#it's purely up to reader interpretation though. hence not being included in the only two things you need to know

[anistarrose]

I have this TAZ Balance modern AU in my head that I'll never write, but that's okay, because there's literally only two things that you need to know about it:

Kravitz and Barry both have graduate degrees

Barry and Kravitz are not using their graduate degrees even a little bit in their current career, which is running a really shitty, scam-adjacent ghost-busting business out of a garage together

[an-annyeoing-writer]

EXO Yandere Headcanons

Please keep in mind these are yandere headcanons, and therefore they: - don’t portray EXO members as they truly are; - may include potentially triggering themes, such as abusive relationships, drug use and violence; - are still only headcanons, based off my own interpretation of how the members’ personality could work in this AU, but not being the only/wrong perception in comparison to what other writers/readers may prefer.

Xiumin

Minseok is a very patient and understanding person, who is also very well aware of his own weaknesses. As a matter of fact, he knows what he feels and that it’s not socially acceptable. But he doesn’t feel a particular need to fight this part of him, instead, he opts to hide it for the time being because he knows how dangerous it may be. He goes as a completely innocent person and for a long time, even you don’t know what’s up his sleeve.

Only when he feels safe and ensured that you’re too engaged emotionally to leave him, does he allow himself to loosen up. He slowly eases you into feeling more and more dependant on him, his purpose is to make you his pet, and for him, it’s like an enjoyable game to win over your self preservation and social instincts. He takes his time pushing you into complete obedience.

Whatever your reaction to his suggestions is, he doesn’t deem to hurt you, he may only change his strategy because he believes he can achieve what he wants with proper approach more than getting physical or threatening you. He still respects you as a person and knows what he’s doing is not normal, so he understands why you’d want to reject him. 

Outside, he never shows it though. To the world, he’s the same good man as always, and with you - he’s soft as well, not wanting to get on your bad side and knowing that your trust is crucial here. If he ever feels like he’s overdoing it, he’ll want to fix it so that what he achieves doesn’t ruin your mental state and if you’re to ever break up, you’ll be able to carry on your life (while still making you, for the time being, unable to imagine life without him). He feels responsible for you, especially since he knows how toxic his doings are.

Suho

He’s a natural leader; he always stays in control and you were aware of this trait before you two even started dating. Maybe it was exactly what attracted you? His personality makes it easy to depend on him, so since the very beginning of your relationship you naturally become the inferior part. 

His way of controlling you is subtle, there’s no red flags, no danger that you could sense earlier. He’s protective like any boyfriend would be, and that - you can accept. It’s more about the way he always keeps his eye on you and hints whom you should and shouldn’t meet, not restraining you but choosing how your life should go. Since his superiority is natural, you’re actually more willing to listen to him, because he gives off the aura of “I know what’s the best for you”.

He’s very thoughtful and keeps his doubts to himself, working his way to wrapping you around his finger without you (or anyone else) realizing it. He slowly makes you depend on him more and more, until it’s you who clings onto him, never the other way around; he makes you believe it’s you who needs him to even breathe.

He doesn’t need to use violence or threats. The toxicity he provides is subtle enough to go unnoticed, and as long as you don’t want to leave him, no one will notice how broken had your mentality become, with you being unable to make decisions of your own, or panicking if you don’t see him for a little too long. But he also trusts you, and knows that you wouldn’t leave him, hence why he doesn’t mind providing you some freedom. Well, unless you don’t want it anymore, of course.

Lay

Yixing sees you as an angel since the very beginning, perceiving you as the best that could ever happen to him or to the world itself. You’re perfect and all he could ever dream of. It looks innocent and pure at first, and so does your relationship. But Lay sees the world as a potential source of corruption, and he’s ensured only he can protect you from it. Although at first he sees you as a blessing, praying so that you’d never leave him, the trust you put in him is a proof that only he can keep you safe.

He naturally wants you to cut down contact with the outside world, including going out (he can take care of you, so you don’t need to leave), or people (friends? Family? Nah-ah, they’ll only want to corrupt you). If you don’t do anything against it, he’ll slowly deprive you of everything that’s not him. But if you try to struggle - he’ll think that it’s the world’s fault for putting lies in your head, and he has to help you, since he believes he does only what’s the best for you. In the end, you cannot escape him.

He never gets violent or mad at you, because no mistake you make is actually your fault; instead, he wants you to understand and accept him. But if necessary, he’ll restrain you physically so that you don’t go around hurting yourself. He doesn’t want to cause you pain or leave bruises on you, so he’s more likely to lock you somewhere than to tie you down. He may be up to drug use if he can’t get you follow him out of your own free will, but he’ll always be endlessly careful with these.

The only way for him to lose confidence in his doings is to see you change under his care, to see your personality and mental health wither under his influence, and even though he’d rather you don’t try to fight him, when he sees you give up it’ll cause him to think that he may, too, be corrupting you; any signs that what he’s doing to you causes you harm will be hurtful to him as well.

Baekhyun

The cheerful, innocent person Baekhyun usually is, is definitely somewhat real. It’s the side you see every day, the one friends and fans see as genuine. But there’s also another part of him - the one that shows at times during performances, and in some other occasions, but which he works well to keep in charge and show only if desired, so it looks like a made-up stage persona, even if it’s not.

When you two meet, he knows that he doesn’t want to scare you out with his other self, and he works on keeping himself in check. But the more you two engage emotionally, the harder it becomes to control himself. He finds himself urging to show his other side to you, and the very moment emotions overcome his common sense, is when he'll start to change, sometimes still being your sweet boyfriend, but sometimes becoming someone you don’t recognize; a possessive person who treats you like a playtoy. 

You’ll probably consider it just an act at first, maybe even find it attractive (especially since he'll only behave like this in bedroom at first) - and it may take quite long, because his personality will develop with time; Baekhyun will allow himself more and more, until you realize it’s no act, and he may suddenly lock you up for days, until he decides you’ve had enough or until his soft side takes over again.

Baekhyun’s evil side can get violent, threaten you and physically restrain your freedom. He doesn’t care for rules or punishments, because all he does is for his enjoyment, and he just does to you what he feels like doing. But that violent side can easily change into the soft, clingy one, and at those moments, when he’s more of “himself”, Baekhyun will plead for you not to leave him, to reassure him because at this point, he’s just as scared as you are.

Chen

Jongdae has a heart of a giver, that much you conclude fairly quickly. He’s always ready to sacrifice himself for other people, so of course everyone appreciates him in their lives. It makes it impossible to hate him, and it’s what probably made you fall for him as much as you did. However, as the person he feels strongly about but also comfortable around, you become his way to maintain the balance - with how much he gives, he takes it all back from you. 

He’s ready to grant almost every wish of yours, but such honor has its price. You should be grateful for his presence in your life and always deem to please him, to do what’s the best for your relationship and never try to disobey his own wishes; if he asks you to cut down contact with your family, you’re supposed to do that - otherwise, it shows how ungrateful you are. He’ll complain and whine a lot, acting like he’s the one hurt there, until you do what he expects you to. After all, how dare you hurt such angel?

His word is a command, and he guides you into believing that you simply owe him obedience and submission. If necessary, he’ll make people hate you, either by spreading gosspis or making up scenes that look like you’re hurting him or being unfair, and since he’s an angel, everyone will believe him; in the end, you won’t have anyone else in the world but him.

He’s never violent, but he always let you know that you do something he doesn’t like, even by as much as scolding you and pointing out your mistakes in front of other people. His punishments are cruel and deem to scare you more than cause you pain; he may leave you alone somewhere you can’t get out of, or expose you to something you’re really afraid of. But he’ll always make sure you’re safe afterwards, because after all, he’s such a good boyfriend, isn’t he?

Chanyeol

Chanyeol is a sweetheart for most of the time, and that much everyone knows. Even to you, he tries to be as good as possible. The darker parts of his mind are something he’s not fully aware nor in control of. He doesn’t mean any harm to you or your friends, sometimes it just... happens.

His main trigger is jealousy. He’d probably be a perfect boyfriend if not for that. He doesn’t get jealous too easily because he trusts you - but when he really feels like his position is threatened, he may instantly turn violent towards whoever is trying to take you away. His anger is something he cannot control, and he won’t stop until his thirst for blood is satiated or until someone resetrains him physically. It’s impossible to calm him down, he’ll end up arrested more than once. 

If it’s you who gave him a reason to worry - he may snap at you, even get physical. He'll yell a lot and maybe lock you up somewhere; his wrath is primal, he won’t make up any sorts of punishments, he’ll just act on his anger until he calms down. He may cause you pain by grabbing you too roughly, but he has to be really mad to punch or slap you; if it ever happens, he’s very likely to realize that he’s gone too far and actually needs to calm down before he does something he may regret.

Just like Baekhyun, he also has those soft moods, especially hours after a burst out, and he regrets every single bad thing he’d said or done to you. The fact he doesn’t control himself terrifies him and causes him to be awfully insecure with himself, and he believes that you’re the only one who can help him in any way. Whether you actually can or not - he’ll do anything to keep you by his side.

D.O

I think Kyungsoo is the type to hide his emotions when he’s not sure of them just yet. He takes his time and doesn’t “jump” into anything sudden. The relationship of the two of you develops constantly, which means he demands more and more of you, to the point of everything in your lives becoming common. I see him as a type to give into a relationship everything he has and expect no less in return; even though it takes time, he eventually engages himself fully. The thing is, you have no choice but to do the same.

He may get annoyed if you refuse, or if you need more time to adjust than he thinks you should. He perceives himself as a very patient and understanding person, so when he actually finds something wrong in your behavior, there're no excuses - you have to change.

He makes sure you know how good he is to you, so the only way to make him soften is to appreciate his efforts and actually engage as much as he does. He has his perfect vision of your relationship, and he’ll push you into it until you finally achieve it. But then, he always sees a room for improvement; his demands never stop, and the only way to please him is to do exactly what he says the very moment he does.

He only gets violent if it’s necessary. If anything bad happens, it’s most likely on you (but he doesn’t like to punish you - he’d rather you acknowledge your wrongs); if needed, he’ll also let the surrounding people know not to mess with you, but it won’t happen often. He won’t cut you off the world, he wants you to live your life; to attend the school he chooses and then work where he wishes for you to (the best is wherever he is as well). Your circle of friends will also depend on his liking. 

Kai

Jongin lives with his own vision of a relationship. He imagines the two of you as a perfect couple, meant for each other, but what he sees, is not necessarily you. It means that he wants you to nothing but change to suit his fantasies. He gets mad at you easily, and doesn’t hesitate before scolding you wherever you are at the moment, as if you were more of a pet than his beloved.

He wants the world to see you two as he imagines, but it’s not really likely to happen due to his unpredictable behavior. He’s calm and composed most of the time, but he snaps if you do something he doesn’t approve of, becoming violent, humilating and degrading you, even in front of other people, because he believes he has the right to do so.

His purpose is to train you and nothing you do may make him change his mind. His punishments may be unpredictable and painful, but they’re always meant for you to learn your lesson. More than to love you, he wants to selfishly own you. Just like Baekhyun, he has this darker side in him, but he doesn’t see anything wrong in it. He may take out his anger on you, treating you as an object to use more than a person with feelings.

Once you accept your place, he may become more lenient with you. Having to tend to you is troublesome to him as well, so he’s more comfortable when you actually do as he pleases. Since he may sometimes not be willing to care for you and leave you somewhere for weeks even, it may seem like he’s getting bored of you. But it’s not the case. He doesn’t have to see you to feel comfortable with the thought that you’re there waiting for him, no matter if out of your free will or locked up.

Sehun

As the youngest in the group, Sehun is often supposed to give way to others. It doesn’t mean he does that though, he doesn’t care much about rules, but it’s still some sort of obligation that weighs on his mind. To make it even in a way, he sees you as someone even lower than himself. 

Kind of like Kai, he wants to own you, but he works his way there, not claiming you effortlessly but actually being a good man, and then boyfriend to you, until he finally “wins” your heart. Which doesn’t mean he’ll get bored with you - you’re his prize and you’re supposed to stay by his side. He doesn’t treat you badly for no reason either, he usually keeps his vile thoughts to himself until he decides you need to be reminded of your place - only then will he tell you all about how he owns you and your life’s purpose should be to stay by his side and serve him, acting as though you’ve been pretty naive to ever think of yourself differently than that.

He’s actually pretty protective of you, not wanting anyone to touch and harm what’s his, but also helping you get through all your hardships and making sure you stay healthy, since he still loves you and wants you to be well. Unlike what it may seem, he treasures your presence, believing you deserve to be important, just not as important as him. Simply stating, he puts himself before you, but he still puts you above the rest of the world, even though what he tells you may hint otherwise.

He doesn’t get upset (especially with you) easily and doesn’t want to mess with you too badly, but he still likes to show his dominance so he’ll usually only do it in the bedroom, treating you like a slave, ordering you around and making you please him, but not necessarily causing you actual harm. Other than that, he expects obedience, but he doesn’t get violent; his superior gaze and words alone are enough to make you realize it’s in your best interest to submit.

Please, reblog if you enjoyed! Find more on my masterlist! Drabble requests are open!

[azukibeanghost]

Re your post about shipping and r3ylo.. You mentioned you could guess from marketing where they might be going, do you mind sharing what you think? I’m just curious :) esp since you’re a filmmaker

Oh, haha, I’m not actually a filmmaker; it is one of my life plans and I love picking apart stories to see how they tick, and how I could work some of those elements into my own, but I have yet to write or direct a feature.

But nevertheless…

(TLJ SPOILERS AHEAD)

…

If I were to channel my younger self (back when I idolized the most predictable plots ever, thanks to my mostly fairytale-based upbringing) I would say that this sort of yin/yang, opposites-attract, beauty-and-the-beast tale of redemption and hope would absolutely make sense.

- platonic love in Star Wars -

Now, I don’t know if this means that they’re going for a R/K romance; I would definitely prefer if they didn’t, especially given that Kylo Ren is frankly a monster, and all of Star Wars’ romances have made me cringe so far.

In fact, I loved how Rogue One ended without a kiss; the only real romance of that movie was the sort of old-married-couple camaraderie of Chirrut Imwe and Baze Malbus.

I think Star Wars works better when it’s focused on familial themes, and keeps pairings platonic; just think of how much love exists between Luke and Leia, vs. Han and Leia. Perhaps I’m misreading the writers’ intentions, but that moment when Rose told Finn that she saved him because his life is worth more than sacrificing himself to take out the cannon (maybe a lesson she learned from losing her sister?) felt similar to Rey and Finn’s hug in The Force Awakens, or Jyn Erso and Cassian Andor’s embrace towards the end of Rogue One: warm, platonic, and full of affection or comfort. The way I interpreted it, Rose was so weak that hugging Finn was out of the question, so she mustered her strength for a small kiss instead.

- opposites attract / beauty and the beast -

The K/R relationship, on the other hand, reads a lot less like that kind of familial affection, and more like two characters whose destinies and identities are closely intertwined. If Star Wars had prophecies (…does it?), they would feature in one. They are opposites: light and dark, each trying to tug the other towards their side.

This also connects to the beauty-and-the-beast archetype that we love to repeat in fantasy romances: the good, pure woman believes that the flawed, violent monster is capable of being saved, and through her love he is able to redeem himself and become fully human.

This can be a problematic trope, especially since it’s usually framed so that the woman forgives the man’s abuse; nevertheless, it provides a compelling amount of angst and pining, which often resonates strongly with audiences. (Popular examples include the Dr@rry ship, which tugs on many readers’ heartstrings due to the combination of suppressed feelings + outward antagonism; the enemies-to-lovers trope in fanfic; or Elizabeth Bennet and Mr. Darcy’s relationship arc in Pride and Prejudice.) Conflict is often more compelling than simple, honest love… and Star Wars’ most famous romance, between Han and Leia, is proof that the franchise has a fondness for this kind of love-hate tension.

- yin and yang -

Now, I am not really a hardcore Star Wars fan and so I might be forgetting something, but from what I can remember, Star Wars has never really done this kind of two-character dichotomy before, which is a little surprising given that it’s a franchise based around these very yin/yang principles of light vs. dark. If they have, it’s been between a good character and a bad character; Luke Skywalker and Darth Vader, perhaps. Light and Dark are seen as opposites, and sort of by extension, good and evil/the Empire and the Rebels are that dichotomy. With Rey and Kylo Ren, there is potential for one (or both) to switch sides; Rey is untrained, and has the potential for darkness (Luke appears to be scared of her power in the trailer), while Kylo Ren is introduced in The Force Awakens as having an internal struggle that hints at the possibility of a redemption arc. They are two sides of the same coin.

(However, from what I understand, traditionally, yin and yang do not reflect good and evil. If yin and yang are two opposing forces that exist in everything, balancing them creates peace; therefore, “peace” cannot be one of the two forces, with “violence” as its opposite – and so “good” cannot be a force, with “evil” as its opposite.

This is particularly interesting when you consider the codebreaker’s point in The Last Jedi, that both sides power the same machine. Both sides use violence against the other, to restore their vision of order to the galaxy; the First Order’s happens to include genocide, but regardless of their moral purity, neither side technically embodies “peace.” So in that sense, they aren’t really opposites on the yin/yang scale.)

Despite this, Star Wars generally frames Light vs. Dark as synonymous with good vs. bad, so I suppose we can still interpret these as being two opposites of the yin/yang variety. So, for the sake of our purposes, yin is Dark/bad, and yang is Light/good.

- the Force as a midpoint between two opposites -

Luke teaches Rey that the Force is not something to be used by either side as a tool, but is instead the force that exists between all opposites – this implies that Force sensitive people are not inherently light/good or dark/evil, and make that choice individually. Rey makes this connection directly when she tells Luke that he was wrong to conclude that Kylo Ren needed to be stopped; she argued that his choice was not yet made… but our two characters view their status as Force-sensitive people in different ways:

Rey interprets this as proof that Kylo Ren has the potential to choose to join the Light side, despite his current status on the Dark side; she sees the conflict within him as a temporary state that can be fixed through his conversion.

On the other hand, Kylo Ren interprets the separation of the Force from either end of the spectrum as proof that he and Rey can exit the system entirely, “leave it all behind,” choosing neither the Light/Rebellion nor the Dark/First Order.

Kylo Ren sees that the two sides tug on each other and create endless conflict, in the same way that he and Rey tugged on the lightsaber and split it in two; he wants to resolve his internal conflict by rejecting the system entirely, and he wants to do that with Rey. Without her, he has no one.

- Kylo Ren’s reasons for wanting Rey to join him -

One of the biggest insights into the difference between Kylo Ren and Rey comes when he tells her that nobody cares about her except for him.

First of all, this statement is objectively inaccurate. Finn, Han, Leia, and Chewbacca have all shown fondness for Rey in the first film alone.

What he really means is that he has nobody who cares about him, except for her. Snoke and Hux treat him like garbage, his underlings probably hate him, he’s killed his father, estranged himself from his mother and uncle, and could never really go back and face them even if they forgave him, what with the guilt from all the people he’s murdered.

But she seems to care. What with their mental Force-Skype connection, and with her alternating between “you’re a monster” and “I saw the conflict in you” [there’s potential for goodness in you], he believes that maybe, just maybe, she might understand and sympathize with him. And he’s isolated himself for so long that he probably interprets this as love. (Hence the cringe-y shirtless scene, which I suppose was his attempt at a physical seduction…?? I guess taking his helmet off in The Force Awakens didn’t excite her enough, so he went all-in and tried to seduce her with the PG-13 equivalent of a dick pick.)

He thinks that maybe she could love him, and that would be enough, and he could leave his shitty past behind and not be alone. He acknowledges that he’s a monster, because he knows that he is; he’s just holding out hope that she will forgive him for his sins, because she keeps talking about how he can still be saved… but the problem is that while his idea of balance (the Force) is a balance between Light and Dark, good and evil, her idea of balance is the peace that will come from a Resistance victory. She wants him to resolve his internal conflict by choosing Light over Dark.

- what Rey wants from Kylo Ren -

I think that the main problem with this ship (as a possible direction for them to go; ignoring what I think about it personally) is that it’s pretty one-sided, and based on unhealthy principles. Rey doesn’t want Kylo Ren in a romantic light at all; he’s mind-raped her, killed her surrogate father-figure (who was his own father, adding to her revulsion at his morality), is a major part of the First Order that has terrorized her world and her friend Finn, has almost killed her friend Finn (remember, she doesn’t know that Finn has woken up), and failed Luke.

Rey wants to save Kylo Ren because she believes that it is the right thing to do, not because she has feelings for him. She thinks that if she can convert a major player on the Dark side to the Resistance, the First Order will be weakened, enabling a Resistance victory. She also might want to prove to Luke that he didn’t fail in his teachings.

- will Kylo Ren convert to the Light side? -

Look at what Kylo Ren does when Rey rejects his offer to go with him and leave the Resistance/First Order conflict behind: he tells Hux that she killed Snoke, then takes command of the First Order and resumes his campaign against the remaining Resistance forces. He fights Luke. Let’s be honest, even though the trailer made it look like he was going to start acting on some hidden inner goodness (hesitating when faced with shooting at Leia; the editing suggesting that Rey was asking him for guidance, rather than Luke), this film made it clear that there is only one thing that could make him turn down the Dark side: Rey.

So, what is the most plausible way to end this character arc?

Well, I see one of two options:

Rey continues to try to drag him away from the Dark side, and he accepts… but only because she has agreed to join him. From her perspective, it’s a personal sacrifice for the good of the Resistance; for him, it’s what he wants. The fight in the red room proved that if Rey is involved, he has the potential to fight against the Dark side. But without her, he immediately snaps back to the Dark like he’s a lightsaber and half of the jedi playing tug-of-war suddenly let go.

He ends the trilogy as a villain, on the Dark side. Now, while this makes sense from a real-world standpoint, I don’t know why they would have spent so much screen time focusing on his internal conflict between Light and Dark if he was just going to end up as a bad guy. Like, this took up most of Rey’s plotline in this film, and regardless of that will-she-accept-his-guidance tease from the trailer, I seriously doubt that Rey is going to turn to the Dark side.

So, since I assume they must have some reasoning behind this K/R storyline, and the amount of focus that has been placed on the two characters and their relationship (to the point of minimizing the role of Finn, who was arguably the main protagonist of The Force Awakens, or at least a co-protagonist, with Rey), I would guess that they’re going somewhere with this, and that somewhere just might be a romance. I would really appreciate it if they didn’t, though.

[olivereliott]

Here’s the new BMW R18, with specs, prices and more

It’s been ten months since BMW Motorrad threw the wraps off the Concept R18 prototype. Today we’re finally getting a clear look at the production cruiser, ending weeks of rampant speculation and spy shots.

The R18 plays on two levels. On one hand, it’s a bid from BMW to tackle the cruiser (ergo, the US) market. On the other, it’s a nod to the boxer motor’s heritage—even more so than the wildly popular R nineT.

The price for the showroom bike will be $17,495 (standard model) or $19,870 (upmarket ‘First Edition’) in the US, and €22,800 in Germany for the ‘First Edition’ only. So the cost of the R18 is on a par with much of Harley’s cruiser range, including the Low Rider S, FXDR and Fat Bob models—plus the Indian Chief.

As expected, the R18 looks good… apart from a few niggles. The images confirm a lot of what we’ve already pieced together from the extensive teaser campaign, and the customs from Custom Works Zon and Revival Cycles. Keen eyes will also spot a number of parts that were already on the two concept bikes that BMW themselves released.

When the first cruiser concept broke cover at the Concorso d’Eleganza last year, BMW design boss Edgar Heinrich cited the iconic 1936 R5 as the R18’s primary design inspiration. The connections are immediately clear; the general line of the frame, the shape of the 16-liter fuel tank, and the classic black paint with white striping. All point to the Bavarian marque’s history.

A closer look reveals some tasty details. The way the swing arm tubes loop around the final drive hub is a clear copy of the R5 design, and so is the exposed drive shaft. Even the valve covers mimic the basic form of those on the R5, as do the fishtail tips on the exhausts. And, just like back in the day, the roundels on the tank are screwed on rather than stuck on.

The 49 mm front forks are wrapped in period correct fork covers, while the rear shock is completely hidden within the frame architecture. The R18 gets spoked wheels too; 3.5 x 19” in the front, and 5.0 x 16” out back. The front brake setup features twin 300 mm discs, and there’s a single 300 mm disc at the rear.

Thanks to the sheer mass of the motor, the R18 is a physically large bike, with a wheelbase of 1,731 mm. At just over 68 inches, that’s almost two inches longer than the current Honda Gold Wing.

It’s porky too, with a curb weight of 750 pounds (345 kilos). Sure, it is a cruiser, but that wet weight figure is 51 pounds more than a Harley-Davidson Fat Boy… and that’s saying something. On the upside, it’s 18 pounds less than Indian claims for a fully fueled Chief Dark Horse.

The weight probably won’t deter hardcore cruiser fans or larger riders, and the engine itself is attractive. It’s the biggest boxer BMW have ever made, with a capacity of 1,802 cc. It’s also clearly tuned for cruising: at 91 hp (67 kW) it makes less power than the 110 hp (82 kW) R nineT.

The R18 mill makes over 50% more torque than the R nineT though, with 116 ft-lb peaking at 3,000 rpm. Most of that torque is available as a thick slab of grunt between 2,000 and 4,000 rpm, making it comparable to the 109 ft-lb pumped out by the Fat Boy’s Milwaukee-Eight 107 and the 119 ft-lb of the Indian Chief.

The top speed is 112 mph (180 kph)—which suggests it’s electronically limited—and BMW is quoting a 0-62 mph figure of 4.8 seconds.

The air- and oil-cooled motor uses BMW’s modern four-valve design, but also has a throwback overhead valve drive with two camshafts per cylinder. The crankshaft has an additional bearing at the center, to help control vibration. It’s also worth noting that the motor, air box and six-speed transmission weigh 244 pounds (110.8 kilos) collectively.

BMW have crammed in a few useful rider aids too. ABS and switchable automatic stability control are standard, as are three flickable riding modes: Rain, Roll and Rock (groan). There’s also ‘MSR’—an electronically controlled anti-slip feature to prevent skids under heavy acceleration or over-enthusiastic downshifts. Heated grips and hill start assist will be available as optional extras, along with a reverse gear, driven by an electric motor.

But despite the tech, and aside from the decidedly modern-looking oil cooler, there are hardly any superfluous bits and pieces cluttering the layout. Having to meet regulations tends to ruin perfectly good concepts, but BMW have done an admirable job with the R18.

The side covers and extended rear fender are well executed, and we can even live with the chrome-covered air box intakes. But that bulbous fishtail exhaust, which has undoubtedly swollen to accommodate emissions control things, is borderline comical.

We also miss the lower headlight and narrower bars of the Concept R18, which have given way to a high, wide and mostly chrome arrangement. Admittedly, it looks like a comfortable setup for anyone looking for a cruiser, especially when paired with a relatively low 690 mm seat height.

But those specific riders might not get along with the BMW’s foot peg placement. With two big cylinder heads sticking out, fitting forward pegs is impossible. BMW say that the ‘laid back’ setup is optimized for comfort and control. But even though they’re technically correct, it could be a deal breaker for some customers.

Kudos to BMW for a neat cockpit though; there might be a lot of chrome, but all the wiring runs inside the handlebars, and even smaller parts like the handlebar clamps look great. The speedo’s a mostly analog affair, with a small digital display. And there’s LED lighting all around, with the rear turn signals double up as taillights, neatening things up more.

