting on carriages], adaptable, and could be used for offensive or defensive fighting.

The Ottoman Empire was said to have the most medium-caliber cannons, which fired projectiles that weighed between 0.33 and 2 pounds.

They were often placed next to infantry units. There were special infantry units that were trained to operate, maintenance, and fire cannons. In order to fire a cannon, they must aim, load, and fire, which is through gunpowder being ignited by a fuse.

Despite being small, they still packaged a significant caliber and did damage. Their size helped them in certain situations, such as fighting in smaller areas, like in cities as opposed to an open battlefield. Them being mounted on carriages allowed for easy maneuverability which could quickly get position through narrow roads.

Aside from being on the battlefield, these cannons were also put in Ottoman castles. They also played a part in the Ottoman navy as the warships were able to hold the smaller cannons, which dominated in sea battles.

An example of small Ottoman cannons are the "Culverin" or "Kolunburna", which is a long-barreled cannon. Another is the "Falconet" which is a smaller caliber cannon used for field battles.

As time progressed, the Ottomans transitioned from the traditional bronze cannons they often used to more advanced ones, which included iron and steel. They also had improved firing mechanisms and were able to fire quicker.

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The Ottoman Empire and Manufacturing

The Ottoman Empire was one of the first world powers (or empires) to integrate firearms into their military, which significantly improved it.

In the 14th and 15th centuries, the Ottoman Empire was exposed to firearms through trading and its neighboring regions. During this time, the Ottomans were behind as they had huge, unwieldly weapons whereas European powers had small, mobile weapons.

This was due to the Ottomans unable to manufacture firearms themselves. The way that they were receiving them were through confiscating them from rivals in past battles, such as with the Hungarians, or imported from the British. They were dependent on the European military for manufacturing their firearms and then shipping them to the Ottoman Empire.

In the 18th century, the Ottoman Empire became self-sufficient in manufacturing in cannons and powder. That was due to them having an abundance of copper, iron, and lead necessary for powder manufacturing, but unfortunately lacked tin.

Aside from firearms and cannons, the Ottomans succeeded in other manufactured goods. They excelled in weaponry such as swords and armor which were crucial for the Janissaries. This was due to metalworkers and blacksmiths within the cities. Not to mention ships such as merchant ships and galleys.

Due to other strong manufacturing areas, such as textiles, ceramics, glassmaking and metalworking, they were able to trade with other neighboring regions which contributed to the Ottoman's prosperity and the way they received firearms in a time they could not manufacture them.

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Ottoman Military Techniques: Siege Warfare

Another tactic the Ottoman military used is siege warfare. The Cambridge Dictionary defines siege warfare as, "a form of constant, low-intensity conflict characterized by one party holding a strong, static, defensive position" and also with the goal to "drive one out".

The Ottoman's were able to use siege warfare so successfully was due to being a Gunpowder Empire and their mastery in cannons, especially large caliber ones. They often had workshops set outside of cities which would produce cannons or other artillery pieces.

A way that they would use this tactic is to have an Ottoman military commander get the "inside scoop" of the city that was about to be attacked. They would assess the strength of the fortress, such as identifying its weak points, as well as the strength of the enemy's defenses.

The Ottoman military used a technique also known as "countermining", where they would dig tunnels underneath enemy fortresses and undermine their structures or intercept the enemy's defenses. After digging those tunnels, they would sometimes plant explosives as a way to further weaken the fortress if the tunnels had not done that already.

Another way they used this tactic was through battering rams, which would break down gates and walls. The large caliber cannons would fire at the walls of the fortress and weaken them, then the military would use the battering ram to break through.

Before they would even attack a city, they would form a barrier to prevent any supplies from getting in or out.

Sometimes, the Ottomans would use psychological warfare against the city they were besieging by threats to the city [enemy] and make fun of their defenses.

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Ottoman Military Techniques: The Imperial Navy

The Ottoman Empire's navy, known as the "Imperial Navy" emerged as early as the 14th century.

In the beginning, they used "galiot" ships, which are small, shallow galley ships. Galley ships are powered by oars and sails. They were able to swiftly sail the Mediterranean Sea. Galiot ships were able to carry small caliber cannons. As the navy progressed and military enhanced, they upgraded to bigger galley ships.

Aside from galley ships, they used frigates, brigantines, and sailing ships within their navy. Just like the Janissaries having specific infantrymen to maintain the cannons, the navy had naval arsenals that built, repaired, and maintained the navy's ships.

Due to having smaller ships that were quick and easy to navigate, the Ottomans used that to their advantage. They were able to establish dominance and control trade routes between Europe and Asia within the Mediterranean Sea. They engaged in pirating activities, which targeted enemy ships and disrupted trade routes. The Ottoman navy also worked with the army such as securing coastlines.

The Ottomans were great shipbuilders and used advanced naval artillery, such as cannons on their ships. However, the navy declined due to several reasons, such as a lack of resources and advancing technology they could not keep up with. Despite that, they played a significant role in the Ottoman Empire's military strength.

