#korean language interpreter chennai
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korean interpreter chennai
Introduction
An important quality of a good translator is curiosity. Striving to learn new and interesting things from different spheres of korean interpreter chennai competence will eventually improve your work and keep it current.
One of the useful ways to stay tuned in to the tendencies and new technologies used in translation are translation blogs run by independent translators, companies, or associations. Since there are a great variety of websites, it will take you some time to find the ones that are most suitable for you. The list below will give you an idea which blogs are worth checking out in if you are looking for details about starting a career as a freelancer, billing your clients, learning new words and terminology, or simply having fun.
Translation Blogs for the Novice Translator
If you are just starting your career as a professional translator, and especially as a freelancer, you might need some advice on how to organize your work. The blogs below will help you with practical tips on how to approach clients, determine price and much more.
Thoughts on Translation is a high-quality translation-focused blog written by Corinne McKay, an American Translators Association certified French to English translator. You can consider it a one stop shop for tips, tricks, and translation news, focused on human translation provided both by agencies and freelancers. Here you will find advice on marketing and doing business as a translator and read about the author’s own experience in the profession.
Between Translations is run by Jayne Fox, a German into English translator, who tries to keep her readers updated with the most useful tips for a professional translator. You can read about the necessary skills of a good translator korean interpreter chennai or which are the best CAT (computer-assisted translation) tools and how to use them efficiently. Other great pieces of advice are provided on how to price translations or work with clients from different time zones.
Translation Times is written by twin-sisters Judy and Dagmar Jenner who are both translating and interpreting in Spanish, German, English, and French. They offer great articles on the practical side of the job such as rate negotiations, cancellation policy, and software recommendations. In addition to that you will find information about translation workshops and conferences, book reviews, academic translation programs, and job opportunities.
About Translation offers information, news and opinions about professional translations and you can find anything from ancient translation practices to current translation conferences. The blog is run by Riccardo Schiaffino, who is a certified translator from English into Italian. Even though, it has not been updated recently, the topics covered are written in an engaging and professional manner and the site is worth keeping an eye on.
Translation Blogs for the Curious
If you are looking for a blog that will keep you informed and entertained at the same time, offering information about curious facts or the history of translation and interpretation, then you need to follow these three blogs:
Oxford Dictionaries Blog is a great place full of resources for translators interested in linguistics. Here you can find curious facts about both well-known and rare words, as well as read about the recent influences that change the language. The blog covers serious and funnier topics such as how animals understand what people say, which makes it a great way to get your dose of knowledge and humor for the day.
Naked Translation offers a great mixture of useful tips for translators and interesting notes on the etymology of some words. In the blog you will find great articles with stunning images and lots of tricks to make your job easier. It is written by and is focused mainly on translations from English into French and vice versa, however it contains tons of useful information for all translators.
Unprofessional Translation is the place to find curious details about the origin of the translator and interpreter professions. Although not updated on a regular basis, the blog is still worth checking if you want to learn about competitions for child translators, and bilingualism, about the interpreters of some infamous historical figures korean interpreter chennai or about the oldest depiction of an interpreter. Despite its name, the blog is quite professionally written and tackles topics such as Natural Translation, Native Translation and Language Brokering.
Specialized Translation Blogs
Quite often translators specialize in certain field or industry – medicine, law, food service, equipment and supply, etc. and in order to provide quality document translation, they need to update their knowledge regularly. One of the ways to do that is by following some specialized blogs. Here are a few to check out:
Signs & Symptoms of Translation is a blog dedicated to medical translations. It is written by Emma Goldsmith, who is a Spanish to English medical translator. Here you can also find some useful information about CAT tools and how to use them.
Intralingo is for those, who deal with and/or love literary translations. The blog does not only give insights into these types of texts but also presents ideas on how to make money from it. It is definitely worth reading if you are a literature and translation enthusiast.
Glossarissimo is a great blog that will help any professional do their work better with its rich database of glossaries. Here you can find monolingual and multilingual resources and terminology for translators and interpreters.
Transblawg is dedicated to German-English legal translation. The posts, written by Margaret Marks, are full of humor and entertainment, which makes his blog fun and quite useful at the same time. It offers help and information to translators on a variety of topics and specializations.
This is just a small fraction of the great specialized blogs you can find on the web. Make sure to check the fields that you are most interested in as well.
Translation Blogs for Fun
The work of a translator is indeed quite intense and can be very stressful. Meeting deadlines, working on complicated texts, and dealing with clients from different time zones can take a toll. Therefore, it is necessary to have a look at the funny side of the job as well. Here are three blogs that will help you take a break and have some fun:
Translator Fun is for those who would enjoy some posts and cartoons with a heavy dose of humor. The topics the blog tackles will sound more familiar to those actually working in the field of translation, who allow themselves looking at the job from a less serious angle.
Blog is another cure for a long and tedious translation project, when you need some laughter to power you up. The blog offers a series of funny cartoons that present the everyday life of a translator in a humorous manner.
Musings from an Overworked Translator is a blog that successfully combines the serious and the funny parts of the translator’s job. Here you can find useful information about new translators, e-mail etiquette and much more. Funny jokes, cartoons, and videos to make your day brighter.
korean interpreter chennai
#korean interpreter chennai#korean interpretation chennai#korean language interpreter chennai#korean language interpretation chennai
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At Bilungal Guru, customer service is not only a given, it is our highest priority. While we specialize in delivering the very best in Interpretation Services, we are committed to providing you with the highest level of Customer Service overall. Bilungal Guru is an experienced, Chennai & Bangalore-based provider of interpreting services in Korean, Japanese and Chinese languages with the capacity to deliver. Based on the situation and need, we can arrange for one of our more experienced interpreters to provide services in-person on-site or remotely by phone or video using computers, smart phones or tablets.
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Voiceover artist in Bangalore - WordPar International
WordPar International provides extensive voiceover services in Bangalore for all mainstream world languages. We have a large group of voice talents located in all parts of the world. We are among the leading voiceover service providers in India, our clients being located in Mumbai, Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad and Delhi. Our pool of voice talents comprises artistes from various countries and speaking various languages. The list of languages include German, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, Danish, Norwegian, Italian, Polish, Hungarian, Czech, Slovak, Bulgarian, Greek, Turkish, Arabic, Hebrew, Russian, Mandarin, Cantonese, Japanese, Korean, English, Hindi, Punjabi, Sindhi, Marwari, Bengali, Kannada, Marathi, Tamil, Telugu, Tamil, Malayalam, Assamese, Thai, Indonesian, Malay, Vietnamese, Sinhalese and many more.
Looking for best voiceover company in Bangalore, No need to search more. Head over to WordPar International. WordPar provides professional language services with the help of a world-wide network of professional translators and linguists. All language specialists are native speakers of the respective target languages.
Our services include translation, interpretation, voiceover, subtitling and transcription in India. Projects are executed with meticulous care and close attention to terminology, correctness of language and other relevant aspects of the deliverables.
To know more about Voiceover services in Bangalore, reach out to us on https://www.wordpar.com/voiceover/ or write to us on [email protected]
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autocad training in chennai
AutoCAD is a commercial computer-aided design (CAD) and drafting software application. Developed and marketed by AutodeskAutoCAD was first released in December 1982 as a desktop app running on microcomputers with internal graphics controllersBefore AutoCAD was introduced, most commercial CAD programs ran on mainframe computers or minicomputers, with each CAD operator (user) working at a separate graphics terminalSince, AutoCAD was released as a mobile- and web app as well, marketed as AutoCAD.
AutoCAD is used in the industry, by architects, project managers, engineers, graphic designers, city planners and other professionals. It was supported by training centers worldwide in.
History
AutoCAD was derived from a program that began in, and then released in called Interact CAD, also referred to in early Autodesk autocad training in chennai documents as MicroCAD, which was written prior to Autodesk's (then Marinchip Software Partners) formation by Autodesk cofounder Michael Riddle.
The first version by Autodesk was demonstrated at the Comdex and released that December. AutoCAD supported CP/M-80 computers. As Autodesk's flagship product, by March AutoCAD had become the most ubiquitous CAD program worldwide. The release marked the major release of AutoCAD for Windows. The release marked the ninth consecutive year of AutoCAD for Mac. The native file format of AutoCAD is .dwg. This and, to a lesser extent, its interchange file format DXF, have become de facto, if proprietary, standards for CAD data interoperability, particularly for 2D drawing exchange. AutoCAD has included support for .dwf, a format developed and promoted by Autodesk, for publishing CAD data.
Features
Compatibility with other software
ESRI ArcMap permits export as AutoCAD drawing files. Civil 3D permits export as AutoCAD objects and as LandXML. Third-party file converters exist for specific formats such as Bentley MX GENIO Extension, PISTE Extension (France), ISYBAU (Germany), OKSTRA and Microdrainage (UK); also, conversion of .pdf files is feasible, however, the accuracy of the results may be unpredictable or distorted. For example, jagged edges may appear. Several vendors provide online conversions for free such as Cometdocs.autoCAD commonly use in all purposes.
Language
Auto CAD and AutoCAD LT are available for English, German, French, Italian, Spanish, Korean, Chinese Simplified, Chinese Traditional, Brazilian Portuguese, Russian, Czech, Polish and Hungarian, Albanian (also through additional language packs). The extent of localization varies from full translation of the product to documentation only. The AutoCAD command set is localized as a part of the software localization.
Extensions
AutoCAD supports a number of APIs for customization and automation. These include AutoLISP, Visual LISP, VBA, .NET and ObjectARX. ObjectARX is a C++ class library, which was also the base for:
products extending AutoCAD functionality to specific fields
creating products such as AutoCAD Architecture, AutoCAD Electrical, AutoCAD Civil 3D
third-party AutoCAD-based application
There are a large number of AutoCAD plugins (add-on applications) available on the application store Autodesk Exchange Apps. AutoCAD's DXF, drawing exchange format, allows importing and exporting drawing information.
Vertical integration
Autodesk has also developed a few vertical programs for discipline-specific enhancements such as:
AutoCAD Advance Steel
AutoCAD Architecture
AutoCAD CIVIL 3D
AutoCAD Electrical
AutoCAD ecscad
AutoCAD Map 3D
AutoCAD Mech
AutoCAD MEP
AutoCAD Structural Detailing
AutoCAD Utility Design
AutoCAD P&ID
AutoCAD Plant 3D
Since AutoCAD 2019 several verticals are included with AutoCAD subscription as Industry-Specific Toolset.
For example, AutoCAD Architecture (formerly Architectural Desktop) permits architectural designers to draw 3D objects, such as walls, doors, and windows, with more intelligent data associated with them rather than simple objects, such as lines and circles. The data can be programmed to represent specific architectural products sold in the construction industry, or extracted into a data file for pricing, materials estimation, and other values related to the objects represented.