As with the R nineT, BMW are hoping customers will customize the R18. So they’ve made certain parts modular. The rear fender struts are removable, and the valve cover and engine breastplate can be swapped out without needing an oil change. And the hydraulic lines and handlebar wires are all plug and play.

There’s already an extensive catalog of bolt-on parts, including offerings from partners Roland Sands Design, Vance & Hines, and Mustang Seats. Some of the more whack options include ape hangers [above], and a bizarre front turn signal setup that resembles a mini handlebar, with LED signals in the shape of bar-end mirrors.

But there are also various handlebar and luggage options, and some slick machined parts. Plus there’s a 21” front wheel option, if that’s your thing.

One customized example [below] shows exposed forks, lower handlebars and a seat that’s a dead ringer for the vintage Denfeld unit. Along with a slim rear fender that hugs the wheel, and a side-mounted plate bracket, it’s a stunning example of the R18’s potential—and a step closer to the look of the R5.

BMW will be selling the R18 as a limited ‘First Edition’ initially (some markets will get a standard version too). It gets metallic paint, more chromed bits and extra trim. But it also comes with an owner’s box that includes period correct roundels with brass lettering, brass screws, a screwdriver and a pair of gloves for assembly.

We reckon that’s a nice touch—and there’s a book about BMW Motorrad’s 100-year history in there too.

Interview: Edgar Heinrich, BMW Motorrad Head of Design

In today’s regulated world, building a modern cruiser that’s also a homage to a legendary vintage bike is a challenging prospect. So we pitched a few burning questions at Edgar Heinrich [above] to get his take on the R18’s design.

Bike EXIF: Help clear this up for our readers: the R18 was 100% completed before you handed it over to CW Zon and Revival Cycles to customize, and before Unique Custom Cycles began work on the Concept R18 and Concept R18 /2, right?

Edgar Heinrich: “To develop an all-new bike, including a brand-new engine, takes more than four years. So when the four concept bikes were revealed, the series production bike was already on its way onto the production line.”

“The concepts were very important milestones: they helped prepare the storyline, and they provided indispensable feedback to the development team from potential customers. Most importantly was the fact that the overwhelmingly positive feedback gave us confidence and security in our quest of entering new territory.”

Was there room for the concept and custom bikes to have an impact on the final product, or was it pretty much locked down?

“The feedback was important and highly appreciated, but the basics had been cast in form long before the concept bikes became public.”

“We were curious as to how a big boxer would be perceived in the custom scene. CW ZON did an amazing job with the first custom—even beyond expectations by winning Best of Show at Mooneyes. So did Revival Cycles, by staging this monumental engine within a fragile-looking titanium frame. The customizers had free rein with their creations, and they couldn’t have done it any better!”

“Unique Custom Cycles played a significant role, as Ronna Norèn is a long-time friend and was there all along the R18’s development. He provided input and advice during the creation process, being a renowned specialist in the cruiser field. The Concept R18 was executed by UCC, yet designed by the BMW Motorrad design team in Munich.”

There are shades of the historic R5 here, but this is specifically designed as a bigger, more heavy-duty cruiser. Do you think that BMW’s classic style translates well into a cruiser style, or were there challenges here?

“It’s obvious that we dove into our history here. I think before the R nineT family, this legacy had been neglected. In the old days, there were no segments or such differentiators; there were only ‘naked bikes,’ as we would define them today.”

“We believe that a contemporary cruiser is about pure riding pleasure, about simplicity and reduction, and less about performance.”

“Hence, linking this with our legacy of the R5 from 1936 is obvious, restoring those clean and perfect proportions, visual purity, honest materials; but also interpreting this unique architecture with the transverse flat twin engine, clutch, gear box, and the shaft drive aligned with the bevel-gear final drive, resting in the double loop frame. As it used to be in previous times.”

“Altering one part would mean altering the whole concept. This set-up is unique, technically and visually absolutely beautiful, and it connects effortlessly with our heritage. My friend Ola [Stenegärdl used to say: ‘Today it is easy to make things complicated, but is very difficult to keep things simple.’ Spot on!”

Whenever a manufacturer releases such an impactful prototype, and then a production bike later, there are inevitably gripes about how the production model doesn’t look like the prototype…

“Very true! A concept’s nature is to elevate the character and emotion of the standard product. That’s a bit of a curse, too. The focus lies on finding the right balance between raising emotions and curiosity, yet not disappointing when unveiling the series production bike.”

“As for the R18, I think we were lucky, by having the main components already finished for production: engine, frame, swing arm, tank, etcetera. We just had to add custom fenders, forks, and other, smaller components—always being aware to preserve the basic character of the bike. But the core was all there.”

In general, what were your biggest design challenges?

“The biggest challenge was the clean look of the bike. But this is a general problem when developing a modern naked bike: how to avoid the clutter of wires, cables, sensors and black boxes on a possibly small bike without a big fairing?”

“In terms of homologation, you need all these electronics. Stripping down a modern bike is pretty scary; sometimes you hardly see the engine from the harness.”

“This super clean look of the engine was hard to achieve. Engineers design an engine from the inside out, which is the normal procedure if you need to achieve a state-of-the-art motor with all the emission, noise and performance requirements. But a high-tech, visually cluttered and potentially brutal looking engine was not something we had in mind.”

“Technically superior solutions might not always be the best choice—which is a sometimes hard to understand for a company most renowned for innovation and technology. It was an intense development process, sometimes it took tough decisions, there were arguments and controversy, but eventually the team of engineers and designers grew together during the process and learned from each other.”

We know that the exposed shaft-drive is a nod to BMW’s history, as are the screw-on badges. Are there any other details that you are particularly proud of?

“If you take a close look, you will spot many more details crafted with passion and emotion. The tank filler cap, the speedo gauge with beautiful detailing, the fluid reservoirs and hand controls, the brake calipers, the seat fixings, the fishtail… all these components are made for the R18 only. Function-wise, we could have taken these from the shelf—but we wanted more.”

“The screw-on badges are also kind of special. According to our corporate rules, we could not use the old-style letters and had to take the modern badge, but by screw-fixing we can offer the stylish heritage badge as an extra.”

“As for the open running shaft drive, we are very proud we achieved that super clean look. There were concerns if it would be possible at all, but eventually with dedication, hard work and extensive testing it turned into reality.”

BMW haven’t given us an exact date, but say the R18 will be available in Europe and the USA around autumn of this year.

The real question is, who is it for? Will it entice owners away from other cruiser brands, even though cruiser sales worldwide are suffering? Or will it fill a heritage-shaped hole in the hearts of existing BMW customers?

Only time will tell.

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[dramartyakumar]

Dhyana Paramita: The Perfection of Meditation

Dhyana Paramita: The Perfection of Meditation

Shamatha, Vipashyana, Buddhanupashyana and Buddhanusmriti

Dr. Amartya Kumar Bhattacharya

BCE (Hons.) ( Jadavpur ), MTech ( Civil ) ( IIT Kharagpur ), PhD ( Civil ) ( IIT Kharagpur ), Cert.MTERM ( AIT Bangkok ), CEng(I), FIE, FACCE(I), FISH, FIWRS, FIPHE, FIAH, FAE, MIGS, MIGS – Kolkata Chapter, MIGS – Chennai Chapter, MISTE, MAHI, MISCA, MIAHS, MISTAM, MNSFMFP, MIIBE, MICI, MIEES, MCITP, MISRS, MISRMTT, MAGGS, MCSI, MMBSI

Chairman and Managing Director,

MultiSpectra Consultants,

23, Biplabi Ambika Chakraborty Sarani,

Kolkata – 700029,

West Bengal,

INDIA.

E-mail: dramartyakumar@gmail.com

This article deals with Dhyana Paramita ( the Perfection of Meditation ). In this article, I am striving to present the essence of Dharma ( Dharma-Dhatu ) in my own way. Although my family has its ancestral roots in Chittagong ( Chattagram – in Bengali ), Bangladesh and, naturally, follows Theravada Buddhism, I am trying to be as comprehensive as possible in my exposition of the Dharma. Sanskrit has been used as the default classical language of this article. Pali has also been extensively used and Chinese, Japanese and Korean have been used, where appropriate. Diacritical marks have been omitted as some knowledge of Sanskrit and Pali on the part of the reader is assumed.

Buddhism, a major world faith, was founded by Lord Buddha in India over two thousand five hundred years ago. It has spread peacefully over much of Asia and also to Kalmykia in eastern Europe and has millions of adherents in India, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, China ( including Tibet ), Taiwan, Mongolia, North and South Korea, Japan, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam and also in Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia and Russia ( Buryatia and Tuva in Siberia and Kalmykia in eastern Europe ). The northern extremity of Buddhism in Asia is the Ivolga Monastery in Siberia, Russia. This article is an exposition of Buddhism and in it, the word “faith” is used as a synonym of the word “religion”. Buddhism is also called Saddharma ( the true faith ) or Dharma.

The Sanskrit word “Dharma” literally means “Property”. For example, one says that the Dharma of fire is to burn. This means that the property of fire is to burn. The fire cannot be separated from its capacity to burn. Similarly, the literal meaning of Dharma ( Dhamma – in Pali, Fa – in Chinese, Ho – in Japanese ) of man is the basic property of man from which he cannot be separated. This means the spirituality inherent in man.

The objective of Buddhism is Nirvana ( liberation, Nibbana – in Pali, Gedatsu – in Japanese ) and Bodhi ( Enlightenment, P’u-ti – in Chinese, Bodai – in Japanese ). The word Buddhi means intellect and the word Bodha means to understand; it is from these words that the word Bodhi is derived. Who is it that seeks Nirvana, Bodhi, and to understand? It is “I” ( Aham ), who is writing right now. Understanding sharpens me, refines me, contextualises me, and keeps me on the path to Bodhi and Nirvana. I shall have an opportunity to delve deeply into the issue of “I” in Buddhism later. Deep understanding ( Anubodha ) is the context of Bodhi, and Nirvana. Rephrasing Nagarjuna, the founder of the Madhyamika school of Mahayana Buddhism, Shunyata ( emptiness, Sunnata – in Pali, K’ung – in Chinese, Ku – in Japanese ) is the absence of ignorance. Avidya Paramam Malam ( Avijja Paramam Malam – in Pali, Ignorance is the greatest impurity ) is what Lord Buddha said. Nagarjuna can be further re-interpreted to give to me the understanding that Nirvana is not only available for a man in Samsara ( empirical and phenomenal world ) but, as I am immersed in Samsara, it is only possible within it, subject to the condition that the Arya Ashtanga Marga ( Noble Eightfold Path ) is rigorously followed. The conclusion Nagarjuna reached, in his seminal work Mula Madhyamaka Karika, is that all things lack a fixed essence ( Swabhava, Sabhava – in Pali, Zi-xing – in Chinese ) or a fixed individual character (Swalakshana ) and that is why they are amenable to change. In other words, change is possible only if entities are devoid or empty ( Shunya ) of Swabhava. The Madhyamika school of Mahayana Buddhism split into the Prasangika Madhyamika ( as represented by Chandrakirti ) and the Swatantrika Madhyamika ( as represented by Bhavaviveka ). Buddhism has two main branches, Theravada and Mahayana, the difference between the two will be explained in due course.

Man’s quest for an end to his suffering ( Duhkha, Dukkha – in Pali ) has led him into an exploration of his inner self ( Wo – in Chinese ), its working and its dysfunctional behaviour under certain circumstances. Under such conditions,a radical shift in consciousness, perception and attitude is the only succour for a tormented mind ( Chitta, Manas, Hsin or Xin – in Chinese, Kokoro – in Japanese ). This process, involving the destruction of suffering, is based on the Four Noble Truths ( Chaturaryasatya, Chattari Aryasachchani – in Pali ) enunciated by Lord Buddha which are as follows:

Life contains suffering. ( Duhkha-Aryasatya, Dukkha-Aryasachcha – in Pali )

Suffering has a cause, and the cause can be known. ( Duhkha Samudaya-Aryasatya, Dukkha Samudaya-Aryasachcha – in Pali )

Suffering can be brought to an end. ( Duhkha Nirodha-Aryasatya, Dukkha Nirodha-Aryasachcha – in Pali )

The path to end suffering has eight parts. ( Marga-Aryasatya, Magga-Aryasachcha – in Pali )

Lord Buddha also laid out the Noble Eightfold Path ( Arya Ashtanga Marga, Arya Atthangika Magga – in Pali ). The Noble Eightfold Path is given below:

Right view ( Samyak Dristi, Samma Ditthi – in Pali)

Right intention ( Samyak Sankalpa, Samma Sankappa – in Pali) )

Right speech ( Samyak Vakya, Samma Vacha – in Pali) )

Right action ( Samyak Karma, Samma Kammanta – in Pali) )

Right livelihood ( Samyak Jivika, Samma Ajiva – in Pali) )

Right effort ( Samyak Vyayama, Samma Vayama – in Pali) )

Right mindfulness ( Samyak Smriti, Samma Sati – in Pali) )

Right concentration ( Samyak Samadhi, Samma Samadhi – in Pali) )

This Path is also known as The Middle Path ( Madhyama Pratipada, Majjhima Patipada – in Pali ) because it is neither too easy nor too difficult. The first five parts of the Path involve maintaining a lifestyle full of virtue ( Shila, Sila – in Pali ) while the last three pertain to the practice ( Patipatti – in Pali ) of meditation. The Path is called The Way ( Tao – in Chinese, Do, Michi – in Japanese ) in the Far East. The practice of meditation lies at the heart of the spiritual practice of Dharmic ( spiritual ) people. To be a Buddhist means to distinguish between Buddhist and non-Buddhist acts, between ignorance and Enlightenment, between Samsara and Nirvana. Pancha Shila is for householders; Ashta Shila is for householders practising Brahmacharya, that is celibacy; and Dasha Shila is for monks.

According to Lord Buddha, man is his own master. “Atta hi attano natho” are the exact words of Lord Buddha. He also said “Atmadvipa viharatha, atmasharana ananyasharana” meaning “Dwell making yourself your island ( that is refuge ), and not anyone else as your refuge”. Man is however unaware of this fact and abdicates his responsibility of controlling his future, even death. This is so because man is, in a deep philosophical sense, deluded ( Mohagrasta ), asleep and unaware of his true nature. He normally identifies himself with his body, which was born and hence will die, some day. This gives rise to vices, insecurity and belief in that what is not. Man lives in illusions ( Moha ); the illusion that he will never fall sick, the illusion that no harm will ever befall him. He also believes that he has relatives and friends and, if he clings onto them tightly enough, he will one day, after death, go to the nebulous place called heaven. But it is not true. The lacuna in man’s thinking becomes disturbingly clear to him when he finds that he is suffering. When a man suffers, the world seems to collapse around him. Man needs to be awakened and when this awakening process is complete, man will rise from the ashes of the world of the senses that he has just burnt to the world of pure consciousness. Buddhism is a journey where a man starts asleep and ends up awake. In doing so, he sheds aside nothingness to awaken to a single state of Being. The process by which this takes place is meditation.

Lord Buddha’s title means one who is awake. He is the messiah who showed the path to eternity. Lord Buddha gave His teaching “for the good of many, for the happiness of many, for showing compassion to the world” ( Bahujanahitaya, Bahujanasukhaya, Lokanukampaya ). He told man that though he is asleep, the capacity to be awakened is in him and also taught man the path to awakening. But man must walk that path himself, alone. Man must realise that he is always alone, whether it be high atop the mountains, in the company of his relatives or in the morning crowd in the downtown of a metropolitan city. A positive attitude to aloneness can develop in man when he can take a mental sword and cleave a distinction between aloneness and loneliness. Loneliness has a negative connotation in the sense that it implies a craving for company of other human beings, the exact opposite of the self-sufficiency implied by aloneness. The capacity to tread the path to Nirvana is already in man, he just has to use it. In the Dharmachakrapravartana Sutra ( Dhammachakkappavattana Sutta – in Pali ), Lord Buddha said that Nirvana is not subject to grief, defilement ( Klesha, Kilesa – in Pali, Bonno – in Japanese ), disease ( Vyadhi ), decay ( Jara ), and death ( Mrityu, Marana ). In other words, Nirvana is beyond cause and effect, that is, it transcends conditioned phenomena. Lord Buddha also said “Nirvanam Paramam Sukham”. Nirvana is Apratitya-samutpanna and Asamskrita ( unconditioned, Apatichcha-samuppanna and Asankhata – in Pali, Wu-yin – in Chinese ) and, according to Vasubandhu of the Yogachara ( the practice of Yoga ) school of Mahayana Buddhism, is the Parinishpanna Swabhava ( true self-nature of Being, Zhen-shi-xing – in Chinese ). It is interesting to note that in the Lankavatara Sutra, a Mahayana Sutra associated with the Yogachara school, Nirvana is described as the seeing of everything as it is. Nirvana is a positive Absolute and is Nitya ( without beginning and end, Nicca – in Pali ). Nirvana means a state of Mukti ( Mutti – in Pali )which means freedom or Vimukti ( Vimutti – in Pali ) which means absolute freedom. Nirvana also denotes Satya ( Sacca – in Pali ) which means Truth and Shanti ( Santi – in Pali ) which means Peace. A synonym for Nirvana is Moksha ( liberation, Mokkha – in Pali ). Nirvana is a state of absolute perfection. Shariputra, the famous historical disciple of Lord Buddha, described Nirvana as the extinction of desire, hatred and illusion. In mystical language, Nirvana is the experience of standing face-to-face with Reality ( Shi – in Chinese ). Nirvana is equated with Bodhi and is the Paramartha-Satya. Nirvana is sometimes expressed as negative of negative such as the cessation of suffering, of craving, of aversion, etc. This need not result in any confusion. In Sanskrit, sometimes positive things are expressed as negatives of negatives as the word “Arogya” which means recuperation from illness and the word “Amrita” which means immortal. Further, as mathematics proves, negative of negative is always positive. Nirvana is a freeing from the chains of a false sense of individuality. Nirvana is a state of non-duality ( Advaita or Advaya ); a state where the illusion of a false sense of “I” ( Parikalpita Swabhava, Fen-bie-xing – in Chinese ) does not exist. Expressed differently, liberation from the illusion of separateness of the individual Self from the Whole is Nirvana. Freedom is, Nirvana is, Truth is.

According to Buddhism, everything is relative and impermanent ( Anitya, Anicca – in Pali ) in the empirical, conditioned world. Lord Buddha told Rashtrapala “The world is in continuous flux and is impermanent”. In this context, I can correctly say that one cannot step twice into the same river because although I may continue to see the same river externally from a gross point of view, the water molecules I am seeing at a particular location at any moment are different from the water molecules the moment before and the moment after. One thing disappears, conditioning the appearance of the next in a series of cause and effect. Everything is in a state of becoming something else the next moment. A wheel cannot be separated from its movement. There is no static wheel “behind” the wheel in motion. Things change over time. Everything originates dependent on other factors. That is, all things come into existence as the result ( Phala ) of an interaction of various causes ( Hetu ). Each entity is Pratitya-samutpanna ( conditioned, Patichcha-samuppanna – in Pali ) as well as Pratitya-samutpada ( conditioning, Patichcha-samuppada – in Pali ). The Law of Dependent Origination is central to Buddhism. For example, anger cannot arise by itself without a cause. The five aggregates, Rupa, Vedana, Sangya, Samskara and Vigyana ( Rupa, Vedana, Sanna, Sankhara and Vinnana – in Pali ), all of which are identified as Anatma ( non-Soul ) by Lord Buddha in the Anatmalakshana Sutra, are called the Pancha Skandha ( the five aggregates, Pancha Khandha – in Pali ). Sensations ( Vedana ) of the physical world of forms ( Rupa ) are received by the five physical sense organs ( Indriya ) such as the nose. The mind feels the mental world. The five physical sense organs and the mind are called the six sensory bases. Sensations lead to perceptions ( Sangya ), which in turn lead through pre-dispositions ( Samskara ), to consciousness ( Vigyana ). In Theravada Buddhism, the concept of Bhavanga ( stream of thought ) is introduced while in the Yogachara school of Mahayana Buddhism, the concept of Alaya-Vigyana ( literally, the abode of consciousness, but commonly translated as store-consciousness ) is introduced. The Alaya-Vigyana ( Ariyashiki – in Japanese ), which maintains the continuum of consciousness, is the mind; hence this school is also called the Chittamatratavada school. Other names of the same school are Agamanuyayi Vigyanavada and Vigyaptimatratavada. The Vigyanavada school is further divided into the Nirakaravadi Vigyanavada ( as represented by Asanga ) and the Sakaravadi Vigyanavada ( as represented by Gyanashri Mitra ).The fundamental concept of the Yogachara ( Wei Shi – in Chinese, Yuishiki – in Japanese ) school may be expressed by the proposition that the Parinishpanna Swabhava is realised when man pierces ( Patibheda ) through his Parikalpita Swabhava and Paratantra Swabhava ( conditioned self-nature, Yi-ta-xing – in Chinese ). The Alaya-Vigyana, as conceived in Mahayana Buddhism, is a permanent entity. The Alaya-Vigyana contains all impressions of past actions and all future potentialities. It is also the Tathagatagarbha ( Buddha-Matrix, Ru-lai-zang – in Chinese, Nyoraizo – in Japanese ), the basis on which a man can become a Buddha. So, latent in every man is a Buddha-like faculty called Buddha-Dhatu ( Buddha-Nature, Fo-hsing or Fo-xing – in Chinese ). Right meditation leads to spiritual Enlightenment, which is nothing but the full manifestation of the Buddha-Dhatu ( or Tathagata-Dhatu ) in man. Thus, any man can develop himself through appropriate practice, that is meditation, and become a Buddha. Anyway, for an average man, the summation of all physical and mental processes, processes in constant flux, is perceived empirically as “I”. The empirical “I” is ephemeral and impermanent, and is Samvriti-Satya ( conventional truth ). Conscious of something, one reacts mentally. The mental reactions are of two types : craving and aversion. Craving ( Trishna, Tanha – in Pali, Raga, Lobha – in Pali ) and aversion ( Dvesha, Dosa – in Pali ) both lead to suffering; it is self-evident that aversion results in suffering and craving results in suffering because if the object of craving remains out of reach, there is suffering. Thus, ultimately, whatever is impermanent is Duhkha or suffering. Trishna Nirodha, Upadana ( clinging ) Nirodha ( With the extinction of craving comes the extinction of clinging ). The renowned sage Buddhaghosa, the writer of the Visuddhimagga ( Vishuddhi Marga, The Path of Purification ), has dwelt elaborately on suffering. Taking the lead from Nagarjuna, I posit that Duhkha is transient; it arises dependent on something else and also decays into extinction. Duhkha is not self-determining; its existence and character are attributable to factors that condition its origin and subsequent transformation. Coming into existence and dying out of existence, Duhkha lacks any trace of permanence.Thus, it may be said that Duhkha lacks a Swabhava or Swalakshana and is characterised by Nihswabhava ( absence of Self-Nature ). Thus Duhkha is empty ( Shunya ). I am, therefore, led to formulate the proposition: Duhkhameva Shunyam. Because Duhkha is ephemeral, I can expand the Sanskrit sentence to this: Duhkhameva Anityam evam Shunyam The perception of the emptiness of Duhkha allows one to let go of Duhkha and thus be released of the hold that Duhkha has on him. This is, of course, intended as a Mahayana Buddhist theoretical complement to Shamatha and Vipashyana meditation and is in no way a substitute for Shamatha and Vipashyana meditation. I also hold that the notion of Buddha-Dhatu is a very productive concept. Any meditator’s meditation is bound to become better if he remembers during meditating that he has Buddha-Dhatu in him.

It may be mentioned, at this stage, that practitioners who are extremely advanced spiritually are called by the name Arhat ( Arahant – in Pali, A-han – in Chinese, Arakan, Rakan – in Japanese ) in Theravada Buddhism and Bodhisattva ( Bodhisatta – in Pali, Bosatsu – in Japanese ), or aspirants to Buddhahood ( Buddhatva, or as is rather more commonly termed Buddhata ) in Mahayana Buddhism. A Bodhisattva is any man who has taken a vow to follow the path to Buddhatva taking all other sentient beings with him. A monk ( Bhikshu, Bhikkhu – in Pali ) and a lay disciple ( Upasaka ) are both Bodhisattvas. Sattva means a sentient being.

In response to questioning by devotees in the kingdom of Kosala as to the importance or unimportance of belief, Lord Buddha pointed out the distinction between knowing and believing. Believing always connotes a second-hand approach to Truth; knowing about something through the experience of someone else. Knowing means a first-hand direct knowledge of Truth and the result of this distinction is that the modicum of doubt that always accompanies belief is absent in knowledge ( Gyana ). Freedom of thought is permitted by Lord Buddha to His devotees so that they can discriminate and find Truth. Nirvana cannot be had via someone else’s knowledge. A contemporary scholar Kazuaki Tanahashi describes an incident in Japan where a Buddhist monk illustrated to his disciples the power of what might be called “positive emptiness” in the mind. A void in the mind can be filled with spirituality by virtue of positive thinking. A Korean monk, Kyong Ho, echoed this feeling when he advised one to accept the anxieties and difficulties of this life. He also advised people to use their will to bring peace between peoples. This is particularly relevant in the modern world where democracy and egalitarianism are taken for granted. The great Japanese Zen Buddhist monk Dogen said that Samadhi ( which is a transcendental state of mind ) led to Enlightenment of those who found Enlightenment in India and China. Buddhism also strongly believes in the theory ( Pariyapti, Pariyatti – in Pali ) of Karma ( as you sow, so shall you reap ) and in the concept of rebirth. Lord Buddha said “Monks, I say that volition is action. Having thought, one acts through body, speech and mind.” ( Chetana ‘ham bhikkhave kammam vadami. Chetayitva kammam karoti kayena vachaya manasa. – in Pali ). Body ( Kaya Vajra ), Speech ( Vak Vajra )and Mind ( Chitta Vajra ) are called Tri Vajra in a certain school of Mahayana Buddhism ( Vajra can mean both thunderbolt and diamond ). There are two types of Karma, Kushala Karma ( Kusala Kamma – in Pali ) or good actions and Akushala Karma or bad actions. Kushala Karma is Dharmic while Akushala Karma is Adharmic. The result of both types of Karma are called Karma Phala, which correspond to the type of Karma performed.

He searched, He meditated, He found: this aptly summarises the awakening of Lord Buddha. When a man suffers, it is useless for him to talk of God, or to fast and otherwise to torture his body if his suffering is not reduced by any or all of these. Lord Buddha realised this fact and after His awakening taught the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path. Meditation is one form of mental culture ( Bhavana ). In meditation, what is required of man is to effect a radical shift in consciousness from the finite to the infinite using right concentration. Concentration is called Chittaikagrata in Sanskrit ( Chittekaggata – in Pali ). The concentrated focus is always on the elimination of suffering. The law of cause and effect is at work here too. If one is deluded, one suffers. If one studies the Four Noble Truths, one sees that man should identify the cause of suffering and systematically go about destroying it using the Noble Eightfold Path. The result of meditation is tremendous. One transcends the boundaries of his body; he senses that the entire universe has become his body. He senses that he has exchanged a weak mind for a strong one. He senses that though he may continue to reside in his mortal body, his consciousness has become irreversibly altered. He feels himself being pervaded by peace. He becomes awakened; Prabuddha. Lord Buddha did not give the Dharma for strong wills only; His statements are just as applicable to weaker minds provided they have the determination to follow Him. He asked for nothing more than courage and promised eternity.