A notable battle the Ottoman Imperial Navy fought is the Battle of Lepanto (1571) against the Holy League, which the Ottoman navy experienced most of its ships sunk.

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Ottoman Military Techniques: Ambush and Guerrilla Warfare

Guerrilla Warfare is another tactic the Ottoman Empire employed as a military tactic. Encyclopedia Britannica defines guerrilla warfare as, "type of warfare fought by irregulars in fast-moving, small-scale actions against orthodox military". They used tactics such as ambushes, hit-and-run attacks, and sabotage. This was done through their smaller-scale military against the enemy's larger army.

One reason they deployed guerrilla warfare was to establish dominance and their presence in an area. This was in places, such as small towns, where they resisted Ottoman authority or control. The Ottoman military could set up camp inside of a house as one way to use this tactic.

A way that the guerrilla warfare tactic worked was due to the diverse geography of the Ottoman Empire. Due to it being a large conquered area of land, it had different types of geography such as mountains, forests, deserts, plains, and rivers. Mountains, forests, and deserts were the perfect place to deploy the guerrilla warfare tactic because only those who knew the area knew where to hide and ambush the enemy from.

For example, in the Vietnam War (1955-1975), the Vietnamese were able to ambush the Americans from the trees due to them having the advantage of knowing the terrain and the familiarity of the area, unlike the Americans.

They often set up ambushes in smaller places, such as forests and narrow passageways on mountains, as well as launch surprise attacks then retreat before a larger army could respond.

Another way they deployed this tactic was by targeting supply lines and disrupting the flow of resources to enemies. This weakened the enemy and did not allow them to keep up a long military campaign.

However, Ottoman guerrilla fighters did more than just fight and disrupt enemies. They helped protect Ottoman communities and provided a safe space for them to live.

Despite it being a tactic the Ottoman Empire used in their army, it was not an official tactic they used. It was often used by smaller groups within the empire and used by local populations as a way to help the military. The military, however, did use certain tactics in their battles such as ambushing an enemy in familiar terrain.

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Ottoman Military Techniques: The Scorched Earth Tactic

One tactic the Ottoman Empire employed in their military is known as the "Scorched Earth" tactic. This tactic included purposefully destroying or depriving the enemy's resources, especially agriculture [food, water] and settlements, to prohibit them from having anything that allows them to fight a war.

The Ottoman military normally employed this tactic during military campaigns, especially when they were retreating or facing an enemy that was advancing toward them.

The way it worked was destroying as much as one could. Ottoman military commanders would order crops, granaries, and farms to be destroyed as it would deplete the enemy's foodstuffs. This made it difficult for the enemy to replenish their food and would displace them.

In addition to agriculture, settlements such as towns and villages were also set on fire. This took away the enemy's food, shelter, and other resources but also made it difficult for the enemy to remain control over the territory.

The populations fled to safer areas and ones with more supplies, which left behind burnt towns and farms. The Ottomans would then destroy bridges, roads, and other ways for the enemy to escape which would ultimately "back them into a corner". They would also poison water sources, such as wells, rivers, and creeks as another way for the enemy to fall to the Ottoman's and not continue to replenish their troops; it would leave the enemy weak.

However, Ottoman military commanders had to be careful about where they set fire to. They had to consider factors such as if the Ottoman Empire planned on conquering that land, the availability of resources, enemy's location, and how it would impact government.

It was one of the strongest Ottoman military tactics, and set the stage for militaries across the world until the 1900s when the technique was banned.

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The Ottoman Empire's Janissaries and their weaponry

At first, Janissaries were equipped with muskets [matchlocks]. These muskets were heavier and less practical than European muskets, but better than Portuguese ones. They had two types: lighter and shorter muskets for volleys, and heavier and longer siege guns for long-range.

Their guns were similar to European matchlocks, which was the most favored weapon of the time. However, there was often multiple different manufacturing styles the Janissaries used due to the dependence on other places. They were technically able to make their own rifles for infantry, however, were unable to keep up because of lacking machines and warehouses to manufacture parts. They imported the Martini Henry, Henry and Winchester from the British, Americans, Germans, and Austro-Hungarians before transitioning to fully making their own.

Due to the Janissaries being trained in multiple types of combat, they also were equipped with different types of weaponry. Aside from muskets, they also had swords and sabres. They were used for close combat situations when a musket was impractical to use. Janissaries also had daggers which was useful for hand-to-hand combat or utility purposes, and were easier to carry or conceal. They also had other utility weapons such as knives or hatchets which was useful for fieldwork or camping leading up to field battle.

Sometimes they were equipped with spears or long-poles, which were often used in formation-based combat, such as the volley fire. This was mainly seen before the use of firearms and early on in the Ottoman Empire.

Since they often were in close combat, Janissaries carried a small, round shield known as a "buckler". It was used for personal protection during fighting.

Besides firearms, some Janissaries were skilled in other types of long-range warfare, such as bows and arrows.