Additional tools generate standard 2D drawings, such as elevations and sections, from a 3D architectural model. Similarly, Civil Design, Civil Design 3D, and Civil Design Professional support data-specific objects facilitating easy standard civil engineering calculations and representations.
Softdesk Civil was developed as an AutoCAD add-on by a company in New Hampshire called Softdesk (originally DCA). Softdesk was acquired by Autodesk, and Civil became Land Development Desktop (LDD), later renamed Land Desktop. Civil 3D was later developed and Land Desktop was retired.
Variants
AutoCAD LT
AutoCAD LT is the lower cost version of AutoCAD, with reduced capabilities, first released in November 1993. Autodesk developed AutoCAD LT to have an entry-level CAD package to compete in the lower price level. Priced at, it became the first AutoCAD product priced below. It was sold directly by Autodesk and in computer stores unlike the full version of AutoCAD, which must be purchased from official Autodesk dealers. AutoCAD LT 2015 introduced Desktop Subscription from per year; as of 2018, three subscription plans were available, from a month to a 3-year, license.
While there are hundreds of small differences between the full AutoCAD package and AutoCAD LT, there are a few recognized major differences in the software's features:
3D Capabilities: AutoCAD LT lacks the ability to create, visualize and render 3D models as well as 3D printing.
Network Licensing: AutoCAD LT cannot be used on multiple machines over a network.
Customization: AutoCAD LT does not support customization with LISP, ARX, .NET and VBA.
Management and automation capabilities with Sheet Set Manager and Action Recorder.
CAD standards management tools.
AutoCAD 360
Formerly marketed as AutoCAD WS, AutoCAD is an account-based mobile and web application enabling registered users to view, edit, and share AutoCAD files via mobile device and web using a limited AutoCAD feature set — and using cloud-stored drawing files. The program, which is an evolution and combination of previous products, uses a autocad training in chennai freemium business model with a free plan and two paid levels — marketed as Pro including various amounts of storage, tools, and online access to drawings. 360 includes new features such as a "Smart Pen" mode and linking to third-party cloud-based storage such as Dropbox. Having evolved from Flash-based software, AutoCAD 360 uses HTML5 browser technology available in newer browsers including Firefox and Google Chrome.
AutoCAD WS began with a version for the iPhone and subsequently expanded to include versions for the iPod Touch, iPad, Android phones, and Android tablets Autodesk released the iOS version in September 2010, following with the Android version on April 20, 2011. The program is available via download at no cost from the App Store (iOS), Google Play (Android) and Amazon Appstore (Android).
In its initial iOS version, AutoCAD WS supported drawing of lines, circles, and other shapes; creation of text and comment boxes; and management of color, layer, and measurements — in both landscape and portrait modes. Version 1.3, released August, added support for unit typing, layer visibility, area measurement and file management. The Android variant includes the iOS feature set along with such unique features as the ability to insert text or captions by voice command as well as manually. Both Android and iOS versions allow the user to save files on-line — or off-line in the absence of an Internet connection.
In 2011, Autodesk announced plans to migrate the majority of its software to "the cloud", starting with the AutoCAD WS mobile application.
According to a 2013 interview with Ilai Rotbaein, an AutoCAD WS Product Manager for Autodesk, the name AutoCAD WS had no definitive meaning, and was interpreted variously as Autodesk Web Service, White Sheet or Work Space.
Student versions
AutoCAD is licensed, for free, to students, educators, and educational institutions, with a 36-month renewable license available. The student version of AutoCAD is functionally identical to the full commercial version, with one exception: DWG files created or edited by a student version have an internal bit-flag set (the "educational flag"). When such a DWG file is printed by any version of AutoCAD (commercial or student) older than AutoCAD 2014 SP1 or AutoCAD 2019 and newer, the output includes a plot stamp/banner on all four sides. Objects created in the Student Version cannot be used for commercial use. Student Version objects "infect" a commercial version DWG file if they are imported in versions older than AutoCAD 2015 or newer than AutoCAD 2018.
Ports
Windows
An architectural detail drafted in AutoCAD (Windows)
AutoCAD is a software package created for Windows and usually, any new AutoCAD version supports the current Windows version and some older ones. AutoCAD 2016 to 2020 support Windows 7 up to Windows 10.
Mac
Autodesk stopped supporting Apple's Macintosh computers in 1994. Over the next several years, no compatible versions for the Mac were released. In 2010 Autodesk announced that it would once again support Apple's Mac OS X software in the futureMost of the features found in the 2012 Windows version can be found in the 2012 Mac version. The main difference is the user interface and layout of the program. The interface is designed so that users who are already familiar with Apple's macOS software will find it similar to other Mac applications. Autodesk has also built in various features in order to take full advantage of Apple's Trackpad capabilities as well as the full-screen mode in Apple's OS X Lion. AutoCAD 2012 for Mac supports both the editing and saving of files in DWG formatting that will allow the file to be compatible with other platforms besides the OS X. AutoCAD 2019 for Mac requires Apple OS X v10.11 (El Capitan) or later.
AutoCAD LT 2013 was available through the Mac App Store for. The full-featured version of AutoCAD 2013 for Mac, however, wasn't available through the Mac App Store due to the price limit of set by Apple. AutoCAD 2014 for Mac was available for purchase from Autodesk's Web site for and AutoCAD LT 2014 for Mac for, or from an Autodesk Authorized Reseller. The latest version available for Mac is AutoCAD 2019 as of December 2018. As of 2019, no Autocad release is listed for purchase on the MacOS App Store.
autocad training in chennai
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Korean Translation India
Our English to Korean Translations in Mumbai, simple and economical website localisation in all major languages to give your websites a more substantial online comprehensive presence. Moreover, we can also Interpret Consecutively & Simultaneously Interpretation (SI) in English to Korean with rental Portable and Simultaneous Interpretation System in Delhi. DEneeraj Multi- lingual services® (DMS) with all our Korean native as well non-native translators and writers we Translate, Transcribe and interpret English to Korean, Korean to English & English to Korean Translation services in Delhi, Lucknow, Pune, Bangalore, Kolkata, Hyderabad, Surat, Chennai, India. With our several contact centres in Mumbai, Delhi NCR and Spain with pan-India online and through telephonic presence.
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How Korean Translators Promote Globalization in Chennai?
Korean is the official language of Korea both South and North. It is also one of the two official languages in the Yanbian Korean autonomous prefecture in People's Republic of China. To be very specific, there are about 78 million speakers available all across the globe.
Basically, there are different scenarios that may require you to seek translation service providers. A wide array of companies has been set up to handle the translation needs of public as well as commercial sector. This makes it easy for you to communicate with shareholders, employees and customers in any language they understand.
Irrespective of who you are creating translation for, either it's content for an audience for an audience, for a sector or for a business, you must find out what the concerned person or company deals with. When it's specifically about Korean audience in Chennai, you need to approach experts who have gained strong command over Korean translation services in Chennai.
Korean Translators for Different Profiles
There are companies running to offer services to handle different things such as proofreading, translation, interpreting, SEO training and learning in multi-languages and other types of localization. Some of them even offer transcription services.
Settle for a Worthy Service Provider
Before you settle for any particular service provider, you should ensure that your staff is well-qualified in offering the services. It's better to go with native speaking linguists who have the language at their fingertips. They will be in a position to do much better job.
Rely Upon Native Korean Linguists
However, if you want to target Korean region and enhance your communication with Korean audience, you must choose the professionals accordingly. Hiring translation services will not only help you in removing communication barrier but also provide great support in realizing true potential and enter into lucrative market. When you have decided to hire professionals, you must get the business documents and websites translated into Korean. As you all know, more and more people prefer to make purchase online so it's necessary to make your business understandable for all. And it can only be done with hiring worthy Korean translation services in Chennai. Make sure that you go with certified and qualified experts who can deliver results as per your expectations and needs.
Conclusion
As a whole, availability of translation services will serve as a boon for making your business accessible to Korean audience. All you need to do is, just short-list the listings of credible translation companies and go for the one you find most reliable.
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ASTAD DEBOO
Astad Deboo -the lord of contemporary dance is known to captivate audiences with his spectacular performances and creating a dance of his own by assimilating Indian and western techniques. He has created over 70 works in the span of more than four decades. He was the first contemporary dancer to perform at the Elephanta festival, Khajuraho festival and at the Great Wall of China. He was commissioned by Pierre Cardin to choreograph a dance performance and has given performances for the royal families of Sweden, Bhutan, Japan, Thailand and Presidents of India A.P.J. Abdul Kalam and Pranab Mukherjee. At 70, his fluid dance movements can put any young dancer to shame. This immense energy within him to continue his passion at this age is commendable.
In a candid conversation, Astad Deboo shares what ignites the fire within him to create and recreate dance styles that are new to the world.
At the age of 70, you are able to express with your body extraordinarily. What keeps you going?
It’s been heard saying, that I am getting old (laughs). But, it’s also heard saying that audience leaves the stage wanting for more every time I perform. The passion and the fire are still there. Life goes under a lot of opposition, but it keeps me challenged. Some people say you have done so much, one cannot harp on that. I will keep doing, what I am doing. I stage 30 performances in a year and have appetite for more. I started learning Indian classical dance at the age of six and at 22 I was in London learning contemporary dance forms. I have been trained in the Martha Graham Technique and the Jose Limon’s technique in New York. In these four decades, I have evolved by learning different dance styles and created my own dance style. My dance style is minimal and controlled. I incorporate Kathak, Kathakali and Butoh (Japanese theatre form) in my dance. I am also trained with Pina Bausch in the Wuppertal Dance Company, Germany and with Alison Chase of the Pilobolus Dance Company.
How rewarding has been four decades of dance journey?
In my journey there have always been surprises. As I began my journey as a solo performer way back in 1969, I left the shores of India in search of a language which I could inculcate into my body to create a style which is distinct. For a decade I was a solo performer. And then I felt restricted. As the gurus were not very welcoming, some of the students who may have wanted to come on board kept away. So, I started looking into the performing arts disciplines. Through last two decades, I have collaborated with various performing disciplines. I have worked with Dadi Pudumjee, Gundecha brothers, Pink Floyd, Tim McCarthy, Pina Bausch, Thang-Ta martial art group, Pung cholom dancers of Manipur amongst others.
How fulfilling has it been working with hearing impaired children and street children?
I have always been very much involved with the deaf community. I started my work with deaf in 1988, with the deaf theatre company The Action Players. They were primarily actors and to whom I introduced dance. Then I taught eight Bharatnatyam dancers from the Clarke School of Deaf, Chennai. They came into my life, when I had already been working with the deaf for 18 years. With this group, I was able to create a full-length 60 minutes solo work with them. And that was quite a fleet for them, but it was challenging for me too. Then I started working with street children of The Salaam Baalak Trust. I began a work with 16 young boys and girls from the street and my first creation with them was ‘Breaking Boundaries’. From there I selected eight young boys who joined me into my production “Interpreting Tagore”. Many of them now work with great masters like Dadi Pudumjee, Anupama Rao and others. Presently I am working with the deaf at Sheela Kothawala school for Deaf , Bangalore. They will be performing in 2017. It’s a challenging process and it has its moments. There is a joy when you see these challenged performers across the boundaries. I also push the envelope in bringing them to a standard which will showcase their talent.