An explanation as to the types of meditation in vogue is in order here. Shamatha ( Samatha – in Pali ) and Vipashyana ( Vipassana – in Pali, Kuan or Guan – in Chinese, Kan – in Japanese ) or Vidarshana ( Pashyana or Darshana means to see in an ordinary way; Vipashyana or Vidarshana means to see in a special way, that is, with Insight ) meditation are practised in south Asia and other countries which practice Theravada ( meaning, the way of the Elders ) Buddhism. Lord Buddha presented the technique of Vipashyana meditation in the Mahasatipatthana Sutta ( Mahasmritipratishthana Sutra ) / Satipatthana Sutta ( Smritipratishthana Sutra ). Lord Buddha delivered this Sutra in Kammassadhammam near Delhi. The Mahasatipatthana Sutta is found in the Digha ( Dirgha ) Nikaya and the Satipatthana Sutta is found in the Majjhima ( Madhyama ) Nikaya. Zen Buddhist practice is performed in East Asia, that is, in China, North and South Korea, Taiwan and Japan, which are among the countries that practice Mahayana ( meaning, the great vehicle ) Buddhism. In fact, Zen is one of the eight schools of Mahayana Buddhism. Meditation is something that cannot be fully explained in words, it has to be experienced to be understood completely. Knowing about meditation is one thing; knowing meditation is quite another. A man can sit alone, cross-legged, in a quiet room in the full lotus posture ( Padmasana or Dhyanasana or Vajraparyankasana ) or, failing that, in the half-lotus posture ( Bhadrasana ) and try to enter into Vipashyana meditation ( the third posture of sitting is called Sukhasana, literally meaning “the posture that gives happiness” ). If one is unable to start doing meditation oneself, one should take the help of a Guru ( literally, one who dispels darkness ) who will guide him in the initial stages. One must sit, preferably, in the lotus posture with one’s spine erect. There must be no slumping of the back, the head should be straight as if suspended by means of a string. Another analogy adopted is that the head should be straight as if bearing the sky on its top. The hands may be placed in the Bhumisparsha Mudra ( Bhumisparsha gesture ), a Mudra ( Inzo – in Japanese ) in which I find so many statues of Lord Buddha. Bhumisparsha literally means “ touching the ground”. This gesture is also called Sakshi ( Sanskrit for witness ) Mudra or Bhusparsha Mudra ( the gesture of touching the earth ). Alternatively, a man’s hands may be in the cosmic Mudra with the left hand on top of the right, middle joints of middle fingers together and the thumbs touching each other. The hands should be held against the body, with the thumbs at about the height of the navel. This gesture is very popular in East Asia. The Samadhi Mudra consists of the right hand placed on top of the left hand with the tips of the two thumbs touching each other. Yet another Mudra consists of the hands straight, placed on the knees, and the thumb and the next finger touching each other with the other fingers straight. This gesture of the hands is called Gyana Mudra. Other gestures are the Dharmachakra Mudra, Varada Mudra, Abhaya Mudra, Vajrahumkara Mudra and the Samaya Vajra Mudra. The Dharmachakra Mudra can be seen in the famous Sarnath statue of Lord Buddha. This gesture is also called the Bodhyangi or Vyakhyana Mudra. The Varada Mudra is the genture of giving boon with the right hand while the Abhaya Mudra is the gesture of giving protection with the right hand. The Vajrahumkara Mudra, also called the Trailokyavijaya Mudra, consists of placing both hands crossed over one’s chest with the right hand over the left hand and with both the palms facing the chest. A much less common Mudra is the Samaya Vajra Mudra which consists of the right thumb touching the right little finger with the middle three fingers of the right hand suggesting the shape of a thunderbolt. A meditator may also hold a Vajra in his right hand – if he does so, he is called Vajradhara ( holder of the Vajra ). After one has sat correctly, he must close his eyes and focus on the inhalation and exhalation of his breath ( Anapana-smriti or Anapana-sati ). Anapana ( An-pan – in Chinese ) means respiration. There must be no tampering with the natural respiration, a meditator’s job is simply to focus his attention on his nostrils and observe the natural flow of breath. Respiration is natural, one has no craving or aversion towards it, it is always in the present ( Nitya ) and, since one breathes from the moment of one’s birth to the moment of one’s death, it is in fact a convergence of the past, present and future. Further, it is within the physical framework of the body. Respiration is thus an appropriate object for concentrating the mind, something that is not too easy. The mind does not usually want to stay in the present moment; it resides either in the past or in the future. A little effort is needed to prevent the mind from wandering about. This is called Right Effort. At this stage, there may be strong distractions in the mind that prevent the mind from concentrating. Sometimes these distractions appear to be overwhelming. The effort to focus on respiration should be continued in such cases. The key is never to give up. A learner soon discovers one thing ; meditation is hard work for a beginner. Right Mindfulness, which is mindfulness of breathing, follows Right Effort immediately. Right Concentration leading to Samadhi ( San-mei – in Chinese, Sanmai, Zanmai – in Japanese ), which is a transcendental state, follows. It may be described by Sat ( being ), Chit ( consciousness ) and Ananda ( bliss, happiness ). Sometimes, in lifting the mind to Samadhi, hurdles appear in the form of distractions in the mind. These distractions may be latent feelings of anger, craving, sadness, and so on. The remedy, in such cases, is to return back to Anapana-sati and try to lift the mind to Samadhi again. Shamatha meditation is an absorptive meditation whose object is to calm the mind. Vipashyana meditation is an analytical meditation. Shamatha meditation may be an end in itself or it may be a prelude to Vipashyana meditation. It is also possible to perform Vipashyana meditation without performing Shamatha meditation first. There are four parts to the practice of Vipashyana meditation. Kaya anupashyana ( Kayanupassana – in Pali ), Vedana anupashyana ( Vedananupassana – in Pali ), Chitta anupashyana ( Chittanupassana – in Pali ), and Dharma anupashyana ( Dhammanupassana – in Pali ). Anupashyana ( Anupassana – in Pali ) means to see minutely, that is, to scrutinise Here, Dharma indicates the contents of the mind ( Chaitasika, Chetasika – in Pali ). Each of the four, Kaya ( body ), Vedana ( sensations ), Chitta ( mind ) and Dharma ( mental contents ), must be subjected to Anupashyana. The true nature of all four of these reveal themselves to the meditator and he is able to remove defilement from the innermost recesses of his mind ( Anushaya, Anusaya – in Pali ). Awareness and equanimity ( Upeksha, Upekkha – in Pali ), together, symbolise Vipashyana meditation. If either part is missing, one cannot attain Enlightenment. Vipashyana leads to clear insight into the physical and mental structure and thus leads to Bodhi. The complete knowledge of my physical and mental structure is called Sampragyana ( Sampajanna – in Pali ), if I have it I am called a Sampragya. In some forms of Mahayana Buddhist meditation, meditation on Lord Buddha ( Buddhanupashyana ) is performed.

Bodhyangas ( Bojjhangas – in Pali ) are factors contributing to Enlightenment. There are seven Bodhyangas: Smriti, Dharma-chayana, Virya ( courage ), Priti ( rapture and bliss ), Prashiddhi ( deep tranquility and calmness ), Samadhi, and Upeksha. The Four Sublime States ( Brahmavihara ) are Maitri, Karuna ( compassion ), Mudita and Upeksha. Meditation entails making a conscious and free choice to withdraw from the affairs of the mundane world to pursue spiritual ends; one of the objectives being the subsequent re-establishment of contact with the conditioned world as a purer and wiser man. The decision to meditate is itself an act of freedom. We have, in life, the freedom to pursue an ethical way of living. This freedom leads us to Bodhi and Nirvana and thus sets us free.

Meditation is a pursuit of liberation, realisation is the end result. Post-realisation, one feels that one had been going about with his eyes closed and has now suddenly opened them. In the plane of the senses, his external world does not change but his way of psychologically processing his external world undergoes a drastic change. He becomes more peaceful with himself and with others. An awakened man, possessing an Enlightened mind ( Bodhichitta ), feels that he is surrounded by peace at all times ( the process of developing an Enlightened mind is called Bodhichittodpada ). It is important to understand that nobody tells him this; he feels it himself. He goes about doing his daily activities, but his way of processing his world has fundamentally altered for the better. He realises that he cannot and need not control all aspects of his external physical world. He realises that he gains more by letting go. He becomes aware of the non-peaceful moments in his life and tries to reduce their frequency and intensity. He opts for shifting his consciousness to his mind and becoming aware of his internal mental processes when waiting, for example, in a traffic jam or while waiting in a queue. He opts for harmony in his mental processes rather than chaos.

Ordinarily, animal instincts bind a man to the world of the senses. Man lacks the initiative to free himself from them. Rather, he reposes his faith on some superhuman power whom he tries to propitiate in the hope that he may be rescued from his troubles. Meditation may also be described as a Tapasya ( a Sanskrit word whose root lies in the Sanskrit word Tapah which means heat ), a burning of the impurities in the mind.

Zen Buddhism originated in China and is in vogue in East Asia. As mentioned before, it is a school of Mahayana Buddhism. Mahayana Buddhism was propagated in China by Indian Buddhist monks like Kumarajiva ( 344-413 C.E. ), son of Kumarayana, who went to China in 401 C.E., and Buddhabhadra ( 359-429 C.E. ), who went to China in 408 C.E., and by Chinese Buddhist monks who came to India, like Fa-hsien ( or Fa-xian ), who came to India between 399 and 414 C.E., and Hsuan-tsang ( or Xuan-zang ) ( 600-664 C.E. ), who came to India between 629 and 645 C.E. Also, Gunabhadra translated the Lankavatara Sutra into Chinese and Paramartha was another noted translator.

Mahayana Buddhism developed in India a few centuries after the Parinirvana of Lord Buddha. Emperor Kanishka convened the Fourth Buddhist Council, held probably at Jalandhar, in which the scholar Vasumitra was President and another eminent scholar Asvaghosha, the author of Buddha Charita, was Vice-President. In this assembly, Buddhists became divided into Mahayana Buddhists and Theravada Buddhists. The Pali word Thera is derived from the Sanskrit word Sthavira which means Elder. Theravada Buddhism is the most orthodox form of Buddhism and has preserved the historical teachings of Lord Buddha in its Pali Canon. The Theravada Sutras ( Suttas – in Pali ) are the earliest available teachings of Lord Buddha, are in Pali, and are fully historical. The Pali Canon is called the Tripitaka in Sanskrit and the Tipitaka in Pali; Sutra-Pitaka ( Sutta-Pitaka – in Pali ), Vinaya-Pitaka and Abhidharma-Pitaka ( Abhidhamma-Pitaka – in Pali ) forming the three parts of the Tripitaka. Abhidharma means detailed philosophical discourses. The Sutta-Pitaka has five parts – the Digha Nikaya, the Majjhima Nikaya, the Khuddaka Nikaya, the Samyutta Nikaya and the Anguttara Nikaya.

Mahayana is a way of Buddhism followed widely across India and northern and eastern Asia. I have written before that in Mahayana Buddhism, individuals strive to take all others along with them to the ultimate goal of liberation. Mahayana Buddhism emerged in the context of the development of a different disposition towards Buddhism by some Buddhists; in terms of concepts relating to the Sangha, the Dharma and Lord Buddha. Firstly, schisms occurred on the level of “Sangha”. The primary concern of several venerated Buddhist monks was to keep the Dharma and discipline ( Vinaya ) pure. They felt that this was the only way to sustain Buddhism in the long run. These Buddhist monks became some of the most sophisticated theoreticians in the Indian intellectual world. Certain other monks wanted the Vinaya to be flexible. The case of the Mahasanghika monks is the best example to show the conflict between these two viewpoints. These monks had added ten minor precepts for their group , for example, monks could get, keep and use money. In the Second Buddhist Council, held at Vaishali, they were called “Papishtha bhikshus” (the sinful monks). Their behaviour was unacceptable from the viewpoint of the orthodox Buddhists. These monks established their own tradition and called themselves “Mahasanghikas” ( the monks of the Great Sangha ). In this connection, it may be mentioned that there were as many as eighteen early schools including the Sarvastivadins, the Pragyaptivadins, the Sautantrikas, the Vatsiputriyas, the Sammitiyas, the Dharmaguptakas, the Lokottaravadins ( an offshoot of the Mahasanghikas who carried the notion of the transcendental nature of Lord Buddha to the greatest extent among all the early schools ), etc. It would not be out of place to mention that certain typical similes were employed by some schools as also by a monk like Nagasena who said that a chariot is merely a designation ( Pragyapti, Pannatti – in Pali ) depending on its own parts. The Vatsiputriyas, also called the Pudgalavadins because of their belief in a Pudgala ( Puggala – in Pali ) as a transmigrating entity, utilised the simile of fire and fuel and the Sautantrikas utilised the simile of seed and sprout. Nagarjuna’s claim that anything that is Pratityasamutpanna is a Pragyapti indicates that he conceived the meaning of Pragyapti differently from Nagasena.

Fissures also occurred on the level of “Dharma”. Three months before Lord Buddha’s Parinirvana at Kusinagara, He declared in the Mahaparinirvana Sutra that the monks and the laity would have the Dharma and the Vinaya as their leaders in the future. However, some Buddhists, mostly the Mahasanghikas, found themselves having no shelter left except the Dharma. So they searched for the true Dharma. The statement of Lord Buddha, “He who sees the Dharma, sees me; he who sees me, sees the Dharma”, also supported their quest. If one uses logical arguments to judge this sentence, an interesting question emerges. How must one see the Dharma so that one also sees Lord Buddha? For some Buddhist scholars, even today, Dharma is not merely the sermons of Lord Buddha. His life contains more latent implications, for example, the implications of His silence in certain contexts as in His silence in response to questions by Vacchagotra. Thus, for the Buddhist scholars alluded to above, Dharma is something more and wider than the speech of Lord Buddha. The sermons are merely a part of Him, not the totality. When I return back to the context of the emergence of Mahayana Buddhism, I find that the Buddhists referred to above had shifted the ethical facet of Buddhism to a metaphysical focus. And what they did was to seek out the truest Dharma; one which also revealed the status of Lord Buddha after His Parinirvana. Simultaneously, the assumption that Lord Buddha still existed pervaded and caught the faithful minds of Buddhists. Dharma turned out to be a means to reach the state of Buddhatva. If man realises the ultimate truth of all things, he is sure to free himself from all types of bondage. To see Dharma is to see the truth of phenomena. When the truth of phenomena is seen, the wisdom of Lord Buddha is fulfilled within oneself. That is the reason why when one sees the Dharma, he also sees Lord Buddha. Further, the state of the mind is linked to liberation. The state of liberation is conceived to be the same as the pure mind. A human mind, that is pure and detached from all types of impurities, is synonymous with the state of liberation. Also, there were groups that defined “Dharma” as the Ultimate Truth of Lord Buddha. The more these Buddhists investigated His life, the less they believed that He had gone away. Hence, to see Dharma is to see Lord Buddha’s power penetrating through all things. These groups also tended to relate Dharma to Lord Buddha’s great compassion ( Mahakaruna ) and felt that to see Dharma is to see the Buddha-Dhatu within oneself. Mahakaruna is Karuna ( compassion ) combined with Pragya ( wisdom, Panna – in Pali, Zhi Hui, Pan-jo, Po-jo – in Chinese, Hannya – in Japanese ). Clearly, the most important duty of man is to live and spend his life in accordance with Lord Buddha’s intention. As His intention was to liberate all sentient beings from suffering, in order to realise the Buddha-Dhatu within oneself, it is crucial that one has to assist other sentient beings and take them along on the way to liberation. Pragya is required, in fact it is vital, because different Upaya ( expedient means ) should be deployed to bring different sentient beings on the path to Bodhi. The notion of Bodhisattva sprang up from this attitude. Bodhisattvas are perfect in Dana ( charity ), Shila, Kshanti ( perseverence, Khanti – in Pali ), Virya ( Viriya – in Pali ), Dhyana and Pragya. These are called the six perfections ( Paramita, Parami – in Pali ) of a Bodhisattva. Sometimes, ten perfections ( Dasha Paramita ) are considered ( Maharatnakuta Sutra, Sutra 45, Taisho 310, pages 648 to 650. Translated into Chinese by Bodhiruchi ) wherein perfection of ingenuity ( Upaya ), power ( Bala ), volition and knowledge ( Gyana ) are added to the usual six perfections. Also, fault-lines occurred on the level of “Buddha”. When the Vinaya and the Dharma showed fault-lines, the only way out for unenlightened Buddhists was to go back to Lord Buddha as apart from Him, there is no other refuge. At that time, many Buddhists conceived the existence of Lord Buddha in the transcendental state. The Saddharma Pundarika Sutra ( or The Lotus Sutra ), a Mahayana Sutra, conceives of a transcendental Lord Buddha. Lord Buddha had returned to His universal form after His Parinirvana and He still existed. Lord Buddha had Three Bodies (Trikaya). The first and most fundamental body is called the Cosmic Body ( Dharmakaya, Hosshin – in Japanese ). The conceptualisation of Lord Buddha’s All-Pervading, Eternal, Omniscient, Omnipresent and Radiant Dharmakaya provided for a more intense and immersive spiritual experience. The nature of the Dharmakaya is called Dharmakaya-Dhatu. When meditating, the state of Lord Buddha is the Blissful Body ( Sambhogakaya, Hojin – in Japanese ). The third body is the Constructed Body ( Nirmanakaya, Keshin – in Japanese ), which signifies the historical Lord Buddha. The Nirmanakaya of Lord Buddha had come and gone under the Will of the Dharmakaya. He was born to fulfil His human functions in leading human beings to liberation. It is believed that as long as humans do not realise the true Dharma, the anguish of departure from Lord Buddha takes place and that when the human mind is able to make a distinction between the pure mind and Klesha, the truism of Buddha-Dhatu becomes clear. In the conception of the Mahasanghikas, the concept of Rupakaya existed and Rupakaya was later split into Nirmanakaya and Sambhogakaya in Mahayana.

Mahayana Buddhism combines the emotion of devotion ( Shraddha, Saddha – in Pali ) with the wisdom of logical reasoning. This is the appeal of Mahayana ( Ta-sheng – in Chinese, Daijo – in Japanese ) Buddhism.

The primary devotional school of Mahayana Buddhism is the Pure Land School of the Far East, where the Sanskrit “Namah Amitabha Buddha” is translated into the Chinese “Namo Amito Fo” and the Japanese “Namu Amida Butsu”. The practice of invoking Lord Buddha’s name is known as Buddhanusmriti ( Nien Fo – in Chinese, Nenbutsu – in Japanese ). Devotion is also directed towards the Saddharma Pundarika Sutra ( The Lotus Sutra ) with the invocation “Namo miao fa lien hua ching” in Chinese and “Namu myoho rengekyo” in Japanese.

A certain school of Mahayana Buddhism conceives of four centres called Chakras located at different levels of the spine ( the spine itself is called Avadhuti in this school ). At the level of the navel is the Nirmana Chakra. At the level of the heart is the Dharma Chakra. At the level of the neck is the Sambhoga Chakra and at the level of the head is the Mahasukha Chakra ( Mahasukha means great happiness ). Meditation may also be initiated by focussing on the Nirmana Chakra with progressive focus on higher Chakras with the last focus being on the Mahasukha Chakra. In addition, while the meditator is focussing on the Dharma Chakra, he may imagine a five-pronged white thunderbolt ( Vajra ) emitting beams of light on the Dharma Chakra. At this stage, the meditator imagines himself to be Vajrasattva ( thunderbolt being or diamond being ). After the last focus on the Mahasukha Chakra, the meditator can perform Shamatha meditation. If he so wishes, the meditator may conclude his meditation by performing Vipashyana meditation after Shamatha meditation.

Reverting back to Zen Buddhism, we find that although Zen Buddhist experts were found amongst the laity, Zen Buddhism’s greatest geniuses were found in the highly regulated life of the monasteries. Zen Buddhism spread to Korea and Japan from China. In Japan, circular brushworks called enshos are calligraphic motifs often used in Zen Buddhism.

In Zen Buddhist practice ( the Sanskrit word Dhyana is a synonym of the Pali word Jhana, the Chinese word Ch’an, the Vietnamese word Thien, the Korean word Son and the Japanese word Zen ), one can take the help of Koans ( Japanese, Kung-an – in Chinese, Kongan – in Korean ) or spiritual puzzles with the aid of which he can propel the mind to a transcendental state in which he can meditate. Zazen ( Japanese, Tso-ch’an – in Chinese, the practice of Zen Buddhist meditation ) leads to Enlightenment. At the usual existential level, Koans cannot be said to have any coherence and an existential leap is needed to bring harmony. The spiritual puzzle posed by a Koan may be such that even a strong will may be unable to go to the transcendental plane. The role of the Zen Buddhist master is important here. He can deliver a shock, an emotional one usually suffices, but a physical blow or other corporal shock may be needed so that the spiritual aspirant is propelled into a higher level of consciousness. The fundamental viewpoint of Zen Buddhism is that one is to point directly to one’s mind, see it as it is ( Yatha Bhutam ) and become a Buddha. A very important difference between Theravada Buddhism and Zen Buddhism is that the former believes that Enlightenment is obtained slowly ( or gradually ) by means of practice while the latter is a believer in sudden Enlightenment ( Tun-yu – in Chinese ).

I give below an example of a Koan:

Before Enlightenment, chopping wood, carrying water;

After Enlightenment, chopping wood, carrying water.

The meaning is self-explanatory. Bodhi does not change the Samsara I am immersed in but it does change and completely restructures my attitude towards that Samsara. Hsuan-tsang, the great Chinese monk who visited India during the time of Emperor Harshavardhana, once made the following remark about the state of realisation : “It is like a man drinking water; he knows by himself whether it is cold or hot.”. Once, Hui-hai Tai-chu came to the Zen master Ma-tsu Tao-i, the first of possibly the four greatest Chinese Zen masters. Ma-tsu asked him: “Why are you here searching when you already possess the treasure you are looking for?”. “What treasure?”, his interlocutor asked. Ma-tsu replied: “The one who is questioning me right now.”. Ma-tsu had an unswerving ability to bring the empirical “I” into focus at just the right moment. On another occasion, when asked, “What is the meaning of Bodhidharma’s coming from India?”, Ma-tsu replied with a classic answer: “What is the meaning of your asking this at precisely this moment?”. Ma-tsu followed the Hung-chou style of Zen. Ma-tsu Tao-i’s disciple ( Dharma heir, Fa-ssu – in Chinese ) was Pai-chang Huai-hai. Pai-chang Huai-hai’s disciple was Huang Po Hsi-yun whose disciple was Lin-chi I-hsuan, the founder of Rinzai Zen. Soto Zen is the other major form of Japanese Zen.

Because contact of the six sensory bases with the external world do not result in any reactions in a liberated man, he is free. His mind is like a lamp that does not flicker. Non-attachment towards all beings and everything including the concepts of “I” and “Mine” is a characteristic of a liberated mind. The absence of ego in an Enlightened man leads him to adopt an attitude of dispassion and selflessness towards everything in his physical and mental world. He is virtuous. Temptations do not affect him. He is always cheerful, happy and optimistic. He radiates light wherever he goes. He is wise and compassionate ( Mahakarunika ) and does everything for the good of the world. He has risen above his previous mental conditioning ( Samskara ). He has risen above craving and aversion.

It must be remembered that in Buddhism, the only valid reason for waging a war is to fight evil forces. Any other war is unjust. Lord Buddha went to the field of battle and intervened to stop a war between the Shakyas and their neighbours and his words stopped King Ajatashatru of Magadha from attacking a neighbouring kingdom. Taking a life unjustly defiles a man. However, there is no sin in Buddhism, only delusion. Severely deluded men are unlikely to find cessation ( Nirodha, Nivritti ) from suffering ( Shoka, Soka – in Pali ) in this birth and the wheel of birth and death will roll on for them.

In India and China, legends surround Lord Buddha. A legend in India believes that the Hindu god of creation, Brahma, requested Lord Buddha to teach the Dharma. A legend in China says that a great Buddhist sage named Bodhidharma brought Buddhism from India to China. Another legend in China, recorded in the text Jen-t’ien-yien-mu, says that Lord Buddha explained the Dharma to his historical disciple Mahakashyapa by silently holding up a flower and Mahakashyapa ( Mahakassapa – in Pali, Mahakasho – in Japanese ) merely smiled, having understood the meaning. The sound of silence has a distinguished place in Buddhism, from Lord Buddha onwards stretching right upto the mythological householder disciple Vimalakirti. Historically, Emperor Ashoka was the first Indian emperor to spread Buddhism outside India. He sent his son, Mahendra ( Mahinda – in Pali ), and daughter, Sanghamitra ( Sanghamitta – in Pali ), to Sri Lanka.

Lord Buddha showed how man can integrate himself to the cosmos. In this and in many other aspects, He was a student of life and a leader of men. In a caste-ridden society, Lord Buddha strove to establish the equality of all men. In this, He was the world’s first great socialist. Lao-tzu of ancient China in his book Tao Te Ching described the qualities a true leader should have; leaders tread fresh grass amongst other things. Lord Buddha possessed all of them and much more. He was the ultimate Tyagi, that is, renunciant; renouncing a throne, comforts of a palace, a wife and a son to leave his palace on horseback in search of Truth at night. In this, He showed Himself to be an exemplar of Holiness inspiring millions of others to follow suit. He elevated Himself to the level of a Purushottama and a Mahapurusha ( Superhuman Man ).

Buddhism preaches ultimate tolerance to all faiths. A Buddhist hates none, loves all. Lord Buddha’s love for man was like a father’s love for his sons. The overarching philosophy of Buddhism encompasses loving-kindness ( Maitri, Metta – in Pali ) for all sentient beings. Buddhists co-exist peacefully with all religions on earth. It is invigorating to keep a statue of Lord Buddha in one’s place of meditation just as a Christian keeps a crucifix in his room. It is not idolatry.

Buddhism is particularly relevant in the violence-ridden world today. As a Buddhist, I feel that mankind can do much better. Pacifism and non-violence ( Ahimsa – Sanskrit and Pali, Avihimsa – Pali ) are fundamental tenets of Buddhism. However, this does not mean that a man should not resist aggression. If an evil power engages in aggression, then a man should resist it with all powers at his disposal. Something called “Engaged Buddhism” is emerging in the West now. In this, Buddhists take up environmental and social issues as a part of their practice of the Dharma.

A radical indeterminacy underpins and permeates human existence. Things happen that we do not want; things that we do not want happen. To bravely work out our way through to emancipation, to bring order in place of chaos, to face life with fortitude requires immense Enlightened courage. In this context, Buddhism enables us to reach salvation. That is the raison d’être of Buddhism. The essence of Buddhism, as summed up by Lord Buddha Himself, is:

To cease from all error,

To get virtue,

And to purify the heart.

With Anuttara Samyak Sambodhi ( supreme and perfect Enlightenment, Anuttara Samma Sambodhi – in Pali ) of a man, he realises that death can be defeated only if it can be made unreal. His false self, or nothingness, dissolves into a vibrant awakened being.