Aside from weaponry, Janissaries wore armor. They wore chainmail, helmets, and sometimes breastplates. The use of heavy armor did not stick around long as warfare evolved. Also, as warfare evolved, Janissaries were eventually equipped with bayonets, but were late in introducing it.

The Ottoman's had rumi guns, where in the butt of the weapon, they had a steel knife which could be used to stab the enemy if he was close.

Overall, these were similar weapons that were produced in China, but were easy to manufacture due to the Ottoman Empire succeeding in metalworking.

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Hungarian Matchlocks, or "Arquebus"

Hungarian Matchlocks, also known as "Arquebus" were a type of firearm that was used in Hungary and its surrounding regions as early as 1543. It was introduced via trading with other European nations.

They were often used by Janissaries and other gunpowder empires besides the Ottomans such as the Habsburgs and Safavids.

Hungarian Matchlocks were muzzle-loading guns that had a burning match cord which ignited gunpowder. When that lit fuse hit the gunpowder, it fired a shot. They provided infantry with a reliable, powerful weapon compared to bows and arrows.

One reason the Janissaries used them were due to how easy they were to produce. They were readily available to armies and had one of the most reliable and easy to use design compared to earlier firearm designs. Matchlocks were effective at short to medium ranges, such as in the Janissary volley fire.

As time progressed, matchlocks were replaced with guns that had faster ignition systems known as flintlock muskets, but remained a crucial part for war during this time period.

They did have a downside, which was when they were used against Ottoman mounted archers. The archers had better firing range, speed, and range as opposed to the matchlocks, which fired a lot slower.

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Janissary Volley Fire and Tactics

Janissaries were trained to fight in tight, disciplined formations. This allowed them to present a unified front and maximize the effectiveness of their firepower. One way they used this was through the "Volley Fire" which was taken through European tactics and something the Janissaries mastered during the Ottoman Empire.

Volley Firing was when a line of soldiers were chained together with a firearm, such as a musket, and fired their weapons all together at enemy forces on command. This was followed by lines of soldiers repeating it in turns, such as the first row, second row, then third row. They would reload their firearms after they shot.

In addition to their "volley fire" or "barrage fire" as it is also known, they used bayonets to fight in closer distances. They were able to quickly adjust to their surroundings and go from melee combat to long-ranged combat as needed.

Janissaries were known for their ability to breach fortifications and lead assaults on enemy positions. They did this through several techniques such as ambushes. This would disrupt the enemy as the Janissaries would outflank the enemy's cavalry that charged first, then the Janissaries would charge them.

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Janissaries

The Janissaries were the Ottoman Empire's elite infantry corps and known for their discipline, loyalty, and effectiveness on the battlefield. They were established in the 14th century by Sultan Murad I and played an important role in the Ottoman military as well as their politics. They were also the first standing modern army in Europe.

They were recruited under the devshirme system, which was when Christian boys were taken captive from their homes, mainly in the Balkan provinces, converted to Islam, then underwent a series of tests to determine their

Christian boys were recruited by force to serve the Ottoman government. The boys were generally between ages 8-18, taken from the Balkan provinces, converted to Islam, and then passed through a series of examinations to determine their intelligence and physical potential, which would benefit the military on the battlefield.

In the military, they originally had bows, sabers, shields, and light coats of mail. Janissaries were skilled in melee combat and this is where they flourished. However, as technology advanced, they upgraded to rifles, such as muskets, and were later equipped with handguns, which were effective in ranged combat.

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The Wagenburg Tactic

The "Wagenburg Tactic", also known as the "Wagon Fortress" was a tactic used in the 15th. It was developed in Eastern Europe, mainly by the Hussites, which was a religious movement that originated in Bohemia. This tactic was used during the Hussite Wars (1419-1434).

It was a tactic known to dominate most battlefields. The tactic was forming a box or circle of vehicles, typically wagons, as an improvised fort or military camp, usually when under risk of imminent attack by an enemy.

The primary purpose of the Wagenburg was to provide a mobile and defensible position for troops, especially against stronger troops. They were able to be quickly joined together and had nearly impenetrable forces that could hold off almost any attack. They could also quickly be dissembled afterward.

The typical formation was a circle or a rectangle of wagons that were arranged together in a defensed formation. The wagons were placed closely together and those spaces between were filled with materials such as earth, stones, sticks, and other materials to help solidify the fortress.

The wagons provided a solid barrier to the soldiers that protected them from arrows, spears, and sometimes cavalry charges. They could use their elevated position to their advantage, such as shooting as enemy forces while being shielded from the enemy's attacks.

It was especially useful during cavalry attacks since this was a prominent method of fighting in medieval warfare.

However, it was less effective against well-trained artillery and firearms, which could shoot through the wood or other materials they were barricaded behind. As technology advanced and long-range weapons became more prominent, the Wagenburg Tactic was not as useful.

While it was dominating the battlefield, several empires used this tactic from the Hussites. One of them being the important Ottoman Empire.