Has there been adequate financial support with the rising popularity?
Support is still a challenge. It’s not only for me but for many of my colleagues. Sometimes it’s a miracle, that how we artists create with practically nothing. In Delhi, I am performing a fresh piece ‘Eternal Embrace’ after four years. My other new performance with Manipuri drummers hasn’t come to Delhi yet. It’s been to all Indian cities. There are no invitations and no sponsors. It is the lack of invitation to come and showcase my work. Even in Mumbai, my home city, I only get to showcase my work once in two years. But, at least I know in two years I have a platform. I am hoping that within sometime I am being able to bring my Manipuri work to Delhi. I still face a lot of problems in India and abroad. I have a name, but it doesn’t equate into funds. I have been producing my own shows in India, but abroad they are sponsored. Sponsors believe I am expensive. But, now my canvas has grown ten-fold, so I charge for what I perform. I believe dancers are the most underpaid of artists. It is sad, that with 47 years of professional performances, I have to face all this.
What are the new exciting collaborations and performances coming up?
My collaboration overseas is too many. I am collaborating with Korean drummers and Mridangam drummers, that will come to India end of 2017 or beginning of 2018. I will be acting and dancing in a play ‘Hamlet’ directed by a Korean director, where I play Hamlet’s father the Ghost, that I will be performing in London. I haven’t done much acting in India; I did it in late 80s in London. I am collaborating with two dancers from Colombia College of Dance in Chicago along with two of my dancers. A Swedish choreographer Rani Nair has been looking into the archives of my solo work. We both will be performing in August 2017 in Sweden. In 2017, I will also be performing in Hyderabad, Thane, Kolkata, Seoul, New York, Sweden, Chicago, Korea and other places.
What is the inspiration behind ‘Eternal Embrace’ that premiered in Delhi at ‘The Natya Ballet Dance Festival 2016’?
‘Eternal Embrace’ is inspired by Sufi poet Bulleh Shah’s poem ‘Maati’. This particular work is collaborated with music composer Yukio Tsuji, a Japanese living in New York. This work was commissioned last year by the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York for the Islamic wing. One has read poems of Rumi but I asked some of my think-tank what else we can do. They sent me poems of Bulleh Shah from which I chose ‘Maati’. It was premiered and was well-received. Every creation has its own time frame, that time it was a 45 minutes piece. Sometimes you create a work and with time, when you reflect back you are not happy. Yukio himself wasn’t happy with music. At times I re-visit my earlier work and I realize it was so naïve. So, we completely reworked on it with a different music. I was very keen that I share this work to the Indian audiences. It is my first 60 minute solo performance in last 10 years. I am interpreting the poem ‘Maati’, there is my style of movement, Kathak and Kathakali Abhinayam. Yukio is performing live with instruments like zither, shakuhachi flute and percussion and he also sings. There is element of annihilation in the poem. I have used his thoughts in my work. I am just expressing that there was a war that happened. It is kind of relating to today’s scenario. If you look at what is happening in Syria or at our own Kashmir problem, there is constant war happening even today.
Photo credit – Amit Kumar and Ritam Banerjee
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Dhyana Paramita: The Perfection of Meditation
Dhyana Paramita: The Perfection of Meditation
Shamatha, Vipashyana, Buddhanupashyana and Buddhanusmriti
Dr. Amartya Kumar Bhattacharya
BCE (Hons.) ( Jadavpur ), MTech ( Civil ) ( IIT Kharagpur ), PhD ( Civil ) ( IIT Kharagpur ), Cert.MTERM ( AIT Bangkok ), CEng(I), FIE, FACCE(I), FISH, FIWRS, FIPHE, FIAH, FAE, MIGS, MIGS – Kolkata Chapter, MIGS – Chennai Chapter, MISTE, MAHI, MISCA, MIAHS, MISTAM, MNSFMFP, MIIBE, MICI, MIEES, MCITP, MISRS, MISRMTT, MAGGS, MCSI, MMBSI
Chairman and Managing Director,
MultiSpectra Consultants,
23, Biplabi Ambika Chakraborty Sarani,
Kolkata – 700029,
West Bengal,
INDIA.
E-mail: [email protected]
This article deals with Dhyana Paramita ( the Perfection of Meditation ). In this article, I am striving to present the essence of Dharma ( Dharma-Dhatu ) in my own way. Although my family has its ancestral roots in Chittagong ( Chattagram – in Bengali ), Bangladesh and, naturally, follows Theravada Buddhism, I am trying to be as comprehensive as possible in my exposition of the Dharma. Sanskrit has been used as the default classical language of this article. Pali has also been extensively used and Chinese, Japanese and Korean have been used, where appropriate. Diacritical marks have been omitted as some knowledge of Sanskrit and Pali on the part of the reader is assumed.
Buddhism, a major world faith, was founded by Lord Buddha in India over two thousand five hundred years ago. It has spread peacefully over much of Asia and also to Kalmykia in eastern Europe and has millions of adherents in India, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, China ( including Tibet ), Taiwan, Mongolia, North and South Korea, Japan, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam and also in Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia and Russia ( Buryatia and Tuva in Siberia and Kalmykia in eastern Europe ). The northern extremity of Buddhism in Asia is the Ivolga Monastery in Siberia, Russia. This article is an exposition of Buddhism and in it, the word “faith” is used as a synonym of the word “religion”. Buddhism is also called Saddharma ( the true faith ) or Dharma.
The Sanskrit word “Dharma” literally means “Property”. For example, one says that the Dharma of fire is to burn. This means that the property of fire is to burn. The fire cannot be separated from its capacity to burn. Similarly, the literal meaning of Dharma ( Dhamma – in Pali, Fa – in Chinese, Ho – in Japanese ) of man is the basic property of man from which he cannot be separated. This means the spirituality inherent in man.
The objective of Buddhism is Nirvana ( liberation, Nibbana – in Pali, Gedatsu – in Japanese ) and Bodhi ( Enlightenment, P’u-ti – in Chinese, Bodai – in Japanese ). The word Buddhi means intellect and the word Bodha means to understand; it is from these words that the word Bodhi is derived. Who is it that seeks Nirvana, Bodhi, and to understand? It is “I” ( Aham ), who is writing right now. Understanding sharpens me, refines me, contextualises me, and keeps me on the path to Bodhi and Nirvana. I shall have an opportunity to delve deeply into the issue of “I” in Buddhism later. Deep understanding ( Anubodha ) is the context of Bodhi, and Nirvana. Rephrasing Nagarjuna, the founder of the Madhyamika school of Mahayana Buddhism, Shunyata ( emptiness, Sunnata – in Pali, K’ung – in Chinese, Ku – in Japanese ) is the absence of ignorance. Avidya Paramam Malam ( Avijja Paramam Malam – in Pali, Ignorance is the greatest impurity ) is what Lord Buddha said. Nagarjuna can be further re-interpreted to give to me the understanding that Nirvana is not only available for a man in Samsara ( empirical and phenomenal world ) but, as I am immersed in Samsara, it is only possible within it, subject to the condition that the Arya Ashtanga Marga ( Noble Eightfold Path ) is rigorously followed. The conclusion Nagarjuna reached, in his seminal work Mula Madhyamaka Karika, is that all things lack a fixed essence ( Swabhava, Sabhava – in Pali, Zi-xing – in Chinese ) or a fixed individual character (Swalakshana ) and that is why they are amenable to change. In other words, change is possible only if entities are devoid or empty ( Shunya ) of Swabhava. The Madhyamika school of Mahayana Buddhism split into the Prasangika Madhyamika ( as represented by Chandrakirti ) and the Swatantrika Madhyamika ( as represented by Bhavaviveka ). Buddhism has two main branches, Theravada and Mahayana, the difference between the two will be explained in due course.
Man’s quest for an end to his suffering ( Duhkha, Dukkha – in Pali ) has led him into an exploration of his inner self ( Wo – in Chinese ), its working and its dysfunctional behaviour under certain circumstances. Under such conditions,a radical shift in consciousness, perception and attitude is the only succour for a tormented mind ( Chitta, Manas, Hsin or Xin – in Chinese, Kokoro – in Japanese ). This process, involving the destruction of suffering, is based on the Four Noble Truths ( Chaturaryasatya, Chattari Aryasachchani – in Pali ) enunciated by Lord Buddha which are as follows:
Life contains suffering. ( Duhkha-Aryasatya, Dukkha-Aryasachcha – in Pali )
Suffering has a cause, and the cause can be known. ( Duhkha Samudaya-Aryasatya, Dukkha Samudaya-Aryasachcha – in Pali )
Suffering can be brought to an end. ( Duhkha Nirodha-Aryasatya, Dukkha Nirodha-Aryasachcha – in Pali )
The path to end suffering has eight parts. ( Marga-Aryasatya, Magga-Aryasachcha – in Pali )
Lord Buddha also laid out the Noble Eightfold Path ( Arya Ashtanga Marga, Arya Atthangika Magga – in Pali ). The Noble Eightfold Path is given below:
Right view ( Samyak Dristi, Samma Ditthi – in Pali)
Right intention ( Samyak Sankalpa, Samma Sankappa – in Pali) )
Right speech ( Samyak Vakya, Samma Vacha – in Pali) )
Right action ( Samyak Karma, Samma Kammanta – in Pali) )
Right livelihood ( Samyak Jivika, Samma Ajiva – in Pali) )
Right effort ( Samyak Vyayama, Samma Vayama – in Pali) )
Right mindfulness ( Samyak Smriti, Samma Sati – in Pali) )
Right concentration ( Samyak Samadhi, Samma Samadhi – in Pali) )
This Path is also known as The Middle Path ( Madhyama Pratipada, Majjhima Patipada – in Pali ) because it is neither too easy nor too difficult. The first five parts of the Path involve maintaining a lifestyle full of virtue ( Shila, Sila – in Pali ) while the last three pertain to the practice ( Patipatti – in Pali ) of meditation. The Path is called The Way ( Tao – in Chinese, Do, Michi – in Japanese ) in the Far East. The practice of meditation lies at the heart of the spiritual practice of Dharmic ( spiritual ) people. To be a Buddhist means to distinguish between Buddhist and non-Buddhist acts, between ignorance and Enlightenment, between Samsara and Nirvana. Pancha Shila is for householders; Ashta Shila is for householders practising Brahmacharya, that is celibacy; and Dasha Shila is for monks.