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from Dhyana Paramita: The Perfection of Meditation

[dramartyakumar]

Dhyana Paramita: The Perfection of Meditation

Dhyana Paramita: The Perfection of Meditation

Shamatha, Vipashyana, Buddhanupashyana and Buddhanusmriti

Dr. Amartya Kumar Bhattacharya

BCE (Hons.) ( Jadavpur ), MTech ( Civil ) ( IIT Kharagpur ), PhD ( Civil ) ( IIT Kharagpur ), Cert.MTERM ( AIT Bangkok ), CEng(I), FIE, FACCE(I), FISH, FIWRS, FIPHE, FIAH, FAE, MIGS, MIGS – Kolkata Chapter, MIGS – Chennai Chapter, MISTE, MAHI, MISCA, MIAHS, MISTAM, MNSFMFP, MIIBE, MICI, MIEES, MCITP, MISRS, MISRMTT, MAGGS, MCSI, MMBSI

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MultiSpectra Consultants,

23, Biplabi Ambika Chakraborty Sarani,

Kolkata – 700029,

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INDIA.

E-mail: dramartyakumar@gmail.com

This article deals with Dhyana Paramita ( the Perfection of Meditation ). In this article, I am striving to present the essence of Dharma ( Dharma-Dhatu ) in my own way. Although my family has its ancestral roots in Chittagong ( Chattagram – in Bengali ), Bangladesh and, naturally, follows Theravada Buddhism, I am trying to be as comprehensive as possible in my exposition of the Dharma. Sanskrit has been used as the default classical language of this article. Pali has also been extensively used and Chinese, Japanese and Korean have been used, where appropriate. Diacritical marks have been omitted as some knowledge of Sanskrit and Pali on the part of the reader is assumed.

Buddhism, a major world faith, was founded by Lord Buddha in India over two thousand five hundred years ago. It has spread peacefully over much of Asia and also to Kalmykia in eastern Europe and has millions of adherents in India, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, China ( including Tibet ), Taiwan, Mongolia, North and South Korea, Japan, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam and also in Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia and Russia ( Buryatia and Tuva in Siberia and Kalmykia in eastern Europe ). The northern extremity of Buddhism in Asia is the Ivolga Monastery in Siberia, Russia. This article is an exposition of Buddhism and in it, the word “faith” is used as a synonym of the word “religion”. Buddhism is also called Saddharma ( the true faith ) or Dharma.

The Sanskrit word “Dharma” literally means “Property”. For example, one says that the Dharma of fire is to burn. This means that the property of fire is to burn. The fire cannot be separated from its capacity to burn. Similarly, the literal meaning of Dharma ( Dhamma – in Pali, Fa – in Chinese, Ho – in Japanese ) of man is the basic property of man from which he cannot be separated. This means the spirituality inherent in man.

The objective of Buddhism is Nirvana ( liberation, Nibbana – in Pali, Gedatsu – in Japanese ) and Bodhi ( Enlightenment, P’u-ti – in Chinese, Bodai – in Japanese ). The word Buddhi means intellect and the word Bodha means to understand; it is from these words that the word Bodhi is derived. Who is it that seeks Nirvana, Bodhi, and to understand? It is “I” ( Aham ), who is writing right now. Understanding sharpens me, refines me, contextualises me, and keeps me on the path to Bodhi and Nirvana. I shall have an opportunity to delve deeply into the issue of “I” in Buddhism later. Deep understanding ( Anubodha ) is the context of Bodhi, and Nirvana. Rephrasing Nagarjuna, the founder of the Madhyamika school of Mahayana Buddhism, Shunyata ( emptiness, Sunnata – in Pali, K’ung – in Chinese, Ku – in Japanese ) is the absence of ignorance. Avidya Paramam Malam ( Avijja Paramam Malam – in Pali, Ignorance is the greatest impurity ) is what Lord Buddha said. Nagarjuna can be further re-interpreted to give to me the understanding that Nirvana is not only available for a man in Samsara ( empirical and phenomenal world ) but, as I am immersed in Samsara, it is only possible within it, subject to the condition that the Arya Ashtanga Marga ( Noble Eightfold Path ) is rigorously followed. The conclusion Nagarjuna reached, in his seminal work Mula Madhyamaka Karika, is that all things lack a fixed essence ( Swabhava, Sabhava – in Pali, Zi-xing – in Chinese ) or a fixed individual character (Swalakshana ) and that is why they are amenable to change. In other words, change is possible only if entities are devoid or empty ( Shunya ) of Swabhava. The Madhyamika school of Mahayana Buddhism split into the Prasangika Madhyamika ( as represented by Chandrakirti ) and the Swatantrika Madhyamika ( as represented by Bhavaviveka ). Buddhism has two main branches, Theravada and Mahayana, the difference between the two will be explained in due course.

Man’s quest for an end to his suffering ( Duhkha, Dukkha – in Pali ) has led him into an exploration of his inner self ( Wo – in Chinese ), its working and its dysfunctional behaviour under certain circumstances. Under such conditions,a radical shift in consciousness, perception and attitude is the only succour for a tormented mind ( Chitta, Manas, Hsin or Xin – in Chinese, Kokoro – in Japanese ). This process, involving the destruction of suffering, is based on the Four Noble Truths ( Chaturaryasatya, Chattari Aryasachchani – in Pali ) enunciated by Lord Buddha which are as follows:

Life contains suffering. ( Duhkha-Aryasatya, Dukkha-Aryasachcha – in Pali )

Suffering has a cause, and the cause can be known. ( Duhkha Samudaya-Aryasatya, Dukkha Samudaya-Aryasachcha – in Pali )

Suffering can be brought to an end. ( Duhkha Nirodha-Aryasatya, Dukkha Nirodha-Aryasachcha – in Pali )

The path to end suffering has eight parts. ( Marga-Aryasatya, Magga-Aryasachcha – in Pali )

Lord Buddha also laid out the Noble Eightfold Path ( Arya Ashtanga Marga, Arya Atthangika Magga – in Pali ). The Noble Eightfold Path is given below:

Right view ( Samyak Dristi, Samma Ditthi – in Pali)

Right intention ( Samyak Sankalpa, Samma Sankappa – in Pali) )

Right speech ( Samyak Vakya, Samma Vacha – in Pali) )

Right action ( Samyak Karma, Samma Kammanta – in Pali) )

Right livelihood ( Samyak Jivika, Samma Ajiva – in Pali) )

Right effort ( Samyak Vyayama, Samma Vayama – in Pali) )

Right mindfulness ( Samyak Smriti, Samma Sati – in Pali) )

Right concentration ( Samyak Samadhi, Samma Samadhi – in Pali) )

This Path is also known as The Middle Path ( Madhyama Pratipada, Majjhima Patipada – in Pali ) because it is neither too easy nor too difficult. The first five parts of the Path involve maintaining a lifestyle full of virtue ( Shila, Sila – in Pali ) while the last three pertain to the practice ( Patipatti – in Pali ) of meditation. The Path is called The Way ( Tao – in Chinese, Do, Michi – in Japanese ) in the Far East. The practice of meditation lies at the heart of the spiritual practice of Dharmic ( spiritual ) people. To be a Buddhist means to distinguish between Buddhist and non-Buddhist acts, between ignorance and Enlightenment, between Samsara and Nirvana. Pancha Shila is for householders; Ashta Shila is for householders practising Brahmacharya, that is celibacy; and Dasha Shila is for monks.

According to Lord Buddha, man is his own master. “Atta hi attano natho” are the exact words of Lord Buddha. He also said “Atmadvipa viharatha, atmasharana ananyasharana” meaning “Dwell making yourself your island ( that is refuge ), and not anyone else as your refuge”. Man is however unaware of this fact and abdicates his responsibility of controlling his future, even death. This is so because man is, in a deep philosophical sense, deluded ( Mohagrasta ), asleep and unaware of his true nature. He normally identifies himself with his body, which was born and hence will die, some day. This gives rise to vices, insecurity and belief in that what is not. Man lives in illusions ( Moha ); the illusion that he will never fall sick, the illusion that no harm will ever befall him. He also believes that he has relatives and friends and, if he clings onto them tightly enough, he will one day, after death, go to the nebulous place called heaven. But it is not true. The lacuna in man’s thinking becomes disturbingly clear to him when he finds that he is suffering. When a man suffers, the world seems to collapse around him. Man needs to be awakened and when this awakening process is complete, man will rise from the ashes of the world of the senses that he has just burnt to the world of pure consciousness. Buddhism is a journey where a man starts asleep and ends up awake. In doing so, he sheds aside nothingness to awaken to a single state of Being. The process by which this takes place is meditation.

Lord Buddha’s title means one who is awake. He is the messiah who showed the path to eternity. Lord Buddha gave His teaching “for the good of many, for the happiness of many, for showing compassion to the world” ( Bahujanahitaya, Bahujanasukhaya, Lokanukampaya ). He told man that though he is asleep, the capacity to be awakened is in him and also taught man the path to awakening. But man must walk that path himself, alone. Man must realise that he is always alone, whether it be high atop the mountains, in the company of his relatives or in the morning crowd in the downtown of a metropolitan city. A positive attitude to aloneness can develop in man when he can take a mental sword and cleave a distinction between aloneness and loneliness. Loneliness has a negative connotation in the sense that it implies a craving for company of other human beings, the exact opposite of the self-sufficiency implied by aloneness. The capacity to tread the path to Nirvana is already in man, he just has to use it. In the Dharmachakrapravartana Sutra ( Dhammachakkappavattana Sutta – in Pali ), Lord Buddha said that Nirvana is not subject to grief, defilement ( Klesha, Kilesa – in Pali, Bonno – in Japanese ), disease ( Vyadhi ), decay ( Jara ), and death ( Mrityu, Marana ). In other words, Nirvana is beyond cause and effect, that is, it transcends conditioned phenomena. Lord Buddha also said “Nirvanam Paramam Sukham”. Nirvana is Apratitya-samutpanna and Asamskrita ( unconditioned, Apatichcha-samuppanna and Asankhata – in Pali, Wu-yin – in Chinese ) and, according to Vasubandhu of the Yogachara ( the practice of Yoga ) school of Mahayana Buddhism, is the Parinishpanna Swabhava ( true self-nature of Being, Zhen-shi-xing – in Chinese ). It is interesting to note that in the Lankavatara Sutra, a Mahayana Sutra associated with the Yogachara school, Nirvana is described as the seeing of everything as it is. Nirvana is a positive Absolute and is Nitya ( without beginning and end, Nicca – in Pali ). Nirvana means a state of Mukti ( Mutti – in Pali )which means freedom or Vimukti ( Vimutti – in Pali ) which means absolute freedom. Nirvana also denotes Satya ( Sacca – in Pali ) which means Truth and Shanti ( Santi – in Pali ) which means Peace. A synonym for Nirvana is Moksha ( liberation, Mokkha – in Pali ). Nirvana is a state of absolute perfection. Shariputra, the famous historical disciple of Lord Buddha, described Nirvana as the extinction of desire, hatred and illusion. In mystical language, Nirvana is the experience of standing face-to-face with Reality ( Shi – in Chinese ). Nirvana is equated with Bodhi and is the Paramartha-Satya. Nirvana is sometimes expressed as negative of negative such as the cessation of suffering, of craving, of aversion, etc. This need not result in any confusion. In Sanskrit, sometimes positive things are expressed as negatives of negatives as the word “Arogya” which means recuperation from illness and the word “Amrita” which means immortal. Further, as mathematics proves, negative of negative is always positive. Nirvana is a freeing from the chains of a false sense of individuality. Nirvana is a state of non-duality ( Advaita or Advaya ); a state where the illusion of a false sense of “I” ( Parikalpita Swabhava, Fen-bie-xing – in Chinese ) does not exist. Expressed differently, liberation from the illusion of separateness of the individual Self from the Whole is Nirvana. Freedom is, Nirvana is, Truth is.

According to Buddhism, everything is relative and impermanent ( Anitya, Anicca – in Pali ) in the empirical, conditioned world. Lord Buddha told Rashtrapala “The world is in continuous flux and is impermanent”. In this context, I can correctly say that one cannot step twice into the same river because although I may continue to see the same river externally from a gross point of view, the water molecules I am seeing at a particular location at any moment are different from the water molecules the moment before and the moment after. One thing disappears, conditioning the appearance of the next in a series of cause and effect. Everything is in a state of becoming something else the next moment. A wheel cannot be separated from its movement. There is no static wheel “behind” the wheel in motion. Things change over time. Everything originates dependent on other factors. That is, all things come into existence as the result ( Phala ) of an interaction of various causes ( Hetu ). Each entity is Pratitya-samutpanna ( conditioned, Patichcha-samuppanna – in Pali ) as well as Pratitya-samutpada ( conditioning, Patichcha-samuppada – in Pali ). The Law of Dependent Origination is central to Buddhism. For example, anger cannot arise by itself without a cause. The five aggregates, Rupa, Vedana, Sangya, Samskara and Vigyana ( Rupa, Vedana, Sanna, Sankhara and Vinnana – in Pali ), all of which are identified as Anatma ( non-Soul ) by Lord Buddha in the Anatmalakshana Sutra, are called the Pancha Skandha ( the five aggregates, Pancha Khandha – in Pali ). Sensations ( Vedana ) of the physical world of forms ( Rupa ) are received by the five physical sense organs ( Indriya ) such as the nose. The mind feels the mental world. The five physical sense organs and the mind are called the six sensory bases. Sensations lead to perceptions ( Sangya ), which in turn lead through pre-dispositions ( Samskara ), to consciousness ( Vigyana ). In Theravada Buddhism, the concept of Bhavanga ( stream of thought ) is introduced while in the Yogachara school of Mahayana Buddhism, the concept of Alaya-Vigyana ( literally, the abode of consciousness, but commonly translated as store-consciousness ) is introduced. The Alaya-Vigyana ( Ariyashiki – in Japanese ), which maintains the continuum of consciousness, is the mind; hence this school is also called the Chittamatratavada school. Other names of the same school are Agamanuyayi Vigyanavada and Vigyaptimatratavada. The Vigyanavada school is further divided into the Nirakaravadi Vigyanavada ( as represented by Asanga ) and the Sakaravadi Vigyanavada ( as represented by Gyanashri Mitra ).The fundamental concept of the Yogachara ( Wei Shi – in Chinese, Yuishiki – in Japanese ) school may be expressed by the proposition that the Parinishpanna Swabhava is realised when man pierces ( Patibheda ) through his Parikalpita Swabhava and Paratantra Swabhava ( conditioned self-nature, Yi-ta-xing – in Chinese ). The Alaya-Vigyana, as conceived in Mahayana Buddhism, is a permanent entity. The Alaya-Vigyana contains all impressions of past actions and all future potentialities. It is also the Tathagatagarbha ( Buddha-Matrix, Ru-lai-zang – in Chinese, Nyoraizo – in Japanese ), the basis on which a man can become a Buddha. So, latent in every man is a Buddha-like faculty called Buddha-Dhatu ( Buddha-Nature, Fo-hsing or Fo-xing – in Chinese ). Right meditation leads to spiritual Enlightenment, which is nothing but the full manifestation of the Buddha-Dhatu ( or Tathagata-Dhatu ) in man. Thus, any man can develop himself through appropriate practice, that is meditation, and become a Buddha. Anyway, for an average man, the summation of all physical and mental processes, processes in constant flux, is perceived empirically as “I”. The empirical “I” is ephemeral and impermanent, and is Samvriti-Satya ( conventional truth ). Conscious of something, one reacts mentally. The mental reactions are of two types : craving and aversion. Craving ( Trishna, Tanha – in Pali, Raga, Lobha – in Pali ) and aversion ( Dvesha, Dosa – in Pali ) both lead to suffering; it is self-evident that aversion results in suffering and craving results in suffering because if the object of craving remains out of reach, there is suffering. Thus, ultimately, whatever is impermanent is Duhkha or suffering. Trishna Nirodha, Upadana ( clinging ) Nirodha ( With the extinction of craving comes the extinction of clinging ). The renowned sage Buddhaghosa, the writer of the Visuddhimagga ( Vishuddhi Marga, The Path of Purification ), has dwelt elaborately on suffering. Taking the lead from Nagarjuna, I posit that Duhkha is transient; it arises dependent on something else and also decays into extinction. Duhkha is not self-determining; its existence and character are attributable to factors that condition its origin and subsequent transformation. Coming into existence and dying out of existence, Duhkha lacks any trace of permanence.Thus, it may be said that Duhkha lacks a Swabhava or Swalakshana and is characterised by Nihswabhava ( absence of Self-Nature ). Thus Duhkha is empty ( Shunya ). I am, therefore, led to formulate the proposition: Duhkhameva Shunyam. Because Duhkha is ephemeral, I can expand the Sanskrit sentence to this: Duhkhameva Anityam evam Shunyam The perception of the emptiness of Duhkha allows one to let go of Duhkha and thus be released of the hold that Duhkha has on him. This is, of course, intended as a Mahayana Buddhist theoretical complement to Shamatha and Vipashyana meditation and is in no way a substitute for Shamatha and Vipashyana meditation. I also hold that the notion of Buddha-Dhatu is a very productive concept. Any meditator’s meditation is bound to become better if he remembers during meditating that he has Buddha-Dhatu in him.

It may be mentioned, at this stage, that practitioners who are extremely advanced spiritually are called by the name Arhat ( Arahant – in Pali, A-han – in Chinese, Arakan, Rakan – in Japanese ) in Theravada Buddhism and Bodhisattva ( Bodhisatta – in Pali, Bosatsu – in Japanese ), or aspirants to Buddhahood ( Buddhatva, or as is rather more commonly termed Buddhata ) in Mahayana Buddhism. A Bodhisattva is any man who has taken a vow to follow the path to Buddhatva taking all other sentient beings with him. A monk ( Bhikshu, Bhikkhu – in Pali ) and a lay disciple ( Upasaka ) are both Bodhisattvas. Sattva means a sentient being.

In response to questioning by devotees in the kingdom of Kosala as to the importance or unimportance of belief, Lord Buddha pointed out the distinction between knowing and believing. Believing always connotes a second-hand approach to Truth; knowing about something through the experience of someone else. Knowing means a first-hand direct knowledge of Truth and the result of this distinction is that the modicum of doubt that always accompanies belief is absent in knowledge ( Gyana ). Freedom of thought is permitted by Lord Buddha to His devotees so that they can discriminate and find Truth. Nirvana cannot be had via someone else’s knowledge. A contemporary scholar Kazuaki Tanahashi describes an incident in Japan where a Buddhist monk illustrated to his disciples the power of what might be called “positive emptiness” in the mind. A void in the mind can be filled with spirituality by virtue of positive thinking. A Korean monk, Kyong Ho, echoed this feeling when he advised one to accept the anxieties and difficulties of this life. He also advised people to use their will to bring peace between peoples. This is particularly relevant in the modern world where democracy and egalitarianism are taken for granted. The great Japanese Zen Buddhist monk Dogen said that Samadhi ( which is a transcendental state of mind ) led to Enlightenment of those who found Enlightenment in India and China. Buddhism also strongly believes in the theory ( Pariyapti, Pariyatti – in Pali ) of Karma ( as you sow, so shall you reap ) and in the concept of rebirth. Lord Buddha said “Monks, I say that volition is action. Having thought, one acts through body, speech and mind.” ( Chetana ‘ham bhikkhave kammam vadami. Chetayitva kammam karoti kayena vachaya manasa. – in Pali ). Body ( Kaya Vajra ), Speech ( Vak Vajra )and Mind ( Chitta Vajra ) are called Tri Vajra in a certain school of Mahayana Buddhism ( Vajra can mean both thunderbolt and diamond ). There are two types of Karma, Kushala Karma ( Kusala Kamma – in Pali ) or good actions and Akushala Karma or bad actions. Kushala Karma is Dharmic while Akushala Karma is Adharmic. The result of both types of Karma are called Karma Phala, which correspond to the type of Karma performed.

He searched, He meditated, He found: this aptly summarises the awakening of Lord Buddha. When a man suffers, it is useless for him to talk of God, or to fast and otherwise to torture his body if his suffering is not reduced by any or all of these. Lord Buddha realised this fact and after His awakening taught the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path. Meditation is one form of mental culture ( Bhavana ). In meditation, what is required of man is to effect a radical shift in consciousness from the finite to the infinite using right concentration. Concentration is called Chittaikagrata in Sanskrit ( Chittekaggata – in Pali ). The concentrated focus is always on the elimination of suffering. The law of cause and effect is at work here too. If one is deluded, one suffers. If one studies the Four Noble Truths, one sees that man should identify the cause of suffering and systematically go about destroying it using the Noble Eightfold Path. The result of meditation is tremendous. One transcends the boundaries of his body; he senses that the entire universe has become his body. He senses that he has exchanged a weak mind for a strong one. He senses that though he may continue to reside in his mortal body, his consciousness has become irreversibly altered. He feels himself being pervaded by peace. He becomes awakened; Prabuddha. Lord Buddha did not give the Dharma for strong wills only; His statements are just as applicable to weaker minds provided they have the determination to follow Him. He asked for nothing more than courage and promised eternity.

An explanation as to the types of meditation in vogue is in order here. Shamatha ( Samatha – in Pali ) and Vipashyana ( Vipassana – in Pali, Kuan or Guan – in Chinese, Kan – in Japanese ) or Vidarshana ( Pashyana or Darshana means to see in an ordinary way; Vipashyana or Vidarshana means to see in a special way, that is, with Insight ) meditation are practised in south Asia and other countries which practice Theravada ( meaning, the way of the Elders ) Buddhism. Lord Buddha presented the technique of Vipashyana meditation in the Mahasatipatthana Sutta ( Mahasmritipratishthana Sutra ) / Satipatthana Sutta ( Smritipratishthana Sutra ). Lord Buddha delivered this Sutra in Kammassadhammam near Delhi. The Mahasatipatthana Sutta is found in the Digha ( Dirgha ) Nikaya and the Satipatthana Sutta is found in the Majjhima ( Madhyama ) Nikaya. Zen Buddhist practice is performed in East Asia, that is, in China, North and South Korea, Taiwan and Japan, which are among the countries that practice Mahayana ( meaning, the great vehicle ) Buddhism. In fact, Zen is one of the eight schools of Mahayana Buddhism. Meditation is something that cannot be fully explained in words, it has to be experienced to be understood completely. Knowing about meditation is one thing; knowing meditation is quite another. A man can sit alone, cross-legged, in a quiet room in the full lotus posture ( Padmasana or Dhyanasana or Vajraparyankasana ) or, failing that, in the half-lotus posture ( Bhadrasana ) and try to enter into Vipashyana meditation ( the third posture of sitting is called Sukhasana, literally meaning “the posture that gives happiness” ). If one is unable to start doing meditation oneself, one should take the help of a Guru ( literally, one who dispels darkness ) who will guide him in the initial stages. One must sit, preferably, in the lotus posture with one’s spine erect. There must be no slumping of the back, the head should be straight as if suspended by means of a string. Another analogy adopted is that the head should be straight as if bearing the sky on its top. The hands may be placed in the Bhumisparsha Mudra ( Bhumisparsha gesture ), a Mudra ( Inzo – in Japanese ) in which I find so many statues of Lord Buddha. Bhumisparsha literally means “ touching the ground”. This gesture is also called Sakshi ( Sanskrit for witness ) Mudra or Bhusparsha Mudra ( the gesture of touching the earth ). Alternatively, a man’s hands may be in the cosmic Mudra with the left hand on top of the right, middle joints of middle fingers together and the thumbs touching each other. The hands should be held against the body, with the thumbs at about the height of the navel. This gesture is very popular in East Asia. The Samadhi Mudra consists of the right hand placed on top of the left hand with the tips of the two thumbs touching each other. Yet another Mudra consists of the hands straight, placed on the knees, and the thumb and the next finger touching each other with the other fingers straight. This gesture of the hands is called Gyana Mudra. Other gestures are the Dharmachakra Mudra, Varada Mudra, Abhaya Mudra, Vajrahumkara Mudra and the Samaya Vajra Mudra. The Dharmachakra Mudra can be seen in the famous Sarnath statue of Lord Buddha. This gesture is also called the Bodhyangi or Vyakhyana Mudra. The Varada Mudra is the genture of giving boon with the right hand while the Abhaya Mudra is the gesture of giving protection with the right hand. The Vajrahumkara Mudra, also called the Trailokyavijaya Mudra, consists of placing both hands crossed over one’s chest with the right hand over the left hand and with both the palms facing the chest. A much less common Mudra is the Samaya Vajra Mudra which consists of the right thumb touching the right little finger with the middle three fingers of the right hand suggesting the shape of a thunderbolt. A meditator may also hold a Vajra in his right hand – if he does so, he is called Vajradhara ( holder of the Vajra ). After one has sat correctly, he must close his eyes and focus on the inhalation and exhalation of his breath ( Anapana-smriti or Anapana-sati ). Anapana ( An-pan – in Chinese ) means respiration. There must be no tampering with the natural respiration, a meditator’s job is simply to focus his attention on his nostrils and observe the natural flow of breath. Respiration is natural, one has no craving or aversion towards it, it is always in the present ( Nitya ) and, since one breathes from the moment of one’s birth to the moment of one’s death, it is in fact a convergence of the past, present and future. Further, it is within the physical framework of the body. Respiration is thus an appropriate object for concentrating the mind, something that is not too easy. The mind does not usually want to stay in the present moment; it resides either in the past or in the future. A little effort is needed to prevent the mind from wandering about. This is called Right Effort. At this stage, there may be strong distractions in the mind that prevent the mind from concentrating. Sometimes these distractions appear to be overwhelming. The effort to focus on respiration should be continued in such cases. The key is never to give up. A learner soon discovers one thing ; meditation is hard work for a beginner. Right Mindfulness, which is mindfulness of breathing, follows Right Effort immediately. Right Concentration leading to Samadhi ( San-mei – in Chinese, Sanmai, Zanmai – in Japanese ), which is a transcendental state, follows. It may be described by Sat ( being ), Chit ( consciousness ) and Ananda ( bliss, happiness ). Sometimes, in lifting the mind to Samadhi, hurdles appear in the form of distractions in the mind. These distractions may be latent feelings of anger, craving, sadness, and so on. The remedy, in such cases, is to return back to Anapana-sati and try to lift the mind to Samadhi again. Shamatha meditation is an absorptive meditation whose object is to calm the mind. Vipashyana meditation is an analytical meditation. Shamatha meditation may be an end in itself or it may be a prelude to Vipashyana meditation. It is also possible to perform Vipashyana meditation without performing Shamatha meditation first. There are four parts to the practice of Vipashyana meditation. Kaya anupashyana ( Kayanupassana – in Pali ), Vedana anupashyana ( Vedananupassana – in Pali ), Chitta anupashyana ( Chittanupassana – in Pali ), and Dharma anupashyana ( Dhammanupassana – in Pali ). Anupashyana ( Anupassana – in Pali ) means to see minutely, that is, to scrutinise Here, Dharma indicates the contents of the mind ( Chaitasika, Chetasika – in Pali ). Each of the four, Kaya ( body ), Vedana ( sensations ), Chitta ( mind ) and Dharma ( mental contents ), must be subjected to Anupashyana. The true nature of all four of these reveal themselves to the meditator and he is able to remove defilement from the innermost recesses of his mind ( Anushaya, Anusaya – in Pali ). Awareness and equanimity ( Upeksha, Upekkha – in Pali ), together, symbolise Vipashyana meditation. If either part is missing, one cannot attain Enlightenment. Vipashyana leads to clear insight into the physical and mental structure and thus leads to Bodhi. The complete knowledge of my physical and mental structure is called Sampragyana ( Sampajanna – in Pali ), if I have it I am called a Sampragya. In some forms of Mahayana Buddhist meditation, meditation on Lord Buddha ( Buddhanupashyana ) is performed.