According to Lord Buddha, man is his own master. “Atta hi attano natho” are the exact words of Lord Buddha. He also said “Atmadvipa viharatha, atmasharana ananyasharana” meaning “Dwell making yourself your island ( that is refuge ), and not anyone else as your refuge”. Man is however unaware of this fact and abdicates his responsibility of controlling his future, even death. This is so because man is, in a deep philosophical sense, deluded ( Mohagrasta ), asleep and unaware of his true nature. He normally identifies himself with his body, which was born and hence will die, some day. This gives rise to vices, insecurity and belief in that what is not. Man lives in illusions ( Moha ); the illusion that he will never fall sick, the illusion that no harm will ever befall him. He also believes that he has relatives and friends and, if he clings onto them tightly enough, he will one day, after death, go to the nebulous place called heaven. But it is not true. The lacuna in man’s thinking becomes disturbingly clear to him when he finds that he is suffering. When a man suffers, the world seems to collapse around him. Man needs to be awakened and when this awakening process is complete, man will rise from the ashes of the world of the senses that he has just burnt to the world of pure consciousness. Buddhism is a journey where a man starts asleep and ends up awake. In doing so, he sheds aside nothingness to awaken to a single state of Being. The process by which this takes place is meditation.
Lord Buddha’s title means one who is awake. He is the messiah who showed the path to eternity. Lord Buddha gave His teaching “for the good of many, for the happiness of many, for showing compassion to the world” ( Bahujanahitaya, Bahujanasukhaya, Lokanukampaya ). He told man that though he is asleep, the capacity to be awakened is in him and also taught man the path to awakening. But man must walk that path himself, alone. Man must realise that he is always alone, whether it be high atop the mountains, in the company of his relatives or in the morning crowd in the downtown of a metropolitan city. A positive attitude to aloneness can develop in man when he can take a mental sword and cleave a distinction between aloneness and loneliness. Loneliness has a negative connotation in the sense that it implies a craving for company of other human beings, the exact opposite of the self-sufficiency implied by aloneness. The capacity to tread the path to Nirvana is already in man, he just has to use it. In the Dharmachakrapravartana Sutra ( Dhammachakkappavattana Sutta – in Pali ), Lord Buddha said that Nirvana is not subject to grief, defilement ( Klesha, Kilesa – in Pali, Bonno – in Japanese ), disease ( Vyadhi ), decay ( Jara ), and death ( Mrityu, Marana ). In other words, Nirvana is beyond cause and effect, that is, it transcends conditioned phenomena. Lord Buddha also said “Nirvanam Paramam Sukham”. Nirvana is Apratitya-samutpanna and Asamskrita ( unconditioned, Apatichcha-samuppanna and Asankhata – in Pali, Wu-yin – in Chinese ) and, according to Vasubandhu of the Yogachara ( the practice of Yoga ) school of Mahayana Buddhism, is the Parinishpanna Swabhava ( true self-nature of Being, Zhen-shi-xing – in Chinese ). It is interesting to note that in the Lankavatara Sutra, a Mahayana Sutra associated with the Yogachara school, Nirvana is described as the seeing of everything as it is. Nirvana is a positive Absolute and is Nitya ( without beginning and end, Nicca – in Pali ). Nirvana means a state of Mukti ( Mutti – in Pali )which means freedom or Vimukti ( Vimutti – in Pali ) which means absolute freedom. Nirvana also denotes Satya ( Sacca – in Pali ) which means Truth and Shanti ( Santi – in Pali ) which means Peace. A synonym for Nirvana is Moksha ( liberation, Mokkha – in Pali ). Nirvana is a state of absolute perfection. Shariputra, the famous historical disciple of Lord Buddha, described Nirvana as the extinction of desire, hatred and illusion. In mystical language, Nirvana is the experience of standing face-to-face with Reality ( Shi – in Chinese ). Nirvana is equated with Bodhi and is the Paramartha-Satya. Nirvana is sometimes expressed as negative of negative such as the cessation of suffering, of craving, of aversion, etc. This need not result in any confusion. In Sanskrit, sometimes positive things are expressed as negatives of negatives as the word “Arogya” which means recuperation from illness and the word “Amrita” which means immortal. Further, as mathematics proves, negative of negative is always positive. Nirvana is a freeing from the chains of a false sense of individuality. Nirvana is a state of non-duality ( Advaita or Advaya ); a state where the illusion of a false sense of “I” ( Parikalpita Swabhava, Fen-bie-xing – in Chinese ) does not exist. Expressed differently, liberation from the illusion of separateness of the individual Self from the Whole is Nirvana. Freedom is, Nirvana is, Truth is.
According to Buddhism, everything is relative and impermanent ( Anitya, Anicca – in Pali ) in the empirical, conditioned world. Lord Buddha told Rashtrapala “The world is in continuous flux and is impermanent”. In this context, I can correctly say that one cannot step twice into the same river because although I may continue to see the same river externally from a gross point of view, the water molecules I am seeing at a particular location at any moment are different from the water molecules the moment before and the moment after. One thing disappears, conditioning the appearance of the next in a series of cause and effect. Everything is in a state of becoming something else the next moment. A wheel cannot be separated from its movement. There is no static wheel “behind” the wheel in motion. Things change over time. Everything originates dependent on other factors. That is, all things come into existence as the result ( Phala ) of an interaction of various causes ( Hetu ). Each entity is Pratitya-samutpanna ( conditioned, Patichcha-samuppanna – in Pali ) as well as Pratitya-samutpada ( conditioning, Patichcha-samuppada – in Pali ). The Law of Dependent Origination is central to Buddhism. For example, anger cannot arise by itself without a cause. The five aggregates, Rupa, Vedana, Sangya, Samskara and Vigyana ( Rupa, Vedana, Sanna, Sankhara and Vinnana – in Pali ), all of which are identified as Anatma ( non-Soul ) by Lord Buddha in the Anatmalakshana Sutra, are called the Pancha Skandha ( the five aggregates, Pancha Khandha – in Pali ). Sensations ( Vedana ) of the physical world of forms ( Rupa ) are received by the five physical sense organs ( Indriya ) such as the nose. The mind feels the mental world. The five physical sense organs and the mind are called the six sensory bases. Sensations lead to perceptions ( Sangya ), which in turn lead through pre-dispositions ( Samskara ), to consciousness ( Vigyana ). In Theravada Buddhism, the concept of Bhavanga ( stream of thought ) is introduced while in the Yogachara school of Mahayana Buddhism, the concept of Alaya-Vigyana ( literally, the abode of consciousness, but commonly translated as store-consciousness ) is introduced. The Alaya-Vigyana ( Ariyashiki – in Japanese ), which maintains the continuum of consciousness, is the mind; hence this school is also called the Chittamatratavada school. Other names of the same school are Agamanuyayi Vigyanavada and Vigyaptimatratavada. The Vigyanavada school is further divided into the Nirakaravadi Vigyanavada ( as represented by Asanga ) and the Sakaravadi Vigyanavada ( as represented by Gyanashri Mitra ).The fundamental concept of the Yogachara ( Wei Shi – in Chinese, Yuishiki – in Japanese ) school may be expressed by the proposition that the Parinishpanna Swabhava is realised when man pierces ( Patibheda ) through his Parikalpita Swabhava and Paratantra Swabhava ( conditioned self-nature, Yi-ta-xing – in Chinese ). The Alaya-Vigyana, as conceived in Mahayana Buddhism, is a permanent entity. The Alaya-Vigyana contains all impressions of past actions and all future potentialities. It is also the Tathagatagarbha ( Buddha-Matrix, Ru-lai-zang – in Chinese, Nyoraizo – in Japanese ), the basis on which a man can become a Buddha. So, latent in every man is a Buddha-like faculty called Buddha-Dhatu ( Buddha-Nature, Fo-hsing or Fo-xing – in Chinese ). Right meditation leads to spiritual Enlightenment, which is nothing but the full manifestation of the Buddha-Dhatu ( or Tathagata-Dhatu ) in man. Thus, any man can develop himself through appropriate practice, that is meditation, and become a Buddha. Anyway, for an average man, the summation of all physical and mental processes, processes in constant flux, is perceived empirically as “I”. The empirical “I” is ephemeral and impermanent, and is Samvriti-Satya ( conventional truth ). Conscious of something, one reacts mentally. The mental reactions are of two types : craving and aversion. Craving ( Trishna, Tanha – in Pali, Raga, Lobha – in Pali ) and aversion ( Dvesha, Dosa – in Pali ) both lead to suffering; it is self-evident that aversion results in suffering and craving results in suffering because if the object of craving remains out of reach, there is suffering. Thus, ultimately, whatever is impermanent is Duhkha or suffering. Trishna Nirodha, Upadana ( clinging ) Nirodha ( With the extinction of craving comes the extinction of clinging ). The renowned sage Buddhaghosa, the writer of the Visuddhimagga ( Vishuddhi Marga, The Path of Purification ), has dwelt elaborately on suffering. Taking the lead from Nagarjuna, I posit that Duhkha is transient; it arises dependent on something else and also decays into extinction. Duhkha is not self-determining; its existence and character are attributable to factors that condition its origin and subsequent transformation. Coming into existence and dying out of existence, Duhkha lacks any trace of permanence.Thus, it may be said that Duhkha lacks a Swabhava or Swalakshana and is characterised by Nihswabhava ( absence of Self-Nature ). Thus Duhkha is empty ( Shunya ). I am, therefore, led to formulate the proposition: Duhkhameva Shunyam. Because Duhkha is ephemeral, I can expand the Sanskrit sentence to this: Duhkhameva Anityam evam Shunyam The perception of the emptiness of Duhkha allows one to let go of Duhkha and thus be released of the hold that Duhkha has on him. This is, of course, intended as a Mahayana Buddhist theoretical complement to Shamatha and Vipashyana meditation and is in no way a substitute for Shamatha and Vipashyana meditation. I also hold that the notion of Buddha-Dhatu is a very productive concept. Any meditator’s meditation is bound to become better if he remembers during meditating that he has Buddha-Dhatu in him.
It may be mentioned, at this stage, that practitioners who are extremely advanced spiritually are called by the name Arhat ( Arahant – in Pali, A-han – in Chinese, Arakan, Rakan – in Japanese ) in Theravada Buddhism and Bodhisattva ( Bodhisatta – in Pali, Bosatsu – in Japanese ), or aspirants to Buddhahood ( Buddhatva, or as is rather more commonly termed Buddhata ) in Mahayana Buddhism. A Bodhisattva is any man who has taken a vow to follow the path to Buddhatva taking all other sentient beings with him. A monk ( Bhikshu, Bhikkhu – in Pali ) and a lay disciple ( Upasaka ) are both Bodhisattvas. Sattva means a sentient being.
In response to questioning by devotees in the kingdom of Kosala as to the importance or unimportance of belief, Lord Buddha pointed out the distinction between knowing and believing. Believing always connotes a second-hand approach to Truth; knowing about something through the experience of someone else. Knowing means a first-hand direct knowledge of Truth and the result of this distinction is that the modicum of doubt that always accompanies belief is absent in knowledge ( Gyana ). Freedom of thought is permitted by Lord Buddha to His devotees so that they can discriminate and find Truth. Nirvana cannot be had via someone else’s knowledge. A contemporary scholar Kazuaki Tanahashi describes an incident in Japan where a Buddhist monk illustrated to his disciples the power of what might be called “positive emptiness” in the mind. A void in the mind can be filled with spirituality by virtue of positive thinking. A Korean monk, Kyong Ho, echoed this feeling when he advised one to accept the anxieties and difficulties of this life. He also advised people to use their will to bring peace between peoples. This is particularly relevant in the modern world where democracy and egalitarianism are taken for granted. The great Japanese Zen Buddhist monk Dogen said that Samadhi ( which is a transcendental state of mind ) led to Enlightenment of those who found Enlightenment in India and China. Buddhism also strongly believes in the theory ( Pariyapti, Pariyatti – in Pali ) of Karma ( as you sow, so shall you reap ) and in the concept of rebirth. Lord Buddha said “Monks, I say that volition is action. Having thought, one acts through body, speech and mind.” ( Chetana ‘ham bhikkhave kammam vadami. Chetayitva kammam karoti kayena vachaya manasa. – in Pali ). Body ( Kaya Vajra ), Speech ( Vak Vajra )and Mind ( Chitta Vajra ) are called Tri Vajra in a certain school of Mahayana Buddhism ( Vajra can mean both thunderbolt and diamond ). There are two types of Karma, Kushala Karma ( Kusala Kamma – in Pali ) or good actions and Akushala Karma or bad actions. Kushala Karma is Dharmic while Akushala Karma is Adharmic. The result of both types of Karma are called Karma Phala, which correspond to the type of Karma performed.
He searched, He meditated, He found: this aptly summarises the awakening of Lord Buddha. When a man suffers, it is useless for him to talk of God, or to fast and otherwise to torture his body if his suffering is not reduced by any or all of these. Lord Buddha realised this fact and after His awakening taught the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path. Meditation is one form of mental culture ( Bhavana ). In meditation, what is required of man is to effect a radical shift in consciousness from the finite to the infinite using right concentration. Concentration is called Chittaikagrata in Sanskrit ( Chittekaggata – in Pali ). The concentrated focus is always on the elimination of suffering. The law of cause and effect is at work here too. If one is deluded, one suffers. If one studies the Four Noble Truths, one sees that man should identify the cause of suffering and systematically go about destroying it using the Noble Eightfold Path. The result of meditation is tremendous. One transcends the boundaries of his body; he senses that the entire universe has become his body. He senses that he has exchanged a weak mind for a strong one. He senses that though he may continue to reside in his mortal body, his consciousness has become irreversibly altered. He feels himself being pervaded by peace. He becomes awakened; Prabuddha. Lord Buddha did not give the Dharma for strong wills only; His statements are just as applicable to weaker minds provided they have the determination to follow Him. He asked for nothing more than courage and promised eternity.
An explanation as to the types of meditation in vogue is in order here. Shamatha ( Samatha – in Pali ) and Vipashyana ( Vipassana – in Pali, Kuan or Guan – in Chinese, Kan – in Japanese ) or Vidarshana ( Pashyana or Darshana means to see in an ordinary way; Vipashyana or Vidarshana means to see in a special way, that is, with Insight ) meditation are practised in south Asia and other countries which practice Theravada ( meaning, the way of the Elders ) Buddhism. Lord Buddha presented the technique of Vipashyana meditation in the Mahasatipatthana Sutta ( Mahasmritipratishthana Sutra ) / Satipatthana Sutta ( Smritipratishthana Sutra ). Lord Buddha delivered this Sutra in Kammassadhammam near Delhi. The Mahasatipatthana Sutta is found in the Digha ( Dirgha ) Nikaya and the Satipatthana Sutta is found in the Majjhima ( Madhyama ) Nikaya. Zen Buddhist practice is performed in East Asia, that is, in China, North and South Korea, Taiwan and Japan, which are among the countries that practice Mahayana ( meaning, the great vehicle ) Buddhism. In fact, Zen is one of the eight schools of Mahayana Buddhism. Meditation is something that cannot be fully explained in words, it has to be experienced to be understood completely. Knowing about meditation is one thing; knowing meditation is quite another. A man can sit alone, cross-legged, in a quiet room in the full lotus posture ( Padmasana or Dhyanasana or Vajraparyankasana ) or, failing that, in the half-lotus posture ( Bhadrasana ) and try to enter into Vipashyana meditation ( the third posture of sitting is called Sukhasana, literally meaning “the posture that gives happiness” ). If one is unable to start doing meditation oneself, one should take the help of a Guru ( literally, one who dispels darkness ) who will guide him in the initial stages. One must sit, preferably, in the lotus posture with one’s spine erect. There must be no slumping of the back, the head should be straight as if suspended by means of a string. Another analogy adopted is that the head should be straight as if bearing the sky on its top. The hands may be placed in the Bhumisparsha Mudra ( Bhumisparsha gesture ), a Mudra ( Inzo – in Japanese ) in which I find so many statues of Lord Buddha. Bhumisparsha literally means “ touching the ground”. This gesture is also called Sakshi ( Sanskrit for witness ) Mudra or Bhusparsha Mudra ( the gesture of touching the earth ). Alternatively, a man’s hands may be in the cosmic Mudra with the left hand on top of the right, middle joints of middle fingers together and the thumbs touching each other. The hands should be held against the body, with the thumbs at about the height of the navel. This gesture is very popular in East Asia. The Samadhi Mudra consists of the right hand placed on top of the left hand with the tips of the two thumbs touching each other. Yet another Mudra consists of the hands straight, placed on the knees, and the thumb and the next finger touching each other with the other fingers straight. This gesture of the hands is called Gyana Mudra. Other gestures are the Dharmachakra Mudra, Varada Mudra, Abhaya Mudra, Vajrahumkara Mudra and the Samaya Vajra Mudra. The Dharmachakra Mudra can be seen in the famous Sarnath statue of Lord Buddha. This gesture is also called the Bodhyangi or Vyakhyana Mudra. The Varada Mudra is the genture of giving boon with the right hand while the Abhaya Mudra is the gesture of giving protection with the right hand. The Vajrahumkara Mudra, also called the Trailokyavijaya Mudra, consists of placing both hands crossed over one’s chest with the right hand over the left hand and with both the palms facing the chest. A much less common Mudra is the Samaya Vajra Mudra which consists of the right thumb touching the right little finger with the middle three fingers of the right hand suggesting the shape of a thunderbolt. A meditator may also hold a Vajra in his right hand – if he does so, he is called Vajradhara ( holder of the Vajra ). After one has sat correctly, he must close his eyes and focus on the inhalation and exhalation of his breath ( Anapana-smriti or Anapana-sati ). Anapana ( An-pan – in Chinese ) means respiration. There must be no tampering with the natural respiration, a meditator’s job is simply to focus his attention on his nostrils and observe the natural flow of breath. Respiration is natural, one has no craving or aversion towards it, it is always in the present ( Nitya ) and, since one breathes from the moment of one’s birth to the moment of one’s death, it is in fact a convergence of the past, present and future. Further, it is within the physical framework of the body. Respiration is thus an appropriate object for concentrating the mind, something that is not too easy. The mind does not usually want to stay in the present moment; it resides either in the past or in the future. A little effort is needed to prevent the mind from wandering about. This is called Right Effort. At this stage, there may be strong distractions in the mind that prevent the mind from concentrating. Sometimes these distractions appear to be overwhelming. The effort to focus on respiration should be continued in such cases. The key is never to give up. A learner soon discovers one thing ; meditation is hard work for a beginner. Right Mindfulness, which is mindfulness of breathing, follows Right Effort immediately. Right Concentration leading to Samadhi ( San-mei – in Chinese, Sanmai, Zanmai – in Japanese ), which is a transcendental state, follows. It may be described by Sat ( being ), Chit ( consciousness ) and Ananda ( bliss, happiness ). Sometimes, in lifting the mind to Samadhi, hurdles appear in the form of distractions in the mind. These distractions may be latent feelings of anger, craving, sadness, and so on. The remedy, in such cases, is to return back to Anapana-sati and try to lift the mind to Samadhi again. Shamatha meditation is an absorptive meditation whose object is to calm the mind. Vipashyana meditation is an analytical meditation. Shamatha meditation may be an end in itself or it may be a prelude to Vipashyana meditation. It is also possible to perform Vipashyana meditation without performing Shamatha meditation first. There are four parts to the practice of Vipashyana meditation. Kaya anupashyana ( Kayanupassana – in Pali ), Vedana anupashyana ( Vedananupassana – in Pali ), Chitta anupashyana ( Chittanupassana – in Pali ), and Dharma anupashyana ( Dhammanupassana – in Pali ). Anupashyana ( Anupassana – in Pali ) means to see minutely, that is, to scrutinise Here, Dharma indicates the contents of the mind ( Chaitasika, Chetasika – in Pali ). Each of the four, Kaya ( body ), Vedana ( sensations ), Chitta ( mind ) and Dharma ( mental contents ), must be subjected to Anupashyana. The true nature of all four of these reveal themselves to the meditator and he is able to remove defilement from the innermost recesses of his mind ( Anushaya, Anusaya – in Pali ). Awareness and equanimity ( Upeksha, Upekkha – in Pali ), together, symbolise Vipashyana meditation. If either part is missing, one cannot attain Enlightenment. Vipashyana leads to clear insight into the physical and mental structure and thus leads to Bodhi. The complete knowledge of my physical and mental structure is called Sampragyana ( Sampajanna – in Pali ), if I have it I am called a Sampragya. In some forms of Mahayana Buddhist meditation, meditation on Lord Buddha ( Buddhanupashyana ) is performed.
Bodhyangas ( Bojjhangas – in Pali ) are factors contributing to Enlightenment. There are seven Bodhyangas: Smriti, Dharma-chayana, Virya ( courage ), Priti ( rapture and bliss ), Prashiddhi ( deep tranquility and calmness ), Samadhi, and Upeksha. The Four Sublime States ( Brahmavihara ) are Maitri, Karuna ( compassion ), Mudita and Upeksha. Meditation entails making a conscious and free choice to withdraw from the affairs of the mundane world to pursue spiritual ends; one of the objectives being the subsequent re-establishment of contact with the conditioned world as a purer and wiser man. The decision to meditate is itself an act of freedom. We have, in life, the freedom to pursue an ethical way of living. This freedom leads us to Bodhi and Nirvana and thus sets us free.