Bodhyangas ( Bojjhangas – in Pali ) are factors contributing to Enlightenment. There are seven Bodhyangas: Smriti, Dharma-chayana, Virya ( courage ), Priti ( rapture and bliss ), Prashiddhi ( deep tranquility and calmness ), Samadhi, and Upeksha. The Four Sublime States ( Brahmavihara ) are Maitri, Karuna ( compassion ), Mudita and Upeksha. Meditation entails making a conscious and free choice to withdraw from the affairs of the mundane world to pursue spiritual ends; one of the objectives being the subsequent re-establishment of contact with the conditioned world as a purer and wiser man. The decision to meditate is itself an act of freedom. We have, in life, the freedom to pursue an ethical way of living. This freedom leads us to Bodhi and Nirvana and thus sets us free.

Meditation is a pursuit of liberation, realisation is the end result. Post-realisation, one feels that one had been going about with his eyes closed and has now suddenly opened them. In the plane of the senses, his external world does not change but his way of psychologically processing his external world undergoes a drastic change. He becomes more peaceful with himself and with others. An awakened man, possessing an Enlightened mind ( Bodhichitta ), feels that he is surrounded by peace at all times ( the process of developing an Enlightened mind is called Bodhichittodpada ). It is important to understand that nobody tells him this; he feels it himself. He goes about doing his daily activities, but his way of processing his world has fundamentally altered for the better. He realises that he cannot and need not control all aspects of his external physical world. He realises that he gains more by letting go. He becomes aware of the non-peaceful moments in his life and tries to reduce their frequency and intensity. He opts for shifting his consciousness to his mind and becoming aware of his internal mental processes when waiting, for example, in a traffic jam or while waiting in a queue. He opts for harmony in his mental processes rather than chaos.

Ordinarily, animal instincts bind a man to the world of the senses. Man lacks the initiative to free himself from them. Rather, he reposes his faith on some superhuman power whom he tries to propitiate in the hope that he may be rescued from his troubles. Meditation may also be described as a Tapasya ( a Sanskrit word whose root lies in the Sanskrit word Tapah which means heat ), a burning of the impurities in the mind.

Zen Buddhism originated in China and is in vogue in East Asia. As mentioned before, it is a school of Mahayana Buddhism. Mahayana Buddhism was propagated in China by Indian Buddhist monks like Kumarajiva ( 344-413 C.E. ), son of Kumarayana, who went to China in 401 C.E., and Buddhabhadra ( 359-429 C.E. ), who went to China in 408 C.E., and by Chinese Buddhist monks who came to India, like Fa-hsien ( or Fa-xian ), who came to India between 399 and 414 C.E., and Hsuan-tsang ( or Xuan-zang ) ( 600-664 C.E. ), who came to India between 629 and 645 C.E. Also, Gunabhadra translated the Lankavatara Sutra into Chinese and Paramartha was another noted translator.

Mahayana Buddhism developed in India a few centuries after the Parinirvana of Lord Buddha. Emperor Kanishka convened the Fourth Buddhist Council, held probably at Jalandhar, in which the scholar Vasumitra was President and another eminent scholar Asvaghosha, the author of Buddha Charita, was Vice-President. In this assembly, Buddhists became divided into Mahayana Buddhists and Theravada Buddhists. The Pali word Thera is derived from the Sanskrit word Sthavira which means Elder. Theravada Buddhism is the most orthodox form of Buddhism and has preserved the historical teachings of Lord Buddha in its Pali Canon. The Theravada Sutras ( Suttas – in Pali ) are the earliest available teachings of Lord Buddha, are in Pali, and are fully historical. The Pali Canon is called the Tripitaka in Sanskrit and the Tipitaka in Pali; Sutra-Pitaka ( Sutta-Pitaka – in Pali ), Vinaya-Pitaka and Abhidharma-Pitaka ( Abhidhamma-Pitaka – in Pali ) forming the three parts of the Tripitaka. Abhidharma means detailed philosophical discourses. The Sutta-Pitaka has five parts – the Digha Nikaya, the Majjhima Nikaya, the Khuddaka Nikaya, the Samyutta Nikaya and the Anguttara Nikaya.

Mahayana is a way of Buddhism followed widely across India and northern and eastern Asia. I have written before that in Mahayana Buddhism, individuals strive to take all others along with them to the ultimate goal of liberation. Mahayana Buddhism emerged in the context of the development of a different disposition towards Buddhism by some Buddhists; in terms of concepts relating to the Sangha, the Dharma and Lord Buddha. Firstly, schisms occurred on the level of “Sangha”. The primary concern of several venerated Buddhist monks was to keep the Dharma and discipline ( Vinaya ) pure. They felt that this was the only way to sustain Buddhism in the long run. These Buddhist monks became some of the most sophisticated theoreticians in the Indian intellectual world. Certain other monks wanted the Vinaya to be flexible. The case of the Mahasanghika monks is the best example to show the conflict between these two viewpoints. These monks had added ten minor precepts for their group , for example, monks could get, keep and use money. In the Second Buddhist Council, held at Vaishali, they were called “Papishtha bhikshus” (the sinful monks). Their behaviour was unacceptable from the viewpoint of the orthodox Buddhists. These monks established their own tradition and called themselves “Mahasanghikas” ( the monks of the Great Sangha ). In this connection, it may be mentioned that there were as many as eighteen early schools including the Sarvastivadins, the Pragyaptivadins, the Sautantrikas, the Vatsiputriyas, the Sammitiyas, the Dharmaguptakas, the Lokottaravadins ( an offshoot of the Mahasanghikas who carried the notion of the transcendental nature of Lord Buddha to the greatest extent among all the early schools ), etc. It would not be out of place to mention that certain typical similes were employed by some schools as also by a monk like Nagasena who said that a chariot is merely a designation ( Pragyapti, Pannatti – in Pali ) depending on its own parts. The Vatsiputriyas, also called the Pudgalavadins because of their belief in a Pudgala ( Puggala – in Pali ) as a transmigrating entity, utilised the simile of fire and fuel and the Sautantrikas utilised the simile of seed and sprout. Nagarjuna’s claim that anything that is Pratityasamutpanna is a Pragyapti indicates that he conceived the meaning of Pragyapti differently from Nagasena.

Fissures also occurred on the level of “Dharma”. Three months before Lord Buddha’s Parinirvana at Kusinagara, He declared in the Mahaparinirvana Sutra that the monks and the laity would have the Dharma and the Vinaya as their leaders in the future. However, some Buddhists, mostly the Mahasanghikas, found themselves having no shelter left except the Dharma. So they searched for the true Dharma. The statement of Lord Buddha, “He who sees the Dharma, sees me; he who sees me, sees the Dharma”, also supported their quest. If one uses logical arguments to judge this sentence, an interesting question emerges. How must one see the Dharma so that one also sees Lord Buddha? For some Buddhist scholars, even today, Dharma is not merely the sermons of Lord Buddha. His life contains more latent implications, for example, the implications of His silence in certain contexts as in His silence in response to questions by Vacchagotra. Thus, for the Buddhist scholars alluded to above, Dharma is something more and wider than the speech of Lord Buddha. The sermons are merely a part of Him, not the totality. When I return back to the context of the emergence of Mahayana Buddhism, I find that the Buddhists referred to above had shifted the ethical facet of Buddhism to a metaphysical focus. And what they did was to seek out the truest Dharma; one which also revealed the status of Lord Buddha after His Parinirvana. Simultaneously, the assumption that Lord Buddha still existed pervaded and caught the faithful minds of Buddhists. Dharma turned out to be a means to reach the state of Buddhatva. If man realises the ultimate truth of all things, he is sure to free himself from all types of bondage. To see Dharma is to see the truth of phenomena. When the truth of phenomena is seen, the wisdom of Lord Buddha is fulfilled within oneself. That is the reason why when one sees the Dharma, he also sees Lord Buddha. Further, the state of the mind is linked to liberation. The state of liberation is conceived to be the same as the pure mind. A human mind, that is pure and detached from all types of impurities, is synonymous with the state of liberation. Also, there were groups that defined “Dharma” as the Ultimate Truth of Lord Buddha. The more these Buddhists investigated His life, the less they believed that He had gone away. Hence, to see Dharma is to see Lord Buddha’s power penetrating through all things. These groups also tended to relate Dharma to Lord Buddha’s great compassion ( Mahakaruna ) and felt that to see Dharma is to see the Buddha-Dhatu within oneself. Mahakaruna is Karuna ( compassion ) combined with Pragya ( wisdom, Panna – in Pali, Zhi Hui, Pan-jo, Po-jo – in Chinese, Hannya – in Japanese ). Clearly, the most important duty of man is to live and spend his life in accordance with Lord Buddha’s intention. As His intention was to liberate all sentient beings from suffering, in order to realise the Buddha-Dhatu within oneself, it is crucial that one has to assist other sentient beings and take them along on the way to liberation. Pragya is required, in fact it is vital, because different Upaya ( expedient means ) should be deployed to bring different sentient beings on the path to Bodhi. The notion of Bodhisattva sprang up from this attitude. Bodhisattvas are perfect in Dana ( charity ), Shila, Kshanti ( perseverence, Khanti – in Pali ), Virya ( Viriya – in Pali ), Dhyana and Pragya. These are called the six perfections ( Paramita, Parami – in Pali ) of a Bodhisattva. Sometimes, ten perfections ( Dasha Paramita ) are considered ( Maharatnakuta Sutra, Sutra 45, Taisho 310, pages 648 to 650. Translated into Chinese by Bodhiruchi ) wherein perfection of ingenuity ( Upaya ), power ( Bala ), volition and knowledge ( Gyana ) are added to the usual six perfections. Also, fault-lines occurred on the level of “Buddha”. When the Vinaya and the Dharma showed fault-lines, the only way out for unenlightened Buddhists was to go back to Lord Buddha as apart from Him, there is no other refuge. At that time, many Buddhists conceived the existence of Lord Buddha in the transcendental state. The Saddharma Pundarika Sutra ( or The Lotus Sutra ), a Mahayana Sutra, conceives of a transcendental Lord Buddha. Lord Buddha had returned to His universal form after His Parinirvana and He still existed. Lord Buddha had Three Bodies (Trikaya). The first and most fundamental body is called the Cosmic Body ( Dharmakaya, Hosshin – in Japanese ). The conceptualisation of Lord Buddha’s All-Pervading, Eternal, Omniscient, Omnipresent and Radiant Dharmakaya provided for a more intense and immersive spiritual experience. The nature of the Dharmakaya is called Dharmakaya-Dhatu. When meditating, the state of Lord Buddha is the Blissful Body ( Sambhogakaya, Hojin – in Japanese ). The third body is the Constructed Body ( Nirmanakaya, Keshin – in Japanese ), which signifies the historical Lord Buddha. The Nirmanakaya of Lord Buddha had come and gone under the Will of the Dharmakaya. He was born to fulfil His human functions in leading human beings to liberation. It is believed that as long as humans do not realise the true Dharma, the anguish of departure from Lord Buddha takes place and that when the human mind is able to make a distinction between the pure mind and Klesha, the truism of Buddha-Dhatu becomes clear. In the conception of the Mahasanghikas, the concept of Rupakaya existed and Rupakaya was later split into Nirmanakaya and Sambhogakaya in Mahayana.

Mahayana Buddhism combines the emotion of devotion ( Shraddha, Saddha – in Pali ) with the wisdom of logical reasoning. This is the appeal of Mahayana ( Ta-sheng – in Chinese, Daijo – in Japanese ) Buddhism.

The primary devotional school of Mahayana Buddhism is the Pure Land School of the Far East, where the Sanskrit “Namah Amitabha Buddha” is translated into the Chinese “Namo Amito Fo” and the Japanese “Namu Amida Butsu”. The practice of invoking Lord Buddha’s name is known as Buddhanusmriti ( Nien Fo – in Chinese, Nenbutsu – in Japanese ). Devotion is also directed towards the Saddharma Pundarika Sutra ( The Lotus Sutra ) with the invocation “Namo miao fa lien hua ching” in Chinese and “Namu myoho rengekyo” in Japanese.

A certain school of Mahayana Buddhism conceives of four centres called Chakras located at different levels of the spine ( the spine itself is called Avadhuti in this school ). At the level of the navel is the Nirmana Chakra. At the level of the heart is the Dharma Chakra. At the level of the neck is the Sambhoga Chakra and at the level of the head is the Mahasukha Chakra ( Mahasukha means great happiness ). Meditation may also be initiated by focussing on the Nirmana Chakra with progressive focus on higher Chakras with the last focus being on the Mahasukha Chakra. In addition, while the meditator is focussing on the Dharma Chakra, he may imagine a five-pronged white thunderbolt ( Vajra ) emitting beams of light on the Dharma Chakra. At this stage, the meditator imagines himself to be Vajrasattva ( thunderbolt being or diamond being ). After the last focus on the Mahasukha Chakra, the meditator can perform Shamatha meditation. If he so wishes, the meditator may conclude his meditation by performing Vipashyana meditation after Shamatha meditation.

Reverting back to Zen Buddhism, we find that although Zen Buddhist experts were found amongst the laity, Zen Buddhism’s greatest geniuses were found in the highly regulated life of the monasteries. Zen Buddhism spread to Korea and Japan from China. In Japan, circular brushworks called enshos are calligraphic motifs often used in Zen Buddhism.

In Zen Buddhist practice ( the Sanskrit word Dhyana is a synonym of the Pali word Jhana, the Chinese word Ch’an, the Vietnamese word Thien, the Korean word Son and the Japanese word Zen ), one can take the help of Koans ( Japanese, Kung-an – in Chinese, Kongan – in Korean ) or spiritual puzzles with the aid of which he can propel the mind to a transcendental state in which he can meditate. Zazen ( Japanese, Tso-ch’an – in Chinese, the practice of Zen Buddhist meditation ) leads to Enlightenment. At the usual existential level, Koans cannot be said to have any coherence and an existential leap is needed to bring harmony. The spiritual puzzle posed by a Koan may be such that even a strong will may be unable to go to the transcendental plane. The role of the Zen Buddhist master is important here. He can deliver a shock, an emotional one usually suffices, but a physical blow or other corporal shock may be needed so that the spiritual aspirant is propelled into a higher level of consciousness. The fundamental viewpoint of Zen Buddhism is that one is to point directly to one’s mind, see it as it is ( Yatha Bhutam ) and become a Buddha. A very important difference between Theravada Buddhism and Zen Buddhism is that the former believes that Enlightenment is obtained slowly ( or gradually ) by means of practice while the latter is a believer in sudden Enlightenment ( Tun-yu – in Chinese ).

I give below an example of a Koan:

Before Enlightenment, chopping wood, carrying water;

After Enlightenment, chopping wood, carrying water.

The meaning is self-explanatory. Bodhi does not change the Samsara I am immersed in but it does change and completely restructures my attitude towards that Samsara. Hsuan-tsang, the great Chinese monk who visited India during the time of Emperor Harshavardhana, once made the following remark about the state of realisation : “It is like a man drinking water; he knows by himself whether it is cold or hot.”. Once, Hui-hai Tai-chu came to the Zen master Ma-tsu Tao-i, the first of possibly the four greatest Chinese Zen masters. Ma-tsu asked him: “Why are you here searching when you already possess the treasure you are looking for?”. “What treasure?”, his interlocutor asked. Ma-tsu replied: “The one who is questioning me right now.”. Ma-tsu had an unswerving ability to bring the empirical “I” into focus at just the right moment. On another occasion, when asked, “What is the meaning of Bodhidharma’s coming from India?”, Ma-tsu replied with a classic answer: “What is the meaning of your asking this at precisely this moment?”. Ma-tsu followed the Hung-chou style of Zen. Ma-tsu Tao-i’s disciple ( Dharma heir, Fa-ssu – in Chinese ) was Pai-chang Huai-hai. Pai-chang Huai-hai’s disciple was Huang Po Hsi-yun whose disciple was Lin-chi I-hsuan, the founder of Rinzai Zen. Soto Zen is the other major form of Japanese Zen.

Because contact of the six sensory bases with the external world do not result in any reactions in a liberated man, he is free. His mind is like a lamp that does not flicker. Non-attachment towards all beings and everything including the concepts of “I” and “Mine” is a characteristic of a liberated mind. The absence of ego in an Enlightened man leads him to adopt an attitude of dispassion and selflessness towards everything in his physical and mental world. He is virtuous. Temptations do not affect him. He is always cheerful, happy and optimistic. He radiates light wherever he goes. He is wise and compassionate ( Mahakarunika ) and does everything for the good of the world. He has risen above his previous mental conditioning ( Samskara ). He has risen above craving and aversion.

It must be remembered that in Buddhism, the only valid reason for waging a war is to fight evil forces. Any other war is unjust. Lord Buddha went to the field of battle and intervened to stop a war between the Shakyas and their neighbours and his words stopped King Ajatashatru of Magadha from attacking a neighbouring kingdom. Taking a life unjustly defiles a man. However, there is no sin in Buddhism, only delusion. Severely deluded men are unlikely to find cessation ( Nirodha, Nivritti ) from suffering ( Shoka, Soka – in Pali ) in this birth and the wheel of birth and death will roll on for them.

In India and China, legends surround Lord Buddha. A legend in India believes that the Hindu god of creation, Brahma, requested Lord Buddha to teach the Dharma. A legend in China says that a great Buddhist sage named Bodhidharma brought Buddhism from India to China. Another legend in China, recorded in the text Jen-t’ien-yien-mu, says that Lord Buddha explained the Dharma to his historical disciple Mahakashyapa by silently holding up a flower and Mahakashyapa ( Mahakassapa – in Pali, Mahakasho – in Japanese ) merely smiled, having understood the meaning. The sound of silence has a distinguished place in Buddhism, from Lord Buddha onwards stretching right upto the mythological householder disciple Vimalakirti. Historically, Emperor Ashoka was the first Indian emperor to spread Buddhism outside India. He sent his son, Mahendra ( Mahinda – in Pali ), and daughter, Sanghamitra ( Sanghamitta – in Pali ), to Sri Lanka.

Lord Buddha showed how man can integrate himself to the cosmos. In this and in many other aspects, He was a student of life and a leader of men. In a caste-ridden society, Lord Buddha strove to establish the equality of all men. In this, He was the world’s first great socialist. Lao-tzu of ancient China in his book Tao Te Ching described the qualities a true leader should have; leaders tread fresh grass amongst other things. Lord Buddha possessed all of them and much more. He was the ultimate Tyagi, that is, renunciant; renouncing a throne, comforts of a palace, a wife and a son to leave his palace on horseback in search of Truth at night. In this, He showed Himself to be an exemplar of Holiness inspiring millions of others to follow suit. He elevated Himself to the level of a Purushottama and a Mahapurusha ( Superhuman Man ).

Buddhism preaches ultimate tolerance to all faiths. A Buddhist hates none, loves all. Lord Buddha’s love for man was like a father’s love for his sons. The overarching philosophy of Buddhism encompasses loving-kindness ( Maitri, Metta – in Pali ) for all sentient beings. Buddhists co-exist peacefully with all religions on earth. It is invigorating to keep a statue of Lord Buddha in one’s place of meditation just as a Christian keeps a crucifix in his room. It is not idolatry.

Buddhism is particularly relevant in the violence-ridden world today. As a Buddhist, I feel that mankind can do much better. Pacifism and non-violence ( Ahimsa – Sanskrit and Pali, Avihimsa – Pali ) are fundamental tenets of Buddhism. However, this does not mean that a man should not resist aggression. If an evil power engages in aggression, then a man should resist it with all powers at his disposal. Something called “Engaged Buddhism” is emerging in the West now. In this, Buddhists take up environmental and social issues as a part of their practice of the Dharma.

A radical indeterminacy underpins and permeates human existence. Things happen that we do not want; things that we do not want happen. To bravely work out our way through to emancipation, to bring order in place of chaos, to face life with fortitude requires immense Enlightened courage. In this context, Buddhism enables us to reach salvation. That is the raison d’être of Buddhism. The essence of Buddhism, as summed up by Lord Buddha Himself, is:

To cease from all error,

To get virtue,

And to purify the heart.

With Anuttara Samyak Sambodhi ( supreme and perfect Enlightenment, Anuttara Samma Sambodhi – in Pali ) of a man, he realises that death can be defeated only if it can be made unreal. His false self, or nothingness, dissolves into a vibrant awakened being.

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Zen Mind, Beginner’s Mind. S.Suzuki

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The Life and Teachings of Buddha. Anagarika Dharmapala

from Dhyana Paramita: The Perfection of Meditation

[dramartyakumar]

Dhyana Paramita: The Perfection of Meditation

Dhyana Paramita: The Perfection of Meditation

Shamatha, Vipashyana, Buddhanupashyana and Buddhanusmriti

Dr. Amartya Kumar Bhattacharya

BCE (Hons.) ( Jadavpur ), MTech ( Civil ) ( IIT Kharagpur ), PhD ( Civil ) ( IIT Kharagpur ), Cert.MTERM ( AIT Bangkok ), CEng(I), FIE, FACCE(I), FISH, FIWRS, FIPHE, FIAH, FAE, MIGS, MIGS – Kolkata Chapter, MIGS – Chennai Chapter, MISTE, MAHI, MISCA, MIAHS, MISTAM, MNSFMFP, MIIBE, MICI, MIEES, MCITP, MISRS, MISRMTT, MAGGS, MCSI, MMBSI

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MultiSpectra Consultants,

23, Biplabi Ambika Chakraborty Sarani,

Kolkata – 700029,

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INDIA.

E-mail: dramartyakumar@gmail.com

This article deals with Dhyana Paramita ( the Perfection of Meditation ). In this article, I am striving to present the essence of Dharma ( Dharma-Dhatu ) in my own way. Although my family has its ancestral roots in Chittagong ( Chattagram – in Bengali ), Bangladesh and, naturally, follows Theravada Buddhism, I am trying to be as comprehensive as possible in my exposition of the Dharma. Sanskrit has been used as the default classical language of this article. Pali has also been extensively used and Chinese, Japanese and Korean have been used, where appropriate. Diacritical marks have been omitted as some knowledge of Sanskrit and Pali on the part of the reader is assumed.

Buddhism, a major world faith, was founded by Lord Buddha in India over two thousand five hundred years ago. It has spread peacefully over much of Asia and has millions of adherents in India, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, China ( including Tibet ), Taiwan, Mongolia, North and South Korea, Japan, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam and also in Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia. The northern extremity of Buddhism in Asia is the Ivolga Monastery in Siberia, Russia. This article is an exposition of Buddhism and in it, the word “faith” is used as a synonym of the word “religion”. Buddhism is also called Saddharma ( the true faith ) or Dharma.

The Sanskrit word “Dharma” literally means “Property”. For example, one says that the Dharma of fire is to burn. This means that the property of fire is to burn. The fire cannot be separated from its capacity to burn. Similarly, the literal meaning of Dharma ( Dhamma – in Pali, Fa – in Chinese, Ho – in Japanese ) of man is the basic property of man from which he cannot be separated. This means the spirituality inherent in man.

The objective of Buddhism is Nirvana ( liberation, Nibbana – in Pali, Gedatsu – in Japanese ) and Bodhi ( Enlightenment, P’u-ti – in Chinese, Bodai – in Japanese ). The word Buddhi means intellect and the word Bodha means to understand; it is from these words that the word Bodhi is derived. Who is it that seeks Nirvana, Bodhi, and to understand? It is “I” ( Aham ), who is writing right now. Understanding sharpens me, refines me, contextualises me, and keeps me on the path to Bodhi and Nirvana. I shall have an opportunity to delve deeply into the issue of “I” in Buddhism later. Deep understanding ( Anubodha ) is the context of Bodhi, and Nirvana. Rephrasing Nagarjuna, the founder of the Madhyamika school of Mahayana Buddhism, Shunyata ( emptiness, Sunnata – in Pali, K’ung – in Chinese, Ku – in Japanese ) is the absence of ignorance. Avidya Paramam Malam ( Avijja Paramam Malam – in Pali, Ignorance is the greatest impurity ) is what Lord Buddha said. Nagarjuna can be further re-interpreted to give to me the understanding that Nirvana is not only available for a man in Samsara ( empirical and phenomenal world ) but, as I am immersed in Samsara, it is only possible within it, subject to the condition that the Arya Ashtanga Marga ( Noble Eightfold Path ) is rigorously followed. The conclusion Nagarjuna reached, in his seminal work Mula Madhyamika Karika, is that all things lack a fixed essence ( Swabhava, Sabhava – in Pali, Zi-xing – in Chinese ) or a fixed individual character (Swalakshana ) and that is why they are amenable to change. In other words, change is possible only if entities are devoid or empty ( Shunya ) of Swabhava. Buddhism has two main branches, Theravada and Mahayana, the difference between the two will be explained in due course.

Man’s quest for an end to his suffering ( Duhkha, Dukkha – in Pali ) has led him into an exploration of his inner self ( Wo – in Chinese ), its working and its dysfunctional behaviour under certain circumstances. Under such conditions,a radical shift in consciousness, perception and attitude is the only succour for a tormented mind ( Chitta, Manas, Hsin or Xin – in Chinese, Kokoro – in Japanese ). This process, involving the destruction of suffering, is based on the Four Noble Truths ( Chaturaryasatya, Chattari Aryasachchani – in Pali ) enunciated by Lord Buddha which are as follows:

Life contains suffering. ( Duhkha-Aryasatya, Dukkha-Aryasachcha – in Pali )

Suffering has a cause, and the cause can be known. ( Duhkha Samudaya-Aryasatya, Dukkha Samudaya-Aryasachcha – in Pali )

Suffering can be brought to an end. ( Duhkha Nirodha-Aryasatya, Dukkha Nirodha-Aryasachcha – in Pali )

The path to end suffering has eight parts. ( Marga-Aryasatya, Magga-Aryasachcha – in Pali )

Lord Buddha also laid out the Noble Eightfold Path ( Arya Ashtanga Marga, Arya Atthangika Magga – in Pali ). The Noble Eightfold Path is given below:

Right view ( Samyak Dristi, Samma Ditthi – in Pali)

Right intention ( Samyak Sankalpa, Samma Sankappa – in Pali) )

Right speech ( Samyak Vakya, Samma Vacha – in Pali) )

Right action ( Samyak Karma, Samma Kammanta – in Pali) )

Right livelihood ( Samyak Jivika, Samma Ajiva – in Pali) )

Right effort ( Samyak Vyayama, Samma Vayama – in Pali) )

Right mindfulness ( Samyak Smriti, Samma Sati – in Pali) )

Right concentration ( Samyak Samadhi, Samma Samadhi – in Pali) )

This Path is also known as The Middle Path ( Madhyama Pratipada, Majjhima Patipada – in Pali ) because it is neither too easy nor too difficult. The first five parts of the Path involve maintaining a lifestyle full of virtue ( Shila, Sila – in Pali ) while the last three pertain to the practice ( Patipatti – in Pali ) of meditation. The Path is called The Way ( Tao – in Chinese, Do, Michi – in Japanese ) in the Far East. The practice of meditation lies at the heart of the spiritual practice of Dharmic ( spiritual ) people. To be a Buddhist means to distinguish between Buddhist and non-Buddhist acts, between ignorance and Enlightenment, between Samsara and Nirvana. Pancha Shila is for householders; Ashta Shila is for householders practising Brahmacharya, that is celibacy; and Dasha Shila is for monks.

According to Lord Buddha, man is his own master. “Atta hi attano natho” are the exact words of Lord Buddha. He also said “Atmadvipa viharatha, atmasharana ananyasharana” meaning “Dwell making yourself your island ( that is refuge ), and not anyone else as your refuge”. Man is however unaware of this fact and abdicates his responsibility of controlling his future, even death. This is so because man is, in a deep philosophical sense, deluded ( Mohagrasta ), asleep and unaware of his true nature. He normally identifies himself with his body, which was born and hence will die, some day. This gives rise to vices, insecurity and belief in that what is not. Man lives in illusions ( Moha ); the illusion that he will never fall sick, the illusion that no harm will ever befall him. He also believes that he has relatives and friends and, if he clings onto them tightly enough, he will one day, after death, go to the nebulous place called heaven. But it is not true. The lacuna in man’s thinking becomes disturbingly clear to him when he finds that he is suffering. When a man suffers, the world seems to collapse around him. Man needs to be awakened and when this awakening process is complete, man will rise from the ashes of the world of the senses that he has just burnt to the world of pure consciousness. Buddhism is a journey where a man starts asleep and ends up awake. In doing so, he sheds aside nothingness to awaken to a single state of Being. The process by which this takes place is meditation.

Lord Buddha’s title means one who is awake. He is the messiah who showed the path to eternity. Lord Buddha gave His teaching “for the good of many, for the happiness of many, for showing compassion to the world” ( Bahujanahitaya, Bahujanasukhaya, Lokanukampaya ). He told man that though he is asleep, the capacity to be awakened is in him and also taught man the path to awakening. But man must walk that path himself, alone. Man must realise that he is always alone, whether it be high atop the mountains, in the company of his relatives or in the morning crowd in the downtown of a metropolitan city. A positive attitude to aloneness can develop in man when he can take a mental sword and cleave a distinction between aloneness and loneliness. Loneliness has a negative connotation in the sense that it implies a craving for company of other human beings, the exact opposite of the self-sufficiency implied by aloneness. The capacity to tread the path to Nirvana is already in man, he just has to use it. In the Dharmachakrapravartana Sutra, Lord Buddha said that Nirvana is not subject to grief, defilement ( Klesha, Kilesa – in Pali, Bonno – in Japanese ), disease ( Vyadhi ), decay ( Jara ), and death ( Mrityu, Marana ). In other words, Nirvana is beyond cause and effect, that is, it transcends conditioned phenomena. Lord Buddha also said “Nirvanam Paramam Sukham”. Nirvana is Apratitya-samutpanna and Asamskrita ( unconditioned, Apatichcha-samuppanna and Asankhata – in Pali, Wu-yin – in Chinese ) and, according to Vasubandhu of the Yogachara ( the practice of Yoga ) school of Mahayana Buddhism, is the Parinishpanna Swabhava ( true self-nature of Being, Zhen-shi-xing – in Chinese ). It is interesting to note that in the Lankavatara Sutra, a Mahayana Sutra associated with the Yogachara school, Nirvana is described as the seeing of everything as it is. Nirvana is a positive Absolute and is Nitya ( without beginning and end, Nicca – in Pali ). Nirvana means a state of Mukti ( Mutti – in Pali )which means freedom or Vimukti ( Vimutti – in Pali ) which means absolute freedom. Nirvana also denotes Satya ( Sacca – in Pali ) which means Truth and Shanti ( Santi – in Pali ) which means Peace. A synonym for Nirvana is Moksha ( liberation, Mokkha – in Pali ). Nirvana is a state of absolute perfection. Shariputra, the famous historical disciple of Lord Buddha, described Nirvana as the extinction of desire, hatred and illusion. In mystical language, Nirvana is the experience of standing face-to-face with Reality ( Shi – in Chinese ). Nirvana is equated with Bodhi and is the Paramartha-Satya. Nirvana is sometimes expressed as negative of negative such as the cessation of suffering, of craving, of aversion, etc. This need not result in any confusion. In Sanskrit, sometimes positive things are expressed as negatives of negatives as the word “Arogya” which means recuperation from illness and the word “Amrita” which means immortal. Further, as mathematics proves, negative of negative is always positive. Nirvana is a freeing from the chains of a false sense of individuality. Nirvana is a state of non-duality ( Advaita or Advaya ); a state where the illusion of a false sense of “I” ( Parikalpita Swabhava, Fen-bie-xing – in Chinese ) does not exist. Expressed differently, liberation from the illusion of separateness of the individual Self from the Whole is Nirvana. Freedom is, Nirvana is, Truth is.

According to Buddhism, everything is relative and impermanent ( Anitya, Anicca – in Pali ) in the empirical, conditioned world. Lord Buddha told Rashtrapala “The world is in continuous flux and is impermanent”. In this context, I can correctly say that one cannot step twice into the same river because although I may continue to see the same river externally from a gross point of view, the water molecules I am seeing at a particular location at any moment are different from the water molecules the moment before and the moment after. One thing disappears, conditioning the appearance of the next in a series of cause and effect. Everything is in a state of becoming something else the next moment. A wheel cannot be separated from its movement. There is no static wheel “behind” the wheel in motion. Things change over time. Everything originates dependent on other factors. That is, all things come into existence as the result ( Phala ) of an interaction of various causes ( Hetu ). Each entity is Pratitya-samutpanna ( conditioned, Patichcha-samuppanna – in Pali ) as well as Pratitya-samutpada ( conditioning, Patichcha-samuppada – in Pali ). The Law of Dependent Origination is central to Buddhism. For example, anger cannot arise by itself without a cause. The five aggregates, Rupa, Vedana, Sangya, Samskara and Vigyana ( Rupa, Vedana, Sanna, Sankhra and Vinnana – in Pali ), all of which are identified as Anatma ( non-Soul ) by Lord Buddha in the Anatmalakshana Sutra, are called the Pancha Skandha ( the five aggregates, Pancha Khandha – in Pali ). Sensations ( Vedana ) of the physical world of forms ( Rupa ) are received by the five physical sense organs ( Indriya ) such as the nose. The mind feels the mental world. The five physical sense organs and the mind are called the six sensory bases. Sensations lead to perceptions ( Sangya ), which in turn lead through pre-dispositions ( Samskara ), to consciousness ( Vigyana ). In Theravada Buddhism, the concept of Bhavanga ( stream of thought ) is introduced while in the Yogachara school of Mahayana Buddhism, the concept of Alaya-Vigyana ( literally, the abode of consciousness, but commonly translated as store-consciousness ) is introduced. The Alaya-Vigyana ( Ariyashiki – in Japanese ), which maintains the continuum of consciousness, is the mind; hence this school is also called the Chittamatratavada school. Other names of the same school are Agamanuyayi Vigyanavada and Vigyaptimatratavada. The fundamental concept of the Yogachara ( Wei Shi – in Chinese, Yuishiki – in Japanese ) school may be expressed by the proposition that the Parinishpanna Swabhava is realised when man pierces ( Patibheda ) through his Parikalpita Swabhava and Paratantra Swabhava ( conditioned self-nature, Yi-ta-xing – in Chinese ). The Alaya-Vigyana, as conceived in Mahayana Buddhism, is a permanent entity. The Alaya-Vigyana contains all impressions of past actions and all future potentialities. It is also the Tathagatagarbha ( Buddha-Matrix, Ru-lai-zang – in Chinese, Nyoraizo – in Japanese ), the basis on which a man can become a Buddha. So, latent in every man is a Buddha-like faculty called Buddha-Dhatu ( Buddha-Nature, Fo-hsing or Fo-xing – in Chinese ). Right meditation leads to spiritual Enlightenment, which is nothing but the full manifestation of the Buddha-Dhatu ( or Tathagata-Dhatu ) in man. Thus, any man can develop himself through appropriate practice, that is meditation, and become a Buddha. Anyway, for an average man, the summation of all physical and mental processes, processes in constant flux, is perceived empirically as “I”. The empirical “I” is ephemeral and impermanent, and is Samvriti-Satya ( conventional truth ). Conscious of something, one reacts mentally. The mental reactions are of two types : craving and aversion. Craving ( Trishna, Tanha – in Pali, Raga, Lobha – in Pali ) and aversion ( Dvesha, Dosa – in Pali ) both lead to suffering; it is self-evident that aversion results in suffering and craving results in suffering because if the object of craving remains out of reach, there is suffering. Thus, ultimately, whatever is impermanent is Duhkha or suffering. Trishna Nirodha, Upadana ( clinging ) Nirodha ( With the extinction of craving comes the extinction of clinging ). The renowned sage Buddhaghosa, the writer of the Visuddhimagga ( Vishuddhi Marga, The Path of Purification ), has dwelt elaborately on suffering. Taking the lead from Nagarjuna, I posit that Duhkha is transient; it arises dependent on something else and also decays into extinction. Duhkha is not self-determining; its existence and character are attributable to factors that condition its origin and subsequent transformation. Coming into existence and dying out of existence, Duhkha lacks any trace of permanence.Thus, it may be said that Duhkha lacks a Swabhava or Swalakshana and is characterised by Nihswabhava ( absence of Self-Nature ). Thus Duhkha is empty ( Shunya ). I am, therefore, led to formulate the proposition: Duhkhameva Shunyam. Because Duhkha is ephemeral, I can expand the Sanskrit sentence to this: Duhkhameva Anityam evam Shunyam The perception of the emptiness of Duhkha allows one to let go of Duhkha and thus be released of the hold that Duhkha has on him. This is, of course, intended as a Mahayana Buddhist theoretical complement to Shamatha and Vipashyana meditation and is in no way a substitute for Shamatha and Vipashyana meditation. I also hold that the notion of Buddha-Dhatu is a very productive concept. Any meditator’s meditation is bound to become better if he remembers during meditating that he has Buddha-Dhatu in him.

It may be mentioned, at this stage, that practitioners who are extremely advanced spiritually are called by the name Arhat ( Arahant – in Pali, A-han – in Chinese, Arakan, Rakan – in Japanese ) in Theravada Buddhism and Bodhisattva ( Bodhisatta – in Pali, Bosatsu – in Japanese ), or aspirants to Buddhahood ( Buddhatva, or as is rather more commonly termed Buddhata ) in Mahayana Buddhism. A Bodhisattva is any man who has taken a vow to follow the path to Buddhatva taking all other sentient beings with him. A monk ( Bhikshu, Bhikkhu – in Pali ) and a lay disciple ( Upasaka ) are both Bodhisattvas. Sattva means a sentient being.

In response to questioning by devotees in the kingdom of Kosala as to the importance or unimportance of belief, Lord Buddha pointed out the distinction between knowing and believing. Believing always connotes a second-hand approach to Truth; knowing about something through the experience of someone else. Knowing means a first-hand direct knowledge of Truth and the result of this distinction is that the modicum of doubt that always accompanies belief is absent in knowledge ( Gyana ). Freedom of thought is permitted by Lord Buddha to His devotees so that they can discriminate and find Truth. Nirvana cannot be had via someone else’s knowledge. A contemporary scholar Kazuaki Tanahashi describes an incident in Japan where a Buddhist monk illustrated to his disciples the power of what might be called “positive emptiness” in the mind. A void in the mind can be filled with spirituality by virtue of positive thinking. A Korean monk, Kyong Ho, echoed this feeling when he advised one to accept the anxieties and difficulties of this life. He also advised people to use their will to bring peace between peoples. This is particularly relevant in the modern world where democracy and egalitarianism are taken for granted. The great Japanese Zen Buddhist monk Dogen said that Samadhi ( which is a transcendental state of mind ) led to Enlightenment of those who found Enlightenment in India and China. Buddhism also strongly believes in the theory ( Pariyapti, Pariyatti – in Pali ) of Karma ( as you sow, so shall you reap ) and in the concept of rebirth. Lord Buddha said “Monks, I say that volition is action. Having thought, one acts through body, speech and mind.” ( Chetana ‘ham bhikkhave kammam vadami. Chetayitva kammam karoti kayena vachaya manasa. – in Pali ). There are two types of Karma, Kushala Karma ( Kusala Kamma – in Pali ) or good actions and Akushala Karma or bad actions. Kushala Karma is Dharmic while Akushala Karma is Adharmic. The result of both types of Karma are called Karma Phala, which correspond to the type of Karma performed.

He searched, He meditated, He found: this aptly summarises the awakening of Lord Buddha. When a man suffers, it is useless for him to talk of God, or to fast and otherwise to torture his body if his suffering is not reduced by any or all of these. Lord Buddha realised this fact and after His awakening taught the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path. Meditation is one form of mental culture ( Bhavana ). In meditation, what is required of man is to effect a radical shift in consciousness from the finite to the infinite using right concentration. Concentration is called Chittaikagrata in Sanskrit ( Chittekaggata – in Pali ). The concentrated focus is always on the elimination of suffering. The law of cause and effect is at work here too. If one is deluded, one suffers. If one studies the Four Noble Truths, one sees that man should identify the cause of suffering and systematically go about destroying it using the Noble Eightfold Path. The result of meditation is tremendous. One transcends the boundaries of his body; he senses that the entire universe has become his body. He senses that he has exchanged a weak mind for a strong one. He senses that though he may continue to reside in his mortal body, his consciousness has become irreversibly altered. He feels himself being pervaded by peace. He becomes awakened; Prabuddha. Lord Buddha did not give the Dharma for strong wills only; His statements are just as applicable to weaker minds provided they have the determination to follow Him. He asked for nothing more than courage and promised eternity.

An explanation as to the types of meditation in vogue is in order here. Shamatha ( Samatha – in Pali ) and Vipashyana ( Vipassana – in Pali, Kuan or Guan – in Chinese, Kan – in Japanese ) or Vidarshana ( Pashyana or Darshana means to see in an ordinary way; Vipashyana or Vidarshana means to see in a special way, that is, with Insight ) meditation are practised in south Asia and other countries which practice Theravada ( meaning, the way of the Elders ) Buddhism. Lord Buddha presented the technique of Vipashyana meditation in the Mahasatipatthana Sutta ( Mahasmritipratishthana Sutra ) / Satipatthana Sutta ( Smritipratishthana Sutra ). Lord Buddha delivered this Sutra in Kammassadhammam near Delhi. The Mahasatipatthana Sutta is found in the Digha ( Dirgha ) Nikaya and the Satipatthana Sutta is found in the Majjhima ( Madhyama ) Nikaya. Zen Buddhist practice is performed in East Asia, that is, in China, North and South Korea, Taiwan and Japan, which are among the countries that practice Mahayana ( meaning, the great vehicle ) Buddhism . In fact, Zen is one of the eight schools of Mahayana Buddhism. Meditation is something that cannot be fully explained in words, it has to be experienced to be understood completely. Knowing about meditation is one thing; knowing meditation is quite another. A man can sit alone, cross-legged, in a quiet room in the full lotus posture ( Padmasana or Dhyanasana or Vajraparyankasana ) or, failing that, in the half-lotus posture ( Bhadrasana ) and try to enter into Vipashyana meditation ( the third posture of sitting is called Sukhasana, literally meaning “the posture that gives happiness” ). If one is unable to start doing meditation oneself, one should take the help of a Guru ( literally, one who dispels darkness ) who will guide him in the initial stages. One must sit, preferably, in the lotus posture with one’s spine erect. There must be no slumping of the back, the head should be straight as if suspended by means of a string. Another analogy adopted is that the head should be straight as if bearing the sky on its top. The hands may be placed in the Bhumisparsha Mudra ( Bhumisparsha gesture ), a Mudra ( Inzo – in Japanese ) in which I find so many statues of Lord Buddha. Bhumisparsha literally means “ touching the ground”. This gesture is also called Sakshi ( Sanskrit for witness ) Mudra. Alternatively, a man’s hands may be in the cosmic Mudra with the left hand on top of the right, middle joints of middle fingers together and the thumbs touching each other. The hands should be held against the body, with the thumbs at about the height of the navel. This gesture is very popular in East Asia. The Samadhi Mudra consists of the right hand placed on top of the left hand with the tips of the two thumbs touching each other. Yet another Mudra consists of the hands straight, placed on the knees, and the thumb and the next finger touching each other with the other fingers straight. This gesture of the hands is called Gyana Mudra. Other gestures are the Dharmachakra Mudra, Varada Mudra, Abhaya Mudra and Vajrahumkara Mudra. The Dharmachakra Mudra can be seen in the famous Sarnath statue of Lord Buddha. This gesture is also called the Bodhyangi Mudra. The Varada Mudra is the genture of giving boon with the right hand while the Abhaya Mudra is the gesture of giving protection with the right hand. The Vajrahumkara Mudra, also called the Trailokyavijaya Mudra, consists of placing both hands crossed over one’s chest with both the palms facing the chest. After one has sat correctly, he must close his eyes and focus on the inhalation and exhalation of his breath ( Anapana-smriti or Anapana-sati ). Anapana ( An-pan – in Chinese ) means respiration. There must be no tampering with the natural respiration, a meditator’s job is simply to focus his attention on his nostrils and observe the natural flow of breath. Respiration is natural, one has no craving or aversion towards it, it is always in the present ( Nitya ) and, since one breathes from the moment of one’s birth to the moment of one’s death, it is in fact a convergence of the past, present and future. Further, it is within the physical framework of the body. Respiration is thus an appropriate object for concentrating the mind, something that is not too easy. The mind does not usually want to stay in the present moment; it resides either in the past or in the future. A little effort is needed to prevent the mind from wandering about. This is called Right Effort. At this stage, there may be strong distractions in the mind that prevent the mind from concentrating. Sometimes these distractions appear to be overwhelming. The effort to focus on respiration should be continued in such cases. The key is never to give up. A learner soon discovers one thing ; meditation is hard work for a beginner. Right Mindfulness, which is mindfulness of breathing, follows Right Effort immediately. Right Concentration leading to Samadhi ( San-mei – in Chinese, Sanmai, Zanmai – in Japanese ), which is a transcendental state, follows. It may be described by Sat ( being ), Chit ( consciousness ) and Ananda ( bliss, happiness ). Sometimes, in lifting the mind to Samadhi, hurdles appear in the form of distractions in the mind. These distractions may be latent feelings of anger, craving, sadness, and so on. The remedy, in such cases, is to return back to Anapana-sati and try to lift the mind to Samadhi again. Shamatha meditation is an absorptive meditation whose object is to calm the mind. Vipashyana meditation is an analytical meditation. Shamatha meditation may be an end in itself or it may be a prelude to Vipashyana meditation. It is also possible to perform Vipashyana meditation without performing Shamatha meditation first. There are four parts to the practice of Vipashyana meditation. Kaya anupashyana, Vedana anupashyana, Chitta anupashyana, and Dharma anupashyana. Anupashyana means to see minutely, that is, to scrutinise Here, Dharma indicates the contents of the mind ( Chaitasika, Chetasika – in Pali ). Each of the the four, Kaya ( body ), Vedana ( sensations ), Chitta ( mind ) and Dharma ( mental contents ), must be subjected to Anupashyana. The true nature of all four of these reveal themselves to the meditator and he is able to remove defilement from the innermost recesses of his mind ( Anushaya, Anusaya – in Pali ). Awareness and equanimity ( Upeksha, Upekkha – in Pali ), together, symbolise Vipashyana meditation. If either part is missing, one cannot attain Enlightenment. Vipashyana leads to clear insight into the physical and mental structure and thus leads to Bodhi. The complete knowledge of my physical and mental structure is called Sampragyana ( Sampajanna – in Pali ), if I have it I am called a Sampragya. In some forms of Mahayana Buddhist meditation, meditation on Lord Buddha ( Buddhanupashyana ) is performed.

Bodhyangas ( Bojjhangas – in Pali ) are factors contributing to Enlightenment. There are seven Bodhyangas: Smriti, Dharma-chayana, Virya ( courage ), Priti ( rapture and bliss ), Prashiddhi ( deep tranquility and calmness ), Samadhi, and Upeksha. The Four Sublime States ( Brahmavihara ) are Maitri, Karuna ( compassion ), Mudita and Upeksha. Meditation entails making a conscious and free choice to withdraw from the affairs of the mundane world to pursue spiritual ends; one of the objectives being the subsequent re-establishment of contact with the conditioned world as a purer and wiser man. The decision to meditate is itself an act of freedom. We have, in life, the freedom to pursue an ethical way of living. This freedom leads us to Bodhi and Nirvana and thus sets us free.

Meditation is a pursuit of liberation, realisation is the end result. Post-realisation, one feels that one had been going about with his eyes closed and has now suddenly opened them. In the plane of the senses, his external world does not change but his way of psychologically processing his external world undergoes a drastic change. He becomes more peaceful with himself and with others. An awakened man, possessing an Enlightened mind ( Bodhichitta ), feels that he is surrounded by peace at all times. It is important to understand that nobody tells him this; he feels it himself. He goes about doing his daily activities, but his way of processing his world has fundamentally altered for the better. He realises that he cannot and need not control all aspects of his external physical world. He realises that he gains more by letting go. He becomes aware of the non-peaceful moments in his life and tries to reduce their frequency and intensity. He opts for shifting his consciousness to his mind and becoming aware of his internal mental processes when waiting, for example, in a traffic jam or while waiting in a queue. He opts for harmony in his mental processes rather than chaos.

Ordinarily, animal instincts bind a man to the world of the senses. Man lacks the initiative to free himself from them. Rather, he reposes his faith on some superhuman power whom he tries to propitiate in the hope that he may be rescued from his troubles. Meditation may also be described as a Tapasya ( a Sanskrit word whose root lies in the Sanskrit word Tapah which means heat ), a burning of the impurities in the mind.

Zen Buddhism originated in China and is in vogue in East Asia. As mentioned before, it is a school of Mahayana Buddhism. Mahayana Buddhism was propagated in China by Indian Buddhist monks like Kumarajiva ( 344-413 C.E. ), son of Kumarayana, who went to China in 401 C.E., and Buddhabhadra ( 359-429 C.E. ), who went to China in 408 C.E., and by Chinese Buddhist monks who came to India, like Fa-hsien ( or Fa-xian ), who came to India between 399 and 414 C.E., and Hsuan-tsang ( or Xuan-zang ) ( 600-664 C.E. ), who came to India between 629 and 645 C.E. Also, Gunabhadra translated the Lankavatara Sutra into Chinese and Paramartha was another noted translator.

Mahayana Buddhism developed in India a few centuries after the Parinirvana of Lord Buddha. Emperor Kanishka convened the Fourth Buddhist Council, held probably at Jalandhar, in which the scholar Vasumitra was President and another eminent scholar Asvaghosha, the author of Buddha Charita, was Vice-President. In this assembly, Buddhists became divided into Mahayana Buddhists and Theravada Buddhists. The Pali word Thera is derived from the Sanskrit word Sthavira which means Elder. Theravada Buddhism is the most orthodox form of Buddhism and has preserved the historical teachings of Lord Buddha. The Theravada Sutras are the earliest available teachings of Lord Buddha, are originally in Pali, and are fully historical. The Pali Canon is called the Tripitaka in Sanskrit and the Tipitaka in Pali; Sutra-Pitaka, Vinaya-Pitaka and Abhidharma-Pitaka forming the three parts of the Tripitaka. Abhidharma means detailed philosophical discourses.

Mahayana is a way of Buddhism followed widely across India and northern and eastern Asia. I have written before that in Mahayana Buddhism, individuals strive to take all others along with them to the ultimate goal of liberation. Mahayana Buddhism emerged in the context of the development of a different disposition towards Buddhism by some Buddhists; in terms of concepts relating to the Sangha, the Dharma and Lord Buddha. Firstly, schisms occurred on the level of “Sangha”. The primary concern of several venerated Buddhist monks was to keep the Dharma and discipline ( Vinaya ) pure. They felt that this was the only way to sustain Buddhism in the long run. These Buddhist monks became some of the most sophisticated theoreticians in the Indian intellectual world. Certain other monks wanted the Vinaya to be flexible. The case of the Mahasanghika monks is the best example to show the conflict between these two viewpoints. These monks had added ten minor precepts for their group , for example, monks could get, keep and use money. In the Second Buddhist Council, held at Vaishali, they were called “Papishtha bhikshus” (the sinful monks). Their behaviour was unacceptable from the viewpoint of the orthodox Buddhists. These monks established their own tradition and called themselves “Mahasanghikas” (The monks of the Great Sangha).

Fissures also occurred on the level of “Dharma”. Three months before Lord Buddha’s Parinirvana at Kusinagara, He declared in the Mahaparinirvana Sutra that the monks and the laity would have the Dharma and the Vinaya as their leaders in the future. However, some Buddhists, mostly the Mahasanghikas, found themselves having no shelter left except the Dharma. So they searched for the true Dharma. The statement of Lord Buddha, “He who sees the Dharma, sees me; he who sees me, sees the Dharma”, also supported their quest. If one uses logical arguments to judge this sentence, an interesting question emerges. How must one see the Dharma so that one also sees Lord Buddha? For some Buddhist scholars, even today, Dharma is not merely the sermons of Lord Buddha. His life contains more latent implications, for example, the implications of His silence in certain contexts as in His silence in response to questions by Vacchagotra. Thus, for the Buddhist scholars alluded to above, Dharma is something more and wider than the speech of Lord Buddha. The sermons are merely a part of Him, not the totality. When I return back to the context of the emergence of Mahayana Buddhism, I find that the Buddhists referred to above had shifted the ethical facet of Buddhism to a metaphysical focus. And what they did was to seek out the truest Dharma; one which also revealed the status of Lord Buddha after His Parinirvana. Simultaneously, the assumption that Lord Buddha still existed pervaded and caught the faithful minds of Buddhists. Dharma turned out to be a means to reach the state of Buddhatva. If man realises the ultimate truth of all things, he is sure to free himself from all types of bondage. To see Dharma is to see the truth of phenomena. When the truth of phenomena is seen, the wisdom of Lord Buddha is fulfilled within oneself. That is the reason why when one sees the Dharma, he also sees Lord Buddha. Further, the state of the mind is linked to liberation. The state of liberation is conceived to be the same as the pure mind. A human mind, that is pure and detached from all types of impurities, is synonymous with the state of liberation. Also, there were groups that defined “Dharma” as the Ultimate Truth of Lord Buddha. The more these Buddhists investigated His life, the less they believed that He had gone away. Hence, to see Dharma is to see Lord Buddha’s power penetrating through all things. These groups also tended to relate Dharma to Lord Buddha’s great compassion ( Mahakaruna ) and felt that to see Dharma is to see the Buddha-Dhatu within oneself. Mahakaruna is Karuna ( compassion ) combined with Pragya ( wisdom, Panna – in Pali, Zhi Hui, Pan-jo, Po-jo – in Chinese, Hannya – in Japanese ). Clearly, the most important duty of man is to live and spend his life in accordance with Lord Buddha’s intention. As His intention was to liberate all sentient beings from suffering, in order to realise the Buddha-Dhatu within oneself, it is crucial that one has to assist other sentient beings and take them along on the way to liberation. Pragya is required, in fact it is vital, because different Upaya ( expedient means ) should be deployed to bring different sentient beings on the path to Bodhi. The notion of Bodhisattva sprang up from this attitude. Bodhisattvas are perfect in Dana ( charity ), Shila, Kshanti ( perseverence, Khanti – in Pali ), Virya ( Viriya – in Pali ), Dhyana and Pragya. These are called the six perfections ( Paramita, Parami – in Pali ) of a Bodhisattva. Sometimes, ten perfections ( Dasha Paramita ) are considered ( Maharatnakuta Sutra, Sutra 45, Taisho 310, pages 648 to 650. Translated into Chinese by Bodhiruchi ) wherein perfection of ingenuity ( Upaya ), power ( Bala ), volition and knowledge ( Gyana ) are added to the usual six perfections. Also, fault-lines occurred on the level of “Buddha”. When the Vinaya and the Dharma showed fault-lines, the only way out for unenlightened Buddhists was to go back to Lord Buddha as apart from Him, there is no other refuge. At that time, many Buddhists conceived the existence of Lord Buddha in the transcendental state. The Saddharma Pundarika Sutra ( or The Lotus Sutra ), a Mahayana Sutra, conceives of a transcendental Lord Buddha. Lord Buddha had returned to His universal form after His Parinirvana and He still existed. Lord Buddha had Three Bodies (Trikaya). The first and most fundamental body is called the Cosmic Body ( Dharmakaya, Hosshin – in Japanese ). The conceptualisation of Lord Buddha’s All-Pervading, Eternal, Omniscient, Omnipresent and Radiant Dharmakaya provided for a more intense and immersive spiritual experience. The nature of the Dharmakaya is called Dharmakaya-Dhatu. When meditating, the state of Lord Buddha is the Blissful Body ( Sambhogakaya, Hojin – in Japanese ). The third body is the Constructed Body ( Nirmanakaya, Keshin – in Japanese ), which signifies the historical Lord Buddha. The Nirmanakaya of Lord Buddha had come and gone under the Will of the Dharmakaya. He was born to fulfil His human functions in leading human beings to liberation. It is believed that as long as humans do not realise the true Dharma, the anguish of departure from Lord Buddha takes place and that when the human mind is able to make a distinction between the pure mind and Klesha, the truism of Buddha-Dhatu becomes clear. In the conception of the Mahasanghikas, the concept of Rupakaya existed and Rupakaya was later split into Nirmanakaya and Sambhogakaya in Mahayana.