Meditation is a pursuit of liberation, realisation is the end result. Post-realisation, one feels that one had been going about with his eyes closed and has now suddenly opened them. In the plane of the senses, his external world does not change but his way of psychologically processing his external world undergoes a drastic change. He becomes more peaceful with himself and with others. An awakened man, possessing an Enlightened mind ( Bodhichitta ), feels that he is surrounded by peace at all times ( the process of developing an Enlightened mind is called Bodhichittodpada ). It is important to understand that nobody tells him this; he feels it himself. He goes about doing his daily activities, but his way of processing his world has fundamentally altered for the better. He realises that he cannot and need not control all aspects of his external physical world. He realises that he gains more by letting go. He becomes aware of the non-peaceful moments in his life and tries to reduce their frequency and intensity. He opts for shifting his consciousness to his mind and becoming aware of his internal mental processes when waiting, for example, in a traffic jam or while waiting in a queue. He opts for harmony in his mental processes rather than chaos.
Ordinarily, animal instincts bind a man to the world of the senses. Man lacks the initiative to free himself from them. Rather, he reposes his faith on some superhuman power whom he tries to propitiate in the hope that he may be rescued from his troubles. Meditation may also be described as a Tapasya ( a Sanskrit word whose root lies in the Sanskrit word Tapah which means heat ), a burning of the impurities in the mind.
Zen Buddhism originated in China and is in vogue in East Asia. As mentioned before, it is a school of Mahayana Buddhism. Mahayana Buddhism was propagated in China by Indian Buddhist monks like Kumarajiva ( 344-413 C.E. ), son of Kumarayana, who went to China in 401 C.E., and Buddhabhadra ( 359-429 C.E. ), who went to China in 408 C.E., and by Chinese Buddhist monks who came to India, like Fa-hsien ( or Fa-xian ), who came to India between 399 and 414 C.E., and Hsuan-tsang ( or Xuan-zang ) ( 600-664 C.E. ), who came to India between 629 and 645 C.E. Also, Gunabhadra translated the Lankavatara Sutra into Chinese and Paramartha was another noted translator.
Mahayana Buddhism developed in India a few centuries after the Parinirvana of Lord Buddha. Emperor Kanishka convened the Fourth Buddhist Council, held probably at Jalandhar, in which the scholar Vasumitra was President and another eminent scholar Asvaghosha, the author of Buddha Charita, was Vice-President. In this assembly, Buddhists became divided into Mahayana Buddhists and Theravada Buddhists. The Pali word Thera is derived from the Sanskrit word Sthavira which means Elder. Theravada Buddhism is the most orthodox form of Buddhism and has preserved the historical teachings of Lord Buddha in its Pali Canon. The Theravada Sutras ( Suttas – in Pali ) are the earliest available teachings of Lord Buddha, are in Pali, and are fully historical. The Pali Canon is called the Tripitaka in Sanskrit and the Tipitaka in Pali; Sutra-Pitaka ( Sutta-Pitaka – in Pali ), Vinaya-Pitaka and Abhidharma-Pitaka ( Abhidhamma-Pitaka – in Pali ) forming the three parts of the Tripitaka. Abhidharma means detailed philosophical discourses. The Sutta-Pitaka has five parts – the Digha Nikaya, the Majjhima Nikaya, the Khuddaka Nikaya, the Samyutta Nikaya and the Anguttara Nikaya.
Mahayana is a way of Buddhism followed widely across India and northern and eastern Asia. I have written before that in Mahayana Buddhism, individuals strive to take all others along with them to the ultimate goal of liberation. Mahayana Buddhism emerged in the context of the development of a different disposition towards Buddhism by some Buddhists; in terms of concepts relating to the Sangha, the Dharma and Lord Buddha. Firstly, schisms occurred on the level of “Sangha”. The primary concern of several venerated Buddhist monks was to keep the Dharma and discipline ( Vinaya ) pure. They felt that this was the only way to sustain Buddhism in the long run. These Buddhist monks became some of the most sophisticated theoreticians in the Indian intellectual world. Certain other monks wanted the Vinaya to be flexible. The case of the Mahasanghika monks is the best example to show the conflict between these two viewpoints. These monks had added ten minor precepts for their group , for example, monks could get, keep and use money. In the Second Buddhist Council, held at Vaishali, they were called “Papishtha bhikshus” (the sinful monks). Their behaviour was unacceptable from the viewpoint of the orthodox Buddhists. These monks established their own tradition and called themselves “Mahasanghikas” ( the monks of the Great Sangha ). In this connection, it may be mentioned that there were as many as eighteen early schools including the Sarvastivadins, the Pragyaptivadins, the Sautantrikas, the Vatsiputriyas, the Sammitiyas, the Dharmaguptakas, the Lokottaravadins ( an offshoot of the Mahasanghikas who carried the notion of the transcendental nature of Lord Buddha to the greatest extent among all the early schools ), etc. It would not be out of place to mention that certain typical similes were employed by some schools as also by a monk like Nagasena who said that a chariot is merely a designation ( Pragyapti, Pannatti – in Pali ) depending on its own parts. The Vatsiputriyas, also called the Pudgalavadins because of their belief in a Pudgala ( Puggala – in Pali ) as a transmigrating entity, utilised the simile of fire and fuel and the Sautantrikas utilised the simile of seed and sprout. Nagarjuna’s claim that anything that is Pratityasamutpanna is a Pragyapti indicates that he conceived the meaning of Pragyapti differently from Nagasena.
Fissures also occurred on the level of “Dharma”. Three months before Lord Buddha’s Parinirvana at Kusinagara, He declared in the Mahaparinirvana Sutra that the monks and the laity would have the Dharma and the Vinaya as their leaders in the future. However, some Buddhists, mostly the Mahasanghikas, found themselves having no shelter left except the Dharma. So they searched for the true Dharma. The statement of Lord Buddha, “He who sees the Dharma, sees me; he who sees me, sees the Dharma”, also supported their quest. If one uses logical arguments to judge this sentence, an interesting question emerges. How must one see the Dharma so that one also sees Lord Buddha? For some Buddhist scholars, even today, Dharma is not merely the sermons of Lord Buddha. His life contains more latent implications, for example, the implications of His silence in certain contexts as in His silence in response to questions by Vacchagotra. Thus, for the Buddhist scholars alluded to above, Dharma is something more and wider than the speech of Lord Buddha. The sermons are merely a part of Him, not the totality. When I return back to the context of the emergence of Mahayana Buddhism, I find that the Buddhists referred to above had shifted the ethical facet of Buddhism to a metaphysical focus. And what they did was to seek out the truest Dharma; one which also revealed the status of Lord Buddha after His Parinirvana. Simultaneously, the assumption that Lord Buddha still existed pervaded and caught the faithful minds of Buddhists. Dharma turned out to be a means to reach the state of Buddhatva. If man realises the ultimate truth of all things, he is sure to free himself from all types of bondage. To see Dharma is to see the truth of phenomena. When the truth of phenomena is seen, the wisdom of Lord Buddha is fulfilled within oneself. That is the reason why when one sees the Dharma, he also sees Lord Buddha. Further, the state of the mind is linked to liberation. The state of liberation is conceived to be the same as the pure mind. A human mind, that is pure and detached from all types of impurities, is synonymous with the state of liberation. Also, there were groups that defined “Dharma” as the Ultimate Truth of Lord Buddha. The more these Buddhists investigated His life, the less they believed that He had gone away. Hence, to see Dharma is to see Lord Buddha’s power penetrating through all things. These groups also tended to relate Dharma to Lord Buddha’s great compassion ( Mahakaruna ) and felt that to see Dharma is to see the Buddha-Dhatu within oneself. Mahakaruna is Karuna ( compassion ) combined with Pragya ( wisdom, Panna – in Pali, Zhi Hui, Pan-jo, Po-jo – in Chinese, Hannya – in Japanese ). Clearly, the most important duty of man is to live and spend his life in accordance with Lord Buddha’s intention. As His intention was to liberate all sentient beings from suffering, in order to realise the Buddha-Dhatu within oneself, it is crucial that one has to assist other sentient beings and take them along on the way to liberation. Pragya is required, in fact it is vital, because different Upaya ( expedient means ) should be deployed to bring different sentient beings on the path to Bodhi. The notion of Bodhisattva sprang up from this attitude. Bodhisattvas are perfect in Dana ( charity ), Shila, Kshanti ( perseverence, Khanti – in Pali ), Virya ( Viriya – in Pali ), Dhyana and Pragya. These are called the six perfections ( Paramita, Parami – in Pali ) of a Bodhisattva. Sometimes, ten perfections ( Dasha Paramita ) are considered ( Maharatnakuta Sutra, Sutra 45, Taisho 310, pages 648 to 650. Translated into Chinese by Bodhiruchi ) wherein perfection of ingenuity ( Upaya ), power ( Bala ), volition and knowledge ( Gyana ) are added to the usual six perfections. Also, fault-lines occurred on the level of “Buddha”. When the Vinaya and the Dharma showed fault-lines, the only way out for unenlightened Buddhists was to go back to Lord Buddha as apart from Him, there is no other refuge. At that time, many Buddhists conceived the existence of Lord Buddha in the transcendental state. The Saddharma Pundarika Sutra ( or The Lotus Sutra ), a Mahayana Sutra, conceives of a transcendental Lord Buddha. Lord Buddha had returned to His universal form after His Parinirvana and He still existed. Lord Buddha had Three Bodies (Trikaya). The first and most fundamental body is called the Cosmic Body ( Dharmakaya, Hosshin – in Japanese ). The conceptualisation of Lord Buddha’s All-Pervading, Eternal, Omniscient, Omnipresent and Radiant Dharmakaya provided for a more intense and immersive spiritual experience. The nature of the Dharmakaya is called Dharmakaya-Dhatu. When meditating, the state of Lord Buddha is the Blissful Body ( Sambhogakaya, Hojin – in Japanese ). The third body is the Constructed Body ( Nirmanakaya, Keshin – in Japanese ), which signifies the historical Lord Buddha. The Nirmanakaya of Lord Buddha had come and gone under the Will of the Dharmakaya. He was born to fulfil His human functions in leading human beings to liberation. It is believed that as long as humans do not realise the true Dharma, the anguish of departure from Lord Buddha takes place and that when the human mind is able to make a distinction between the pure mind and Klesha, the truism of Buddha-Dhatu becomes clear. In the conception of the Mahasanghikas, the concept of Rupakaya existed and Rupakaya was later split into Nirmanakaya and Sambhogakaya in Mahayana.
Mahayana Buddhism combines the emotion of devotion ( Shraddha, Saddha – in Pali ) with the wisdom of logical reasoning. This is the appeal of Mahayana ( Ta-sheng – in Chinese, Daijo – in Japanese ) Buddhism.