Mahayana Buddhism combines the emotion of devotion ( Shraddha, Saddha – in Pali ) with the wisdom of logical reasoning. This is the appeal of Mahayana ( Ta-sheng – in Chinese, Daijo – in Japanese ) Buddhism.

The primary devotional school of Mahayana Buddhism is the Pure Land School of the Far East, where the Sanskrit “Namah Amitabha Buddha” is translated into the Chinese “Namo Amito Fo” and the Japanese “Namu Amida Butsu”. The practice of invoking Lord Buddha’s name is known as Buddhanusmriti ( Nien Fo – in Chinese, Nenbutsu – in Japanese ). Devotion is also directed towards the Saddharma Pundarika Sutra ( The Lotus Sutra ) with the invocation “Namo miao fa lien hua ching” in Chinese and “Namu myoho rengekyo” in Japanese.

Reverting back to to Zen Buddhism, we find that although Zen Buddhist experts were found amongst the laity, Zen Buddhism’s greatest geniuses were found in the highly regulated life of the monasteries. Zen Buddhism spread to Korea and Japan from China. In Japan, circular brushworks called enshos are calligraphic motifs often used in Zen Buddhism.

In Zen Buddhist practice ( the Sanskrit word Dhyana is a synonym of the Pali word Jhana, the Chinese word Ch’an, the Vietnamese word Thien, the Korean word Son and the Japanese word Zen ), one can take the help of Koans ( Japanese, Kung-an – in Chinese, Kongan – in Korean ) or spiritual puzzles with the aid of which he can propel the mind to a transcendental state in which he can meditate. Zazen ( Japanese, Tso-ch’an – in Chinese, the practice of Zen Buddhist meditation ) leads to Enlightenment. At the usual existential level, Koans cannot be said to have any coherence and an existential leap is needed to bring harmony. The spiritual puzzle posed by a Koan may be such that even a strong will may be unable to go to the transcendental plane. The role of the Zen Buddhist master is important here. He can deliver a shock, an emotional one usually suffices, but a physical blow or other corporal shock may be needed so that the spiritual aspirant is propelled into a higher level of consciousness. The fundamental viewpoint of Zen Buddhism is that one is to point directly to one’s mind, see it as it is ( Yatha Bhutam ) and become a Buddha. A very important difference between Theravada Buddhism and Zen Buddhism is that the former believes that Enlightenment is obtained slowly ( or gradually ) by means of practice while the latter is a believer in sudden Enlightenment ( Tun-yu – in Chinese ).

I give below an example of a Koan:

Before Enlightenment, chopping wood, carrying water;

After Enlightenment, chopping wood, carrying water.

The meaning is self-explanatory. Bodhi does not change the Samsara I am immersed in but it does change and completely restructures my attitude towards that Samsara. Hsuan-tsang, the great Chinese monk who visited India during the time of Emperor Harshavardhana, once made the following remark about the state of realisation : “It is like a man drinking water; he knows by himself whether it is cold or hot.”. Once, Hui-hai Tai-chu came to the Zen master Ma-tsu Tao-i, the first of possibly the four greatest Chinese Zen masters. Ma-tsu asked him: “Why are you here searching when you already possess the treasure you are looking for?”. “What treasure?”, his interlocutor asked. Ma-tsu replied: “The one who is questioning me right now.”. Ma-tsu had an unswerving ability to bring the empirical “I” into focus at just the right moment. On another occasion, when asked, “What is the meaning of Bodhidharma’s coming from India?”, Ma-tsu replied with a classic answer: “What is the meaning of your asking this at precisely this moment?”. Ma-tsu followed the Hung-chou style of Zen. Ma-tsu Tao-i’s disciple ( Dharma heir, Fa-ssu – in Chinese ) was Pai-chang Huai-hai. Pai-chang Huai-hai’s disciple was Huang Po Hsi-yun whose disciple was Lin-chi I-hsuan, the founder of Rinzai Zen. Soto Zen is the other major form of Japanese Zen.

Because contact of the six sensory bases with the external world do not result in any reactions in a liberated man, he is free. His mind is like a lamp that does not flicker. Non-attachment towards all beings and everything including the concepts of “I” and “Mine” is a characteristic of a liberated mind. The absence of ego in an Enlightened man leads him to adopt an attitude of dispassion and selflessness towards everything in his physical and mental world. He is virtuous. Temptations do not affect him. He is always cheerful, happy and optimistic. He radiates light wherever he goes. He is wise and compassionate ( Mahakarunika ) and does everything for the good of the world. He has risen above his previous mental conditioning ( Samskara ). He has risen above craving and aversion.

It must be remembered that in Buddhism, the only valid reason for waging a war is to fight evil forces. Any other war is unjust. Lord Buddha went to the field of battle and intervened to stop a war between the Shakyas and their neighbours and his words stopped King Ajatashatru of Magadha from attacking a neighbouring kingdom. Taking a life unjustly defiles a man. However, there is no sin in Buddhism, only delusion. Severely deluded men are unlikely to find cessation ( Nirodha, Nivritti ) from suffering ( Shoka, Soka – in Pali ) in this birth and the wheel of birth and death will roll on for them.

In India and China, legends surround Lord Buddha. A legend in India believes that the Hindu god of creation, Brahma, requested Lord Buddha to teach the Dharma. A legend in China says that a great Buddhist sage named Bodhidharma brought Buddhism from India to China. Another legend in China, recorded in the text Jen-t’ien-yien-mu, says that Lord Buddha explained the Dharma to his historical disciple Mahakashyapa by silently holding up a flower and Mahakashyapa ( Mahakassapa – in Pali, Mahakasho – in Japanese ) merely smiled, having understood the meaning. The sound of silence has a distinguished place in Buddhism, from Lord Buddha onwards stretching right upto the mythological householder disciple Vimalakirti. Historically, Emperor Ashoka was the first Indian emperor to spread Buddhism outside India. He sent his son, Mahendra ( Mahinda – in Pali ), and daughter, Sanghamitra ( Sanghamitta – in Pali ), to Sri Lanka.

Lord Buddha showed how man can integrate himself to the cosmos. In this and in many other aspects, He was a student of life and a leader of men. In a caste-ridden society, Lord Buddha strove to establish the equality of all men. In this, He was the world’s first great socialist. Lao-tzu of ancient China in his book Tao Te Ching described the qualities a true leader should have; leaders tread fresh grass amongst other things. Lord Buddha possessed all of them and much more. He was the ultimate Tyagi, that is, renunciant; renouncing a throne, comforts of a palace, a wife and a son to leave his palace on horseback in search of Truth at night. In this, He showed Himself to be an exemplar of Holiness inspiring millions of others to follow suit. He elevated Himself to the level of a Purushottama and a Mahapurusha ( Superhuman Man ).

Buddhism preaches ultimate tolerance to all faiths. A Buddhist hates none, loves all. Lord Buddha’s love for man was like a father’s love for his sons. The overarching philosophy of Buddhism encompasses loving-kindness ( Maitri, Metta – in Pali ) for all sentient beings. Buddhists co-exist peacefully with all religions on earth. It is invigorating to keep a statue of Lord Buddha in one’s place of meditation just as a Christian keeps a crucifix in his room. It is not idolatry.

Buddhism is particularly relevant in the violence-ridden world today. As a Buddhist, I feel that mankind can do much better. Pacifism and non-violence ( Ahimsa – Sanskrit and Pali, Avihimsa – Pali ) are fundamental tenets of Buddhism. However, this does not mean that a man should not resist aggression. If an evil power engages in aggression, then a man should resist it with all powers at his disposal. Something called “Engaged Buddhism” is emerging in the West now. In this, Buddhists take up environmental and social issues as a part of their practice of the Dharma.

A radical indeterminacy underpins and permeates human existence. Things happen that we do not want; things that we do not want happen. To bravely work out our way through to emancipation, to bring order in place of chaos, to face life with fortitude requires immense Enlightened courage. In this context, Buddhism enables us to reach salvation. That is the raison d’être of Buddhism. The essence of Buddhism, as summed up by Lord Buddha Himself, is:

To cease from all error,

To get virtue,

And to purify the heart.

With Anuttara Samyak Sambodhi ( supreme and perfect Enlightenment ) of a man, he realises that death can be defeated only if it can be made unreal. His false self, or nothingness, dissolves into a vibrant awakened being.

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from Dhyana Paramita: The Perfection of Meditation

[dramartyakumar]

Dhyana Paramita: The Perfection of Meditation

Dhyana Paramita: The Perfection of Meditation

Shamatha, Vipashyana, Buddhanupashyana and Buddhanusmriti

Dr. Amartya Kumar Bhattacharya

BCE (Hons.) ( Jadavpur ), MTech ( Civil ) ( IIT Kharagpur ), PhD ( Civil ) ( IIT Kharagpur ), Cert.MTERM ( AIT Bangkok ), CEng(I), FIE, FACCE(I), FISH, FIWRS, FIPHE, FIAH, FAE, MIGS, MIGS – Kolkata Chapter, MIGS – Chennai Chapter, MISTE, MAHI, MISCA, MIAHS, MISTAM, MNSFMFP, MIIBE, MICI, MIEES, MCITP, MISRS, MISRMTT, MAGGS, MCSI, MMBSI

Chairman and Managing Director,

MultiSpectra Consultants,

23, Biplabi Ambika Chakraborty Sarani,

Kolkata – 700029,

West Bengal,

INDIA.

E-mail: dramartyakumar@gmail.com

This article deals with Dhyana Paramita ( the Perfection of Meditation ). In this article, I am striving to present the essence of Dharma ( Dharma-Dhatu ) in my own way. Although my family has its ancestral roots in Chittagong ( Chattagram – in Bengali ), Bangladesh and, naturally, follows Theravada Buddhism, I am trying to be as comprehensive as possible in my exposition of the Dharma. Sanskrit has been used as the default classical language of this article. Pali has also been extensively used and Chinese, Japanese and Korean have been used, where appropriate. Diacritical marks have been omitted as some knowledge of Sanskrit and Pali on the part of the reader is assumed.

Buddhism, a major world faith, was founded by Lord Buddha in India over two thousand five hundred years ago. It has spread peacefully over much of Asia and has millions of adherents in India, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, China ( including Tibet ), Taiwan, Mongolia, North and South Korea, Japan, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam and also in Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia. The northern extremity of Buddhism in Asia is the Ivolga Monastery in Siberia, Russia. This article is an exposition of Buddhism and in it, the word “faith” is used as a synonym of the word “religion”. Buddhism is also called Saddharma ( the true faith ) or Dharma.

The Sanskrit word “Dharma” literally means “Property”. For example, one says that the Dharma of fire is to burn. This means that the property of fire is to burn. The fire cannot be separated from its capacity to burn. Similarly, the literal meaning of Dharma ( Dhamma – in Pali, Fa – in Chinese, Ho – in Japanese ) of man is the basic property of man from which he cannot be separated. This means the spirituality inherent in man.

The objective of Buddhism is Nirvana ( liberation, Nibbana – in Pali, Gedatsu – in Japanese ) and Bodhi ( Enlightenment, P’u-ti – in Chinese, Bodai – in Japanese ). The word Buddhi means intellect and the word Bodha means to understand; it is from these words that the word Bodhi is derived. Who is it that seeks Nirvana, Bodhi, and to understand? It is “I” ( Aham ), who is writing right now. Understanding sharpens me, refines me, contextualises me, and keeps me on the path to Bodhi and Nirvana. I shall have an opportunity to delve deeply into the issue of “I” in Buddhism later. Deep understanding ( Anubodha ) is the context of Bodhi, and Nirvana. Rephrasing Nagarjuna, the founder of the Madhyamika school of Mahayana Buddhism, Shunyata ( emptiness, Sunnata – in Pali, K’ung – in Chinese, Ku – in Japanese ) is the absence of ignorance. Avidya Paramam Malam ( Avijja Paramam Malam – in Pali, Ignorance is the greatest impurity ) is what Lord Buddha said. Nagarjuna can be further re-interpreted to give to me the understanding that Nirvana is not only available for a man in Samsara ( empirical and phenomenal world ) but, as I am immersed in Samsara, it is only possible within it, subject to the condition that the Arya Ashtanga Marga ( Noble Eightfold Path ) is rigorously followed. The conclusion Nagarjuna reached, in his seminal work Mula Madhyamika Karika, is that all things lack a fixed essence ( Swabhava, Sabhava – in Pali, Zi-xing – in Chinese ) or a fixed individual character (Swalakshana ) and that is why they are amenable to change. In other words, change is possible only if entities are devoid or empty ( Shunya ) of Swabhava. Buddhism has two main branches, Theravada and Mahayana, the difference between the two will be explained in due course.

Man’s quest for an end to his suffering ( Duhkha, Dukkha – in Pali ) has led him into an exploration of his inner self ( Wo – in Chinese ), its working and its dysfunctional behaviour under certain circumstances. Under such conditions,a radical shift in consciousness, perception and attitude is the only succour for a tormented mind ( Chitta, Manas, Hsin or Xin – in Chinese, Kokoro – in Japanese ). This process, involving the destruction of suffering, is based on the Four Noble Truths ( Chaturaryasatya, Chattari Aryasachchani – in Pali ) enunciated by Lord Buddha which are as follows:

Life contains suffering. ( Duhkha-Aryasatya, Dukkha-Aryasachcha – in Pali )

Suffering has a cause, and the cause can be known. ( Duhkha Samudaya-Aryasatya, Dukkha Samudaya-Aryasachcha – in Pali )

Suffering can be brought to an end. ( Duhkha Nirodha-Aryasatya, Dukkha Nirodha-Aryasachcha – in Pali )

The path to end suffering has eight parts. ( Marga-Aryasatya, Magga-Aryasachcha – in Pali )

Lord Buddha also laid out the Noble Eightfold Path ( Arya Ashtanga Marga, Arya Atthangika Magga – in Pali ). The Noble Eightfold Path is given below:

Right view ( Samyak Dristi, Samma Ditthi – in Pali)

Right intention ( Samyak Sankalpa, Samma Sankappa – in Pali) )

Right speech ( Samyak Vakya, Samma Vacha – in Pali) )

Right action ( Samyak Karma, Samma Kammanta – in Pali) )

Right livelihood ( Samyak Jivika, Samma Ajiva – in Pali) )

Right effort ( Samyak Vyayama, Samma Vayama – in Pali) )

Right mindfulness ( Samyak Smriti, Samma Sati – in Pali) )

Right concentration ( Samyak Samadhi, Samma Samadhi – in Pali) )

This Path is also known as The Middle Path ( Madhyama Pratipada, Majjhima Patipada – in Pali ) because it is neither too easy nor too difficult. The first five parts of the Path involve maintaining a lifestyle full of virtue ( Shila, Sila – in Pali ) while the last three pertain to the practice ( Patipatti – in Pali ) of meditation. The Path is called The Way ( Tao – in Chinese, Do, Michi – in Japanese ) in the Far East. The practice of meditation lies at the heart of the spiritual practice of Dharmic ( spiritual ) people. To be a Buddhist means to distinguish between Buddhist and non-Buddhist acts, between ignorance and Enlightenment, between Samsara and Nirvana. Pancha Shila is for householders; Ashta Shila is for householders practising Brahmacharya, that is celibacy; and Dasha Shila is for monks.

According to Lord Buddha, man is his own master. “Atta hi attano natho” are the exact words of Lord Buddha. He also said “Atmadvipa viharatha, atmasharana ananyasharana” meaning “Dwell making yourself your island ( that is refuge ), and not anyone else as your refuge”. Man is however unaware of this fact and abdicates his responsibility of controlling his future, even death. This is so because man is, in a deep philosophical sense, deluded ( Mohagrasta ), asleep and unaware of his true nature. He normally identifies himself with his body, which was born and hence will die, some day. This gives rise to vices, insecurity and belief in that what is not. Man lives in illusions ( Moha ); the illusion that he will never fall sick, the illusion that no harm will ever befall him. He also believes that he has relatives and friends and, if he clings onto them tightly enough, he will one day, after death, go to the nebulous place called heaven. But it is not true. The lacuna in man’s thinking becomes disturbingly clear to him when he finds that he is suffering. When a man suffers, the world seems to collapse around him. Man needs to be awakened and when this awakening process is complete, man will rise from the ashes of the world of the senses that he has just burnt to the world of pure consciousness. Buddhism is a journey where a man starts asleep and ends up awake. In doing so, he sheds aside nothingness to awaken to a single state of Being. The process by which this takes place is meditation.

Lord Buddha’s title means one who is awake. He is the messiah who showed the path to eternity. Lord Buddha gave His teaching “for the good of many, for the happiness of many, for showing compassion to the world” ( Bahujanahitaya, Bahujanasukhaya, Lokanukampaya ). He told man that though he is asleep, the capacity to be awakened is in him and also taught man the path to awakening. But man must walk that path himself, alone. Man must realise that he is always alone, whether it be high atop the mountains, in the company of his relatives or in the morning crowd in the downtown of a metropolitan city. A positive attitude to aloneness can develop in man when he can take a mental sword and cleave a distinction between aloneness and loneliness. Loneliness has a negative connotation in the sense that it implies a craving for company of other human beings, the exact opposite of the self-sufficiency implied by aloneness. The capacity to tread the path to Nirvana is already in man, he just has to use it. In the Dharmachakrapravartana Sutra, Lord Buddha said that Nirvana is not subject to grief, defilement ( Klesha, Kilesa – in Pali, Bonno – in Japanese ), disease ( Vyadhi ), decay ( Jara ), and death ( Mrityu, Marana ). In other words, Nirvana is beyond cause and effect, that is, it transcends conditioned phenomena. Lord Buddha also said “Nirvanam Paramam Sukham”. Nirvana is Apratitya-samutpanna and Asamskrita ( unconditioned, Apatichcha-samuppanna and Asankhata – in Pali, Wu-yin – in Chinese ) and, according to Vasubandhu of the Yogachara ( the practice of Yoga ) school of Mahayana Buddhism, is the Parinishpanna Swabhava ( true self-nature of Being, Zhen-shi-xing – in Chinese ). It is interesting to note that in the Lankavatara Sutra, a Mahayana Sutra associated with the Yogachara school, Nirvana is described as the seeing of everything as it is. Nirvana is a positive Absolute and is Nitya ( without beginning and end, Nicca – in Pali ). Nirvana means a state of Mukti ( Mutti – in Pali )which means freedom or Vimukti ( Vimutti – in Pali ) which means absolute freedom. Nirvana also denotes Satya ( Sacca – in Pali ) which means Truth and Shanti ( Santi – in Pali ) which means Peace. A synonym for Nirvana is Moksha ( liberation, Mokkha – in Pali ). Nirvana is a state of absolute perfection. Shariputra, the famous historical disciple of Lord Buddha, described Nirvana as the extinction of desire, hatred and illusion. In mystical language, Nirvana is the experience of standing face-to-face with Reality ( Shi – in Chinese ). Nirvana is equated with Bodhi and is the Paramartha-Satya. Nirvana is sometimes expressed as negative of negative such as the cessation of suffering, of craving, of aversion, etc. This need not result in any confusion. In Sanskrit, sometimes positive things are expressed as negatives of negatives as the word “Arogya” which means recuperation from illness and the word “Amrita” which means immortal. Further, as mathematics proves, negative of negative is always positive. Nirvana is a freeing from the chains of a false sense of individuality. Nirvana is a state of non-duality ( Advaita or Advaya ); a state where the illusion of a false sense of “I” ( Parikalpita Swabhava, Fen-bie-xing – in Chinese ) does not exist. Expressed differently, liberation from the illusion of separateness of the individual Self from the Whole is Nirvana. Freedom is, Nirvana is, Truth is.

According to Buddhism, everything is relative and impermanent ( Anitya, Anicca – in Pali ) in the empirical, conditioned world. Lord Buddha told Rashtrapala “The world is in continuous flux and is impermanent”. In this context, I can correctly say that one cannot step twice into the same river because although I may continue to see the same river externally from a gross point of view, the water molecules I am seeing at a particular location at any moment are different from the water molecules the moment before and the moment after. One thing disappears, conditioning the appearance of the next in a series of cause and effect. Everything is in a state of becoming something else the next moment. A wheel cannot be separated from its movement. There is no static wheel “behind” the wheel in motion. Things change over time. Everything originates dependent on other factors. That is, all things come into existence as the result ( Phala ) of an interaction of various causes ( Hetu ). Each entity is Pratitya-samutpanna ( conditioned, Patichcha-samuppanna – in Pali ) as well as Pratitya-samutpada ( conditioning, Patichcha-samuppada – in Pali ). The Law of Dependent Origination is central to Buddhism. For example, anger cannot arise by itself without a cause. The five aggregates, Rupa, Vedana, Sangya, Samskara and Vigyana ( Rupa, Vedana, Sanna, Sankhra and Vinnana – in Pali ), all of which are identified as Anatma ( non-Soul ) by Lord Buddha in the Anatmalakshana Sutra, are called the Pancha Skandha ( the five aggregates, Pancha Khandha – in Pali ). Sensations ( Vedana ) of the physical world of forms ( Rupa ) are received by the five physical sense organs ( Indriya ) such as the nose. The mind feels the mental world. The five physical sense organs and the mind are called the six sensory bases. Sensations lead to perceptions ( Sangya ), which in turn lead through pre-dispositions ( Samskara ), to consciousness ( Vigyana ). In Theravada Buddhism, the concept of Bhavanga ( stream of thought ) is introduced while in the Yogachara school of Mahayana Buddhism, the concept of Alaya-Vigyana ( literally, the abode of consciousness, but commonly translated as store-consciousness ) is introduced. The Alaya-Vigyana ( Ariyashiki – in Japanese ), which maintains the continuum of consciousness, is the mind; hence this school is also called the Chittamatratavada school. Other names of the same school are Agamanuyayi Vigyanavada and Vigyaptimatratavada. The fundamental concept of the Yogachara ( Wei Shi – in Chinese, Yuishiki – in Japanese ) school may be expressed by the proposition that the Parinishpanna Swabhava is realised when man pierces ( Patibheda ) through his Parikalpita Swabhava and Paratantra Swabhava ( conditioned self-nature, Yi-ta-xing – in Chinese ). The Alaya-Vigyana, as conceived in Mahayana Buddhism, is a permanent entity. The Alaya-Vigyana contains all impressions of past actions and all future potentialities. It is also the Tathagatagarbha ( Buddha-Matrix, Ru-lai-zang – in Chinese, Nyoraizo – in Japanese ), the basis on which a man can become a Buddha. So, latent in every man is a Buddha-like faculty called Buddha-Dhatu ( Buddha-Nature, Fo-hsing or Fo-xing – in Chinese ). Right meditation leads to spiritual Enlightenment, which is nothing but the full manifestation of the Buddha-Dhatu ( or Tathagata-Dhatu ) in man. Thus, any man can develop himself through appropriate practice, that is meditation, and become a Buddha. Anyway, for an average man, the summation of all physical and mental processes, processes in constant flux, is perceived empirically as “I”. The empirical “I” is ephemeral and impermanent, and is Samvriti-Satya ( conventional truth ). Conscious of something, one reacts mentally. The mental reactions are of two types : craving and aversion. Craving ( Trishna, Tanha – in Pali, Raga, Lobha – in Pali ) and aversion ( Dvesha, Dosa – in Pali ) both lead to suffering; it is self-evident that aversion results in suffering and craving results in suffering because if the object of craving remains out of reach, there is suffering. Thus, ultimately, whatever is impermanent is Duhkha or suffering. Trishna Nirodha, Upadana ( clinging ) Nirodha ( With the extinction of craving comes the extinction of clinging ). The renowned sage Buddhaghosa, the writer of the Visuddhimagga ( Vishuddhi Marga, The Path of Purification ), has dwelt elaborately on suffering. Taking the lead from Nagarjuna, I posit that Duhkha is transient; it arises dependent on something else and also decays into extinction. Duhkha is not self-determining; its existence and character are attributable to factors that condition its origin and subsequent transformation. Coming into existence and dying out of existence, Duhkha lacks any trace of permanence.Thus, it may be said that Duhkha lacks a Swabhava or Swalakshana and is characterised by Nihswabhava ( absence of Self-Nature ). Thus Duhkha is empty ( Shunya ). I am, therefore, led to formulate the proposition: Duhkhameva Shunyam. Because Duhkha is ephemeral, I can expand the Sanskrit sentence to this: Duhkhameva Anityam evam Shunyam The perception of the emptiness of Duhkha allows one to let go of Duhkha and thus be released of the hold that Duhkha has on him. This is, of course, intended as a Mahayana Buddhist theoretical complement to Shamatha and Vipashyana meditation and is in no way a substitute for Shamatha and Vipashyana meditation. I also hold that the notion of Buddha-Dhatu is a very productive concept. Any meditator’s meditation is bound to become better if he remembers during meditating that he has Buddha-Dhatu in him.

It may be mentioned, at this stage, that practitioners who are extremely advanced spiritually are called by the name Arhat ( Arahant – in Pali, A-han – in Chinese, Arakan, Rakan – in Japanese ) in Theravada Buddhism and Bodhisattva ( Bodhisatta – in Pali, Bosatsu – in Japanese ), or aspirants to Buddhahood ( Buddhatva, or as is rather more commonly termed Buddhata ) in Mahayana Buddhism. A Bodhisattva is any man who has taken a vow to follow the path to Buddhatva taking all other sentient beings with him. A monk ( Bhikshu, Bhikkhu – in Pali ) and a lay disciple ( Upasaka ) are both Bodhisattvas. Sattva means a sentient being.