The primary devotional school of Mahayana Buddhism is the Pure Land School of the Far East, where the Sanskrit “Namah Amitabha Buddha” is translated into the Chinese “Namo Amito Fo” and the Japanese “Namu Amida Butsu”. The practice of invoking Lord Buddha’s name is known as Buddhanusmriti ( Nien Fo – in Chinese, Nenbutsu – in Japanese ). Devotion is also directed towards the Saddharma Pundarika Sutra ( The Lotus Sutra ) with the invocation “Namo miao fa lien hua ching” in Chinese and “Namu myoho rengekyo” in Japanese.
A certain school of Mahayana Buddhism conceives of four centres called Chakras located at different levels of the spine ( the spine itself is called Avadhuti in this school ). At the level of the navel is the Nirmana Chakra. At the level of the heart is the Dharma Chakra. At the level of the neck is the Sambhoga Chakra and at the level of the head is the Mahasukha Chakra ( Mahasukha means great happiness ). Meditation may also be initiated by focussing on the Nirmana Chakra with progressive focus on higher Chakras with the last focus being on the Mahasukha Chakra. In addition, while the meditator is focussing on the Dharma Chakra, he may imagine a five-pronged white thunderbolt ( Vajra ) emitting beams of light on the Dharma Chakra. At this stage, the meditator imagines himself to be Vajrasattva ( thunderbolt being or diamond being ). After the last focus on the Mahasukha Chakra, the meditator can perform Shamatha meditation. If he so wishes, the meditator may conclude his meditation by performing Vipashyana meditation after Shamatha meditation.
Reverting back to Zen Buddhism, we find that although Zen Buddhist experts were found amongst the laity, Zen Buddhism’s greatest geniuses were found in the highly regulated life of the monasteries. Zen Buddhism spread to Korea and Japan from China. In Japan, circular brushworks called enshos are calligraphic motifs often used in Zen Buddhism.
In Zen Buddhist practice ( the Sanskrit word Dhyana is a synonym of the Pali word Jhana, the Chinese word Ch’an, the Vietnamese word Thien, the Korean word Son and the Japanese word Zen ), one can take the help of Koans ( Japanese, Kung-an – in Chinese, Kongan – in Korean ) or spiritual puzzles with the aid of which he can propel the mind to a transcendental state in which he can meditate. Zazen ( Japanese, Tso-ch’an – in Chinese, the practice of Zen Buddhist meditation ) leads to Enlightenment. At the usual existential level, Koans cannot be said to have any coherence and an existential leap is needed to bring harmony. The spiritual puzzle posed by a Koan may be such that even a strong will may be unable to go to the transcendental plane. The role of the Zen Buddhist master is important here. He can deliver a shock, an emotional one usually suffices, but a physical blow or other corporal shock may be needed so that the spiritual aspirant is propelled into a higher level of consciousness. The fundamental viewpoint of Zen Buddhism is that one is to point directly to one’s mind, see it as it is ( Yatha Bhutam ) and become a Buddha. A very important difference between Theravada Buddhism and Zen Buddhism is that the former believes that Enlightenment is obtained slowly ( or gradually ) by means of practice while the latter is a believer in sudden Enlightenment ( Tun-yu – in Chinese ).
I give below an example of a Koan:
Before Enlightenment, chopping wood, carrying water;
After Enlightenment, chopping wood, carrying water.
The meaning is self-explanatory. Bodhi does not change the Samsara I am immersed in but it does change and completely restructures my attitude towards that Samsara. Hsuan-tsang, the great Chinese monk who visited India during the time of Emperor Harshavardhana, once made the following remark about the state of realisation : “It is like a man drinking water; he knows by himself whether it is cold or hot.”. Once, Hui-hai Tai-chu came to the Zen master Ma-tsu Tao-i, the first of possibly the four greatest Chinese Zen masters. Ma-tsu asked him: “Why are you here searching when you already possess the treasure you are looking for?”. “What treasure?”, his interlocutor asked. Ma-tsu replied: “The one who is questioning me right now.”. Ma-tsu had an unswerving ability to bring the empirical “I” into focus at just the right moment. On another occasion, when asked, “What is the meaning of Bodhidharma’s coming from India?”, Ma-tsu replied with a classic answer: “What is the meaning of your asking this at precisely this moment?”. Ma-tsu followed the Hung-chou style of Zen. Ma-tsu Tao-i’s disciple ( Dharma heir, Fa-ssu – in Chinese ) was Pai-chang Huai-hai. Pai-chang Huai-hai’s disciple was Huang Po Hsi-yun whose disciple was Lin-chi I-hsuan, the founder of Rinzai Zen. Soto Zen is the other major form of Japanese Zen.
Because contact of the six sensory bases with the external world do not result in any reactions in a liberated man, he is free. His mind is like a lamp that does not flicker. Non-attachment towards all beings and everything including the concepts of “I” and “Mine” is a characteristic of a liberated mind. The absence of ego in an Enlightened man leads him to adopt an attitude of dispassion and selflessness towards everything in his physical and mental world. He is virtuous. Temptations do not affect him. He is always cheerful, happy and optimistic. He radiates light wherever he goes. He is wise and compassionate ( Mahakarunika ) and does everything for the good of the world. He has risen above his previous mental conditioning ( Samskara ). He has risen above craving and aversion.
It must be remembered that in Buddhism, the only valid reason for waging a war is to fight evil forces. Any other war is unjust. Lord Buddha went to the field of battle and intervened to stop a war between the Shakyas and their neighbours and his words stopped King Ajatashatru of Magadha from attacking a neighbouring kingdom. Taking a life unjustly defiles a man. However, there is no sin in Buddhism, only delusion. Severely deluded men are unlikely to find cessation ( Nirodha, Nivritti ) from suffering ( Shoka, Soka – in Pali ) in this birth and the wheel of birth and death will roll on for them.
In India and China, legends surround Lord Buddha. A legend in India believes that the Hindu god of creation, Brahma, requested Lord Buddha to teach the Dharma. A legend in China says that a great Buddhist sage named Bodhidharma brought Buddhism from India to China. Another legend in China, recorded in the text Jen-t’ien-yien-mu, says that Lord Buddha explained the Dharma to his historical disciple Mahakashyapa by silently holding up a flower and Mahakashyapa ( Mahakassapa – in Pali, Mahakasho – in Japanese ) merely smiled, having understood the meaning. The sound of silence has a distinguished place in Buddhism, from Lord Buddha onwards stretching right upto the mythological householder disciple Vimalakirti. Historically, Emperor Ashoka was the first Indian emperor to spread Buddhism outside India. He sent his son, Mahendra ( Mahinda – in Pali ), and daughter, Sanghamitra ( Sanghamitta – in Pali ), to Sri Lanka.
Lord Buddha showed how man can integrate himself to the cosmos. In this and in many other aspects, He was a student of life and a leader of men. In a caste-ridden society, Lord Buddha strove to establish the equality of all men. In this, He was the world’s first great socialist. Lao-tzu of ancient China in his book Tao Te Ching described the qualities a true leader should have; leaders tread fresh grass amongst other things. Lord Buddha possessed all of them and much more. He was the ultimate Tyagi, that is, renunciant; renouncing a throne, comforts of a palace, a wife and a son to leave his palace on horseback in search of Truth at night. In this, He showed Himself to be an exemplar of Holiness inspiring millions of others to follow suit. He elevated Himself to the level of a Purushottama and a Mahapurusha ( Superhuman Man ).
Buddhism preaches ultimate tolerance to all faiths. A Buddhist hates none, loves all. Lord Buddha’s love for man was like a father’s love for his sons. The overarching philosophy of Buddhism encompasses loving-kindness ( Maitri, Metta – in Pali ) for all sentient beings. Buddhists co-exist peacefully with all religions on earth. It is invigorating to keep a statue of Lord Buddha in one’s place of meditation just as a Christian keeps a crucifix in his room. It is not idolatry.
Buddhism is particularly relevant in the violence-ridden world today. As a Buddhist, I feel that mankind can do much better. Pacifism and non-violence ( Ahimsa – Sanskrit and Pali, Avihimsa – Pali ) are fundamental tenets of Buddhism. However, this does not mean that a man should not resist aggression. If an evil power engages in aggression, then a man should resist it with all powers at his disposal. Something called “Engaged Buddhism” is emerging in the West now. In this, Buddhists take up environmental and social issues as a part of their practice of the Dharma.
A radical indeterminacy underpins and permeates human existence. Things happen that we do not want; things that we do not want happen. To bravely work out our way through to emancipation, to bring order in place of chaos, to face life with fortitude requires immense Enlightened courage. In this context, Buddhism enables us to reach salvation. That is the raison d’être of Buddhism. The essence of Buddhism, as summed up by Lord Buddha Himself, is:
To cease from all error,
To get virtue,
And to purify the heart.
With Anuttara Samyak Sambodhi ( supreme and perfect Enlightenment, Anuttara Samma Sambodhi – in Pali ) of a man, he realises that death can be defeated only if it can be made unreal. His false self, or nothingness, dissolves into a vibrant awakened being.
Bibliography
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( including the Dharmachakrapravartana Sutra, the Anatmalakshana Sutra, the Mahasatipatthana Sutra, the Adityaparyaya Sutra, the Mangala Sutra, the Alagaddupama Sutra, the Prathama Akasha Sutra, the Indriya Bhavana Sutra, the Brahmajala Sutra, the Kalama Sutra, the Malunkyaputra Sutra, the Katyayanagotra Sutra and the Mahaparinirvana Sutra )
The Taisho Tripitaka
Milindapanha
The Mahavastu
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The Shurangama Samadhi Sutra
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from Dhyana Paramita: The Perfection of Meditation
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korean interpreter chennai
Language interpretation
Interpreting is a translational activity in which one produces a first and final translation on the basis of a one-time exposure to an expression in a source language.
The most common two modes of interpreting are simultaneous interpreting, which is done at the time of the exposure to the source language, and consecutive interpreting, which is done at breaks to this exposure.
Interpreting is an ancient human activity which predates the invention of writing. However, the origins of the profession of interpreting date back to less than a century ago.
Historiography
Research into the various aspects of the history of interpreting is quite new. For as long as most scholarly interest was given to korean interpreter chennai professional conference interpreting, very little academic work was done on the practice of interpreting in history, and until the only a few dozen publications were done on it.
Considering the amount of interpreting activities that is assumed to have occurred for thousands of years, historical records are limited.Moreover, interpreters and their work have usually not found their way into the history books.One of the reasons for that is the dominance of the written text over the spoken word (in the sense that those who have left written texts are more likely to be recorded by historians). Another problem is the tendency to view it as an ordinary support activity which does not require any special attention, and the social status of interpreters, who were sometimes treated unfairly by scribes, chroniclers and historians.
Our knowledge of the past of interpreting tends to come from letters, chronicles, biographies, diaries and memoirs, along with a variety of other documents and literary works, many of which (and with few exceptions) were only incidentally or marginally related to interpreting.