In response to questioning by devotees in the kingdom of Kosala as to the importance or unimportance of belief, Lord Buddha pointed out the distinction between knowing and believing. Believing always connotes a second-hand approach to Truth; knowing about something through the experience of someone else. Knowing means a first-hand direct knowledge of Truth and the result of this distinction is that the modicum of doubt that always accompanies belief is absent in knowledge ( Gyana ). Freedom of thought is permitted by Lord Buddha to His devotees so that they can discriminate and find Truth. Nirvana cannot be had via someone else’s knowledge. A contemporary scholar Kazuaki Tanahashi describes an incident in Japan where a Buddhist monk illustrated to his disciples the power of what might be called “positive emptiness” in the mind. A void in the mind can be filled with spirituality by virtue of positive thinking. A Korean monk, Kyong Ho, echoed this feeling when he advised one to accept the anxieties and difficulties of this life. He also advised people to use their will to bring peace between peoples. This is particularly relevant in the modern world where democracy and egalitarianism are taken for granted. The great Japanese Zen Buddhist monk Dogen said that Samadhi ( which is a transcendental state of mind ) led to Enlightenment of those who found Enlightenment in India and China. Buddhism also strongly believes in the theory ( Pariyapti, Pariyatti – in Pali ) of Karma ( as you sow, so shall you reap ) and in the concept of rebirth. Lord Buddha said “Monks, I say that volition is action. Having thought, one acts through body, speech and mind.” ( Chetana ‘ham bhikkhave kammam vadami. Chetayitva kammam karoti kayena vachaya manasa. – in Pali ). There are two types of Karma, Kushala Karma ( Kusala Kamma – in Pali ) or good actions and Akushala Karma or bad actions. Kushala Karma is Dharmic while Akushala Karma is Adharmic. The result of both types of Karma are called Karma Phala, which correspond to the type of Karma performed.

He searched, He meditated, He found: this aptly summarises the awakening of Lord Buddha. When a man suffers, it is useless for him to talk of God, or to fast and otherwise to torture his body if his suffering is not reduced by any or all of these. Lord Buddha realised this fact and after His awakening taught the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path. Meditation is one form of mental culture ( Bhavana ). In meditation, what is required of man is to effect a radical shift in consciousness from the finite to the infinite using right concentration. Concentration is called Chittaikagrata in Sanskrit ( Chittekaggata – in Pali ). The concentrated focus is always on the elimination of suffering. The law of cause and effect is at work here too. If one is deluded, one suffers. If one studies the Four Noble Truths, one sees that man should identify the cause of suffering and systematically go about destroying it using the Noble Eightfold Path. The result of meditation is tremendous. One transcends the boundaries of his body; he senses that the entire universe has become his body. He senses that he has exchanged a weak mind for a strong one. He senses that though he may continue to reside in his mortal body, his consciousness has become irreversibly altered. He feels himself being pervaded by peace. He becomes awakened; Prabuddha. Lord Buddha did not give the Dharma for strong wills only; His statements are just as applicable to weaker minds provided they have the determination to follow Him. He asked for nothing more than courage and promised eternity.

An explanation as to the types of meditation in vogue is in order here. Shamatha ( Samatha – in Pali ) and Vipashyana ( Vipassana – in Pali, Kuan or Guan – in Chinese, Kan – in Japanese ) or Vidarshana ( Pashyana or Darshana means to see in an ordinary way; Vipashyana or Vidarshana means to see in a special way, that is, with Insight ) meditation are practised in south Asia and other countries which practice Theravada ( meaning, the way of the Elders ) Buddhism. Lord Buddha presented the technique of Vipashyana meditation in the Mahasatipatthana Sutta ( Mahasmritipratishthana Sutra ) / Satipatthana Sutta ( Smritipratishthana Sutra ). Lord Buddha delivered this Sutra in Kammassadhammam near Delhi. The Mahasatipatthana Sutta is found in the Digha ( Dirgha ) Nikaya and the Satipatthana Sutta is found in the Majjhima ( Madhyama ) Nikaya. Zen Buddhist practice is performed in East Asia, that is, in China, North and South Korea, Taiwan and Japan, which are among the countries that practice Mahayana ( meaning, the great vehicle ) Buddhism . In fact, Zen is one of the eight schools of Mahayana Buddhism. Meditation is something that cannot be fully explained in words, it has to be experienced to be understood completely. Knowing about meditation is one thing; knowing meditation is quite another. A man can sit alone, cross-legged, in a quiet room in the full lotus posture ( Padmasana or Dhyanasana or Vajraparyankasana ) or, failing that, in the half-lotus posture ( Bhadrasana ) and try to enter into Vipashyana meditation ( the third posture of sitting is called Sukhasana, literally meaning “the posture that gives happiness” ). If one is unable to start doing meditation oneself, one should take the help of a Guru ( literally, one who dispels darkness ) who will guide him in the initial stages. One must sit, preferably, in the lotus posture with one’s spine erect. There must be no slumping of the back, the head should be straight as if suspended by means of a string. Another analogy adopted is that the head should be straight as if bearing the sky on its top. The hands may be placed in the Bhumisparsha Mudra ( Bhumisparsha gesture ), a Mudra ( Inzo – in Japanese ) in which I find so many statues of Lord Buddha. Bhumisparsha literally means “ touching the ground”. This gesture is also called Sakshi ( Sanskrit for witness ) Mudra. Alternatively, a man’s hands may be in the cosmic Mudra with the left hand on top of the right, middle joints of middle fingers together and the thumbs touching each other. The hands should be held against the body, with the thumbs at about the height of the navel. This gesture is very popular in East Asia. The Samadhi Mudra consists of the right hand placed on top of the left hand with the tips of the two thumbs touching each other. Yet another Mudra consists of the hands straight, placed on the knees, and the thumb and the next finger touching each other with the other fingers straight. This gesture of the hands is called Gyana Mudra. Other gestures are the Dharmachakra Mudra, Varada Mudra, Abhaya Mudra and Vajrahumkara Mudra. The Dharmachakra Mudra can be seen in the famous Sarnath statue of Lord Buddha. This gesture is also called the Bodhyangi Mudra. The Varada Mudra is the genture of giving boon with the right hand while the Abhaya Mudra is the gesture of giving protection with the right hand. The Vajrahumkara Mudra, also called the Trailokyavijaya Mudra, consists of placing both hands crossed over one’s chest with both the palms facing the chest. After one has sat correctly, he must close his eyes and focus on the inhalation and exhalation of his breath ( Anapana-smriti or Anapana-sati ). Anapana ( An-pan – in Chinese ) means respiration. There must be no tampering with the natural respiration, a meditator’s job is simply to focus his attention on his nostrils and observe the natural flow of breath. Respiration is natural, one has no craving or aversion towards it, it is always in the present ( Nitya ) and, since one breathes from the moment of one’s birth to the moment of one’s death, it is in fact a convergence of the past, present and future. Further, it is within the physical framework of the body. Respiration is thus an appropriate object for concentrating the mind, something that is not too easy. The mind does not usually want to stay in the present moment; it resides either in the past or in the future. A little effort is needed to prevent the mind from wandering about. This is called Right Effort. At this stage, there may be strong distractions in the mind that prevent the mind from concentrating. Sometimes these distractions appear to be overwhelming. The effort to focus on respiration should be continued in such cases. The key is never to give up. A learner soon discovers one thing ; meditation is hard work for a beginner. Right Mindfulness, which is mindfulness of breathing, follows Right Effort immediately. Right Concentration leading to Samadhi ( San-mei – in Chinese, Sanmai, Zanmai – in Japanese ), which is a transcendental state, follows. It may be described by Sat ( being ), Chit ( consciousness ) and Ananda ( bliss, happiness ). Sometimes, in lifting the mind to Samadhi, hurdles appear in the form of distractions in the mind. These distractions may be latent feelings of anger, craving, sadness, and so on. The remedy, in such cases, is to return back to Anapana-sati and try to lift the mind to Samadhi again. Shamatha meditation is an absorptive meditation whose object is to calm the mind. Vipashyana meditation is an analytical meditation. Shamatha meditation may be an end in itself or it may be a prelude to Vipashyana meditation. It is also possible to perform Vipashyana meditation without performing Shamatha meditation first. There are four parts to the practice of Vipashyana meditation. Kaya anupashyana, Vedana anupashyana, Chitta anupashyana, and Dharma anupashyana. Anupashyana means to see minutely, that is, to scrutinise Here, Dharma indicates the contents of the mind ( Chaitasika, Chetasika – in Pali ). Each of the the four, Kaya ( body ), Vedana ( sensations ), Chitta ( mind ) and Dharma ( mental contents ), must be subjected to Anupashyana. The true nature of all four of these reveal themselves to the meditator and he is able to remove defilement from the innermost recesses of his mind ( Anushaya, Anusaya – in Pali ). Awareness and equanimity ( Upeksha, Upekkha – in Pali ), together, symbolise Vipashyana meditation. If either part is missing, one cannot attain Enlightenment. Vipashyana leads to clear insight into the physical and mental structure and thus leads to Bodhi. The complete knowledge of my physical and mental structure is called Sampragyana ( Sampajanna – in Pali ), if I have it I am called a Sampragya. In some forms of Mahayana Buddhist meditation, meditation on Lord Buddha ( Buddhanupashyana ) is performed.

Bodhyangas ( Bojjhangas – in Pali ) are factors contributing to Enlightenment. There are seven Bodhyangas: Smriti, Dharma-chayana, Virya ( courage ), Priti ( rapture and bliss ), Prashiddhi ( deep tranquility and calmness ), Samadhi, and Upeksha. The Four Sublime States ( Brahmavihara ) are Maitri, Karuna ( compassion ), Mudita and Upeksha. Meditation entails making a conscious and free choice to withdraw from the affairs of the mundane world to pursue spiritual ends; one of the objectives being the subsequent re-establishment of contact with the conditioned world as a purer and wiser man. The decision to meditate is itself an act of freedom. We have, in life, the freedom to pursue an ethical way of living. This freedom leads us to Bodhi and Nirvana and thus sets us free.

Meditation is a pursuit of liberation, realisation is the end result. Post-realisation, one feels that one had been going about with his eyes closed and has now suddenly opened them. In the plane of the senses, his external world does not change but his way of psychologically processing his external world undergoes a drastic change. He becomes more peaceful with himself and with others. An awakened man, possessing an Enlightened mind ( Bodhichitta ), feels that he is surrounded by peace at all times. It is important to understand that nobody tells him this; he feels it himself. He goes about doing his daily activities, but his way of processing his world has fundamentally altered for the better. He realises that he cannot and need not control all aspects of his external physical world. He realises that he gains more by letting go. He becomes aware of the non-peaceful moments in his life and tries to reduce their frequency and intensity. He opts for shifting his consciousness to his mind and becoming aware of his internal mental processes when waiting, for example, in a traffic jam or while waiting in a queue. He opts for harmony in his mental processes rather than chaos.

Ordinarily, animal instincts bind a man to the world of the senses. Man lacks the initiative to free himself from them. Rather, he reposes his faith on some superhuman power whom he tries to propitiate in the hope that he may be rescued from his troubles. Meditation may also be described as a Tapasya ( a Sanskrit word whose root lies in the Sanskrit word Tapah which means heat ), a burning of the impurities in the mind.

Zen Buddhism originated in China and is in vogue in East Asia. As mentioned before, it is a school of Mahayana Buddhism. Mahayana Buddhism was propagated in China by Indian Buddhist monks like Kumarajiva ( 344-413 C.E. ), son of Kumarayana, who went to China in 401 C.E., and Buddhabhadra ( 359-429 C.E. ), who went to China in 408 C.E., and by Chinese Buddhist monks who came to India, like Fa-hsien ( or Fa-xian ), who came to India between 399 and 414 C.E., and Hsuan-tsang ( or Xuan-zang ) ( 600-664 C.E. ), who came to India between 629 and 645 C.E. Also, Gunabhadra translated the Lankavatara Sutra into Chinese and Paramartha was another noted translator.

Mahayana Buddhism developed in India a few centuries after the Parinirvana of Lord Buddha. Emperor Kanishka convened the Fourth Buddhist Council, held probably at Jalandhar, in which the scholar Vasumitra was President and another eminent scholar Asvaghosha, the author of Buddha Charita, was Vice-President. In this assembly, Buddhists became divided into Mahayana Buddhists and Theravada Buddhists. The Pali word Thera is derived from the Sanskrit word Sthavira which means Elder. Theravada Buddhism is the most orthodox form of Buddhism and has preserved the historical teachings of Lord Buddha. The Theravada Sutras are the earliest available teachings of Lord Buddha, are originally in Pali, and are fully historical. The Pali Canon is called the Tripitaka in Sanskrit and the Tipitaka in Pali; Sutra-Pitaka, Vinaya-Pitaka and Abhidharma-Pitaka forming the three parts of the Tripitaka. Abhidharma means detailed philosophical discourses.

Mahayana is a way of Buddhism followed widely across India and northern and eastern Asia. I have written before that in Mahayana Buddhism, individuals strive to take all others along with them to the ultimate goal of liberation. Mahayana Buddhism emerged in the context of the development of a different disposition towards Buddhism by some Buddhists; in terms of concepts relating to the Sangha, the Dharma and Lord Buddha. Firstly, schisms occurred on the level of “Sangha”. The primary concern of several venerated Buddhist monks was to keep the Dharma and discipline ( Vinaya ) pure. They felt that this was the only way to sustain Buddhism in the long run. These Buddhist monks became some of the most sophisticated theoreticians in the Indian intellectual world. Certain other monks wanted the Vinaya to be flexible. The case of the Mahasanghika monks is the best example to show the conflict between these two viewpoints. These monks had added ten minor precepts for their group , for example, monks could get, keep and use money. In the Second Buddhist Council, held at Vaishali, they were called “Papishtha bhikshus” (the sinful monks). Their behaviour was unacceptable from the viewpoint of the orthodox Buddhists. These monks established their own tradition and called themselves “Mahasanghikas” (The monks of the Great Sangha).

Fissures also occurred on the level of “Dharma”. Three months before Lord Buddha’s Parinirvana at Kusinagara, He declared in the Mahaparinirvana Sutra that the monks and the laity would have the Dharma and the Vinaya as their leaders in the future. However, some Buddhists, mostly the Mahasanghikas, found themselves having no shelter left except the Dharma. So they searched for the true Dharma. The statement of Lord Buddha, “He who sees the Dharma, sees me; he who sees me, sees the Dharma”, also supported their quest. If one uses logical arguments to judge this sentence, an interesting question emerges. How must one see the Dharma so that one also sees Lord Buddha? For some Buddhist scholars, even today, Dharma is not merely the sermons of Lord Buddha. His life contains more latent implications, for example, the implications of His silence in certain contexts as in His silence in response to questions by Vacchagotra. Thus, for the Buddhist scholars alluded to above, Dharma is something more and wider than the speech of Lord Buddha. The sermons are merely a part of Him, not the totality. When I return back to the context of the emergence of Mahayana Buddhism, I find that the Buddhists referred to above had shifted the ethical facet of Buddhism to a metaphysical focus. And what they did was to seek out the truest Dharma; one which also revealed the status of Lord Buddha after His Parinirvana. Simultaneously, the assumption that Lord Buddha still existed pervaded and caught the faithful minds of Buddhists. Dharma turned out to be a means to reach the state of Buddhatva. If man realises the ultimate truth of all things, he is sure to free himself from all types of bondage. To see Dharma is to see the truth of phenomena. When the truth of phenomena is seen, the wisdom of Lord Buddha is fulfilled within oneself. That is the reason why when one sees the Dharma, he also sees Lord Buddha. Further, the state of the mind is linked to liberation. The state of liberation is conceived to be the same as the pure mind. A human mind, that is pure and detached from all types of impurities, is synonymous with the state of liberation. Also, there were groups that defined “Dharma” as the Ultimate Truth of Lord Buddha. The more these Buddhists investigated His life, the less they believed that He had gone away. Hence, to see Dharma is to see Lord Buddha’s power penetrating through all things. These groups also tended to relate Dharma to Lord Buddha’s great compassion ( Mahakaruna ) and felt that to see Dharma is to see the Buddha-Dhatu within oneself. Mahakaruna is Karuna ( compassion ) combined with Pragya ( wisdom, Panna – in Pali, Zhi Hui, Pan-jo, Po-jo – in Chinese, Hannya – in Japanese ). Clearly, the most important duty of man is to live and spend his life in accordance with Lord Buddha’s intention. As His intention was to liberate all sentient beings from suffering, in order to realise the Buddha-Dhatu within oneself, it is crucial that one has to assist other sentient beings and take them along on the way to liberation. Pragya is required, in fact it is vital, because different Upaya ( expedient means ) should be deployed to bring different sentient beings on the path to Bodhi. The notion of Bodhisattva sprang up from this attitude. Bodhisattvas are perfect in Dana ( charity ), Shila, Kshanti ( perseverence, Khanti – in Pali ), Virya ( Viriya – in Pali ), Dhyana and Pragya. These are called the six perfections ( Paramita, Parami – in Pali ) of a Bodhisattva. Sometimes, ten perfections ( Dasha Paramita ) are considered ( Maharatnakuta Sutra, Sutra 45, Taisho 310, pages 648 to 650. Translated into Chinese by Bodhiruchi ) wherein perfection of ingenuity ( Upaya ), power ( Bala ), volition and knowledge ( Gyana ) are added to the usual six perfections. Also, fault-lines occurred on the level of “Buddha”. When the Vinaya and the Dharma showed fault-lines, the only way out for unenlightened Buddhists was to go back to Lord Buddha as apart from Him, there is no other refuge. At that time, many Buddhists conceived the existence of Lord Buddha in the transcendental state. The Saddharma Pundarika Sutra ( or The Lotus Sutra ), a Mahayana Sutra, conceives of a transcendental Lord Buddha. Lord Buddha had returned to His universal form after His Parinirvana and He still existed. Lord Buddha had Three Bodies (Trikaya). The first and most fundamental body is called the Cosmic Body ( Dharmakaya, Hosshin – in Japanese ). The conceptualisation of Lord Buddha’s All-Pervading, Eternal, Omniscient, Omnipresent and Radiant Dharmakaya provided for a more intense and immersive spiritual experience. The nature of the Dharmakaya is called Dharmakaya-Dhatu. When meditating, the state of Lord Buddha is the Blissful Body ( Sambhogakaya, Hojin – in Japanese ). The third body is the Constructed Body ( Nirmanakaya, Keshin – in Japanese ), which signifies the historical Lord Buddha. The Nirmanakaya of Lord Buddha had come and gone under the Will of the Dharmakaya. He was born to fulfil His human functions in leading human beings to liberation. It is believed that as long as humans do not realise the true Dharma, the anguish of departure from Lord Buddha takes place and that when the human mind is able to make a distinction between the pure mind and Klesha, the truism of Buddha-Dhatu becomes clear. In the conception of the Mahasanghikas, the concept of Rupakaya existed and Rupakaya was later split into Nirmanakaya and Sambhogakaya in Mahayana.

Mahayana Buddhism combines the emotion of devotion ( Shraddha, Saddha – in Pali ) with the wisdom of logical reasoning. This is the appeal of Mahayana ( Ta-sheng – in Chinese, Daijo – in Japanese ) Buddhism.

The primary devotional school of Mahayana Buddhism is the Pure Land School of the Far East, where the Sanskrit “Namah Amitabha Buddha” is translated into the Chinese “Namo Amito Fo” and the Japanese “Namu Amida Butsu”. The practice of invoking Lord Buddha’s name is known as Buddhanusmriti ( Nien Fo – in Chinese, Nenbutsu – in Japanese ). Devotion is also directed towards the Saddharma Pundarika Sutra ( The Lotus Sutra ) with the invocation “Namo miao fa lien hua ching” in Chinese and “Namu myoho rengekyo” in Japanese.

Reverting back to to Zen Buddhism, we find that although Zen Buddhist experts were found amongst the laity, Zen Buddhism’s greatest geniuses were found in the highly regulated life of the monasteries. Zen Buddhism spread to Korea and Japan from China. In Japan, circular brushworks called enshos are calligraphic motifs often used in Zen Buddhism.

In Zen Buddhist practice ( the Sanskrit word Dhyana is a synonym of the Pali word Jhana, the Chinese word Ch’an, the Vietnamese word Thien, the Korean word Son and the Japanese word Zen ), one can take the help of Koans ( Japanese, Kung-an – in Chinese, Kongan – in Korean ) or spiritual puzzles with the aid of which he can propel the mind to a transcendental state in which he can meditate. Zazen ( Japanese, Tso-ch’an – in Chinese, the practice of Zen Buddhist meditation ) leads to Enlightenment. At the usual existential level, Koans cannot be said to have any coherence and an existential leap is needed to bring harmony. The spiritual puzzle posed by a Koan may be such that even a strong will may be unable to go to the transcendental plane. The role of the Zen Buddhist master is important here. He can deliver a shock, an emotional one usually suffices, but a physical blow or other corporal shock may be needed so that the spiritual aspirant is propelled into a higher level of consciousness. The fundamental viewpoint of Zen Buddhism is that one is to point directly to one’s mind, see it as it is ( Yatha Bhutam ) and become a Buddha. A very important difference between Theravada Buddhism and Zen Buddhism is that the former believes that Enlightenment is obtained slowly ( or gradually ) by means of practice while the latter is a believer in sudden Enlightenment ( Tun-yu – in Chinese ).

I give below an example of a Koan:

Before Enlightenment, chopping wood, carrying water;

After Enlightenment, chopping wood, carrying water.

The meaning is self-explanatory. Bodhi does not change the Samsara I am immersed in but it does change and completely restructures my attitude towards that Samsara. Hsuan-tsang, the great Chinese monk who visited India during the time of Emperor Harshavardhana, once made the following remark about the state of realisation : “It is like a man drinking water; he knows by himself whether it is cold or hot.”. Once, Hui-hai Tai-chu came to the Zen master Ma-tsu Tao-i, the first of possibly the four greatest Chinese Zen masters. Ma-tsu asked him: “Why are you here searching when you already possess the treasure you are looking for?”. “What treasure?”, his interlocutor asked. Ma-tsu replied: “The one who is questioning me right now.”. Ma-tsu had an unswerving ability to bring the empirical “I” into focus at just the right moment. On another occasion, when asked, “What is the meaning of Bodhidharma’s coming from India?”, Ma-tsu replied with a classic answer: “What is the meaning of your asking this at precisely this moment?”. Ma-tsu followed the Hung-chou style of Zen. Ma-tsu Tao-i’s disciple ( Dharma heir, Fa-ssu – in Chinese ) was Pai-chang Huai-hai. Pai-chang Huai-hai’s disciple was Huang Po Hsi-yun whose disciple was Lin-chi I-hsuan, the founder of Rinzai Zen. Soto Zen is the other major form of Japanese Zen.

Because contact of the six sensory bases with the external world do not result in any reactions in a liberated man, he is free. His mind is like a lamp that does not flicker. Non-attachment towards all beings and everything including the concepts of “I” and “Mine” is a characteristic of a liberated mind. The absence of ego in an Enlightened man leads him to adopt an attitude of dispassion and selflessness towards everything in his physical and mental world. He is virtuous. Temptations do not affect him. He is always cheerful, happy and optimistic. He radiates light wherever he goes. He is wise and compassionate ( Mahakarunika ) and does everything for the good of the world. He has risen above his previous mental conditioning ( Samskara ). He has risen above craving and aversion.

It must be remembered that in Buddhism, the only valid reason for waging a war is to fight evil forces. Any other war is unjust. Lord Buddha went to the field of battle and intervened to stop a war between the Shakyas and their neighbours and his words stopped King Ajatashatru of Magadha from attacking a neighbouring kingdom. Taking a life unjustly defiles a man. However, there is no sin in Buddhism, only delusion. Severely deluded men are unlikely to find cessation ( Nirodha, Nivritti ) from suffering ( Shoka, Soka – in Pali ) in this birth and the wheel of birth and death will roll on for them.

In India and China, legends surround Lord Buddha. A legend in India believes that the Hindu god of creation, Brahma, requested Lord Buddha to teach the Dharma. A legend in China says that a great Buddhist sage named Bodhidharma brought Buddhism from India to China. Another legend in China, recorded in the text Jen-t’ien-yien-mu, says that Lord Buddha explained the Dharma to his historical disciple Mahakashyapa by silently holding up a flower and Mahakashyapa ( Mahakassapa – in Pali, Mahakasho – in Japanese ) merely smiled, having understood the meaning. The sound of silence has a distinguished place in Buddhism, from Lord Buddha onwards stretching right upto the mythological householder disciple Vimalakirti. Historically, Emperor Ashoka was the first Indian emperor to spread Buddhism outside India. He sent his son, Mahendra ( Mahinda – in Pali ), and daughter, Sanghamitra ( Sanghamitta – in Pali ), to Sri Lanka.

Lord Buddha showed how man can integrate himself to the cosmos. In this and in many other aspects, He was a student of life and a leader of men. In a caste-ridden society, Lord Buddha strove to establish the equality of all men. In this, He was the world’s first great socialist. Lao-tzu of ancient China in his book Tao Te Ching described the qualities a true leader should have; leaders tread fresh grass amongst other things. Lord Buddha possessed all of them and much more. He was the ultimate Tyagi, that is, renunciant; renouncing a throne, comforts of a palace, a wife and a son to leave his palace on horseback in search of Truth at night. In this, He showed Himself to be an exemplar of Holiness inspiring millions of others to follow suit. He elevated Himself to the level of a Purushottama and a Mahapurusha ( Superhuman Man ).

Buddhism preaches ultimate tolerance to all faiths. A Buddhist hates none, loves all. Lord Buddha’s love for man was like a father’s love for his sons. The overarching philosophy of Buddhism encompasses loving-kindness ( Maitri, Metta – in Pali ) for all sentient beings. Buddhists co-exist peacefully with all religions on earth. It is invigorating to keep a statue of Lord Buddha in one’s place of meditation just as a Christian keeps a crucifix in his room. It is not idolatry.

Buddhism is particularly relevant in the violence-ridden world today. As a Buddhist, I feel that mankind can do much better. Pacifism and non-violence ( Ahimsa – Sanskrit and Pali, Avihimsa – Pali ) are fundamental tenets of Buddhism. However, this does not mean that a man should not resist aggression. If an evil power engages in aggression, then a man should resist it with all powers at his disposal. Something called “Engaged Buddhism” is emerging in the West now. In this, Buddhists take up environmental and social issues as a part of their practice of the Dharma.

A radical indeterminacy underpins and permeates human existence. Things happen that we do not want; things that we do not want happen. To bravely work out our way through to emancipation, to bring order in place of chaos, to face life with fortitude requires immense Enlightened courage. In this context, Buddhism enables us to reach salvation. That is the raison d’être of Buddhism. The essence of Buddhism, as summed up by Lord Buddha Himself, is:

To cease from all error,

To get virtue,

And to purify the heart.

With Anuttara Samyak Sambodhi ( supreme and perfect Enlightenment ) of a man, he realises that death can be defeated only if it can be made unreal. His false self, or nothingness, dissolves into a vibrant awakened being.

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from Dhyana Paramita: The Perfection of Meditation