Etymology
Many Indo-European languages have words for 'interpreting' and 'interpreter'. Expressions in Germanic, Scandinavian and Slavic languages denoting an interpreter can be traced back to Akkadian, around 1900 BCE. The Akkadian root targumânu/turgumânu also gave rise to the term dragoman via an etymological sideline from Arabic.
The English word ‘interpreter’, however, is derived from Latin interpres (meaning ‘expounder’, ‘person explaining what is obscure’), whose semantic roots are not clear. Some scholars take the second part of the word to be derived from partes or pretium (meaning ‘price’, which fits the meaning of a ‘middleman’, ‘intermediary’ or ‘commercial go-between’), but others have suggested a Sanskrit root.
Modes
Consecutive
In consecutive interpreting (CI), the interpreter starts to interpret before the speaker pauses. Therefore, the time needed is much lower (possibly half the time needed). Traditionally, the interpreter will sit or stand near the speaker.
Consecutive interpretation can be conducted in a pattern of short or long segments according to the interpreter's preference. In short CI, the interpreter relies mostly on memory whereas, in long CI, most interpreters will rely on note-taking. The notes must be clear and legible in order to not waste time on reading them. Consecutive interpreting of whole thoughts, rather than in small pieces, is desirable so that the interpreter has the whole meaning before rendering it in the target language. This affords a truer, more accurate, and more accessible interpretation than where short CI or simultaneous interpretation is used.
An attempt at consensus about lengths of segments may be reached prior to commencement, depending upon complexity of the subject matter and purpose of the interpretation, though speakers generally face difficulty adjusting to unnatural speech patterns.
On occasion, document sight translation is required of the interpreter during consecutive interpretation work. Sight translation combines interpretation and translation; the interpreter must render the source-language document to the target-language as if it were written in the target language. Sight translation occurs usually, but not exclusively, in judicial and medical work.
Consecutive interpretation may be the chosen mode when bilingual listeners are present who wish to hear both the original and interpreted speech or where, as in a court setting, a record must be kept of both.
When no interpreter is available to interpret directly from source to target, an intermediate interpreter will be inserted in a relay mode, e.g. a Greek source language could be interpreted into English and then from English to another language. This is also commonly known as double-interpretation. Triple-interpretation may even be needed, particularly where rare languages or dialects are involved. Such interpretation can only be effectively conducted using consecutive interpretation.
Simultaneous
Simultaneous interpretation (SI) suffers the disadvantage that if a person is performing the service the interpreter must do the best he or she can within the time permitted by the pace of source speech. However they also have the advantages of saving time and not disturbing the natural flow of the speaker. SI can also be accomplished by software where the program can simultaneously listen to incoming speech and speak the associated interpretation. The most common form is extempore SI, where the interpreter does not know the message until he or she hears it.
Simultaneous interpretation using electronic equipment where the interpreter can hear the speaker's voice as well as the interpreter's own voice was introduced at the Nuremberg trials. The equipment facilitated large numbers of listeners, and interpretation was offered in French, Russian, German and English. The technology arose in the and when American businessman Edward Filene and British engineer Alan Gordon Finlay developed simultaneous interpretation equipment with IBM. Yvonne Kapp attended a conference with simultaneous translation in 1935 in the Soviet Union.As it proved successful, IBM was able to sell the equipment to the United Nations, where it is now widely used in the United Nations Interpretation Service.
In the ideal setting for oral language, the interpreter sits in a sound-proof booth and speaks into a microphone, while clearly seeing and hearing the source-language speaker via earphones. The simultaneous interpretation is rendered to the target-language listeners via their earphones.
The progressive shift from consecutive to simultaneous
The Memoir of a Soviet Interpreter gives a short history of modern interpretation and of the transition from its consecutive to simultaneous forms. He explains that during the nineteenth century interpreters were rarely needed during European diplomatic discussions; these were routinely conducted in French, and all government diplomats were required to be fluent in this language. Most European government leaders and heads korean interpreter chennai of state could also speak French. Historian Harold Nicolson attributes the growing need for interpretation after World War I to the fact that U.S. President Woodrow Wilson and British Prime Minister "were no linguists". At the time, the concept and special equipment needed for simultaneous interpretation, later patented by Alan Gordon Finlay, had not been developed, so consecutive interpretation was used.
Consecutive interpreters, in order be accurate, used a specialized system of note-taking which included symbols abbreviations and acronyms. Because they waited until the speaker was finished to provide translation, the interpreters then had the difficult task of creating from these notes as much as half an hour of free-flowing sentences closely matching the speaker's meaning as skilled interpreters, and notes one unusual case in which interpreted a speech by a French diplomat who spoke for two and a half hours without stopping.
After World War II, simultaneous interpretation came into use at the Nuremberg trial, and began to be more accepted. Experienced consecutive interpreters asserted that the difficulties of listening and speaking at the same time, adjusting for differences in sentence structure between languages, and interpreting the beginning of a sentence before hearing its end, would produce an inferior result. As well, these interpreters, who to that point had been prominent speakers, would now be speaking invisibly from booths. when the United Nations expanded its number of working languages to five (English, French, Russian, Chinese and Spanish), consecutive translation became impractical in most cases, and simultaneous translation became the most common process for the organization's large meetings.Consecutive interpretation, which provides a more fluent result without the need for specialized equipment, continued to be used for smaller discussions.
Whispered
Since time immemorial, whispering interpretation has been used, known in the trade by the French term chuchotage. To avoid disturbing the original speaker and those present listening to the original speaker, the interpreter's voice is kept at a low volume. To do this, the interpreter and the person requiring interpretation must sit or stand in close proximity to one another. No actual whispering is involved as this is difficult to decipher as well as being too much of a strain on the voice: the interpreter uses normal 'voiced' speech at a low volume. Only one or at the most two people in need of interpretation can be accommodated, unless portable electronic equipment is used.This form of interpretation puts a strain on the interpreter who has to sit for long periods leaning towards the person in need of interpretation.
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korean interpreter chennaiIntroduction
An important quality of a good translator is curiosity. Striving to learn new and interesting things from different spheres of competence will eventually improve your work and keep it current.
One of the useful ways to stay tuned in to the tendencies and new technologies used in translation are translation blogs run by independent translators, companies, or associations. Since there are a great variety of websites, it will take you some time to find the ones that are most suitable for you. The list below will give you an idea which blogs are worth checking out in if you are looking for details about starting a career as a freelancer, billing your clients, learning new words and terminology, or simply having fun.
Translation Blogs for the Novice Translator
If you are just starting your career as a professional translator, and especially as a freelancer, you might need some advice on how to korean interpreter chennai organize your work. The blogs below will help you with practical tips on how to approach clients, determine price and much more.
Thoughts on Translation is a high-quality translation-focused blog written by Corinne McKay, an American Translators Association certified French to English translator. You can consider it a one stop shop for tips, tricks, and translation news, focused on human translation provided both by agencies and freelancers. Here you will find advice on marketing and doing business as a translator and read about the author’s own experience in the profession.
Between Translations is run by Jayne Fox, a German into English translator, who tries to keep her readers updated with the most useful tips for a professional translator. You can read about the necessary skills of a good translator or which are the best CAT (computer-assisted translation) tools and how to use them efficiently. Other great pieces of advice are provided on how to price translations or work with clients from different time zones.
Translation Times is written by twin-sisters Judy and Dagmar Jenner who are both translating and interpreting in Spanish, German, English, and French. They offer great articles on the practical side of the job such as rate negotiations, cancellation policy, and software recommendations. In addition to that you will find information about translation workshops and conferences, book reviews, academic translation programs, and job opportunities.
About Translation offers information, news and opinions about professional translations and you can find anything from ancient translation practices to current translation conferences. The blog is run by Riccardo Schiaffino, who is a certified translator from English into Italian. Even though, it has not been updated recently, the topics covered are written in an engaging and professional manner and the site is worth keeping an eye on.
Translation Blogs for the Curious
If you are looking for a blog that will keep you informed and entertained at the same time, offering information about curious facts or the history of translation and interpretation, then you need to follow these three blogs:
Oxford Dictionaries Blog is a great place full of resources for translators interested in linguistics. Here you can find curious facts korean interpreter chennai about both well-known and rare words, as well as read about the recent influences that change the language. The blog covers serious and funnier topics such as how animals understand what people say, which makes it a great way to get your dose of knowledge and humor for the day.
Naked Translation offers a great mixture of useful tips for translators and interesting notes on the etymology of some words. In the blog you will find great articles with stunning images and lots of tricks to make your job easier. It is written by and is focused mainly on translations from English into French and vice versa, however it contains tons of useful information for all translators.
Unprofessional Translation is the place to find curious details about the origin of the translator and interpreter professions. Although not updated on a regular basis, the blog is still worth checking if you want to learn about competitions for child translators, and bilingualism, about the interpreters of some infamous historical figures or about the oldest depiction of an interpreter. Despite its name, the blog is quite professionally written and tackles topics such as Natural Translation, Native Translation and Language Brokering.
Specialized Translation Blogs
Quite often translators specialize in certain field or industry – medicine, law, food service, equipment and supply, etc. and in order to provide quality document translation, they need to update their knowledge regularly. One of the ways to do that is by following some specialized blogs. Here are a few to check out:
Signs & Symptoms of Translation is a blog dedicated to medical translations. It is written by Emma Goldsmith, who is a Spanish to English medical translator. Here you can also find some useful information about CAT tools and how to use them.
Intralingo is for those, who deal with and/or love literary translations. The blog does not only give insights into these types of texts but also presents ideas on how to make money from it. It is definitely worth reading if you are a literature and translation enthusiast.
Glossarissimo is a great blog that will help any professional do their work better with its rich database of glossaries. Here you can find monolingual and multilingual resources and terminology for translators and interpreters.
Transblawg is dedicated to German-English legal translation. The posts, written by Margaret Marks, are full of humor and entertainment, which makes his blog fun and quite useful at the same time. It offers help and information to translators on a variety of topics and specializations.
This is just a small fraction of the great specialized blogs you can find on the web. Make sure to check the fields that you are most interested in as well.
Translation Blogs for Fun
The work of a translator is indeed quite intense and can be very stressful. Meeting deadlines, working on complicated texts, and dealing with clients from different time zones can take a toll. Therefore, it is necessary to have a look at the funny side of the job as well. Here are three blogs that will help you take a break and have some fun:
Translator Fun is for those who would enjoy some posts and cartoons with a heavy dose of humor. The topics the blog tackles will sound more familiar to those actually working in the field of translation, who allow themselves looking at the job from a less serious angle.
Blog is another cure for a long and tedious translation project, when you need some laughter to power you up. The blog offers a series of funny cartoons that present the everyday life of a translator in a humorous manner.
Musings from an Overworked Translator is a blog that successfully combines the serious and the funny parts of the translator’s job. Here you can find useful information about new translators, e-mail etiquette and much more. Funny jokes, cartoons, and videos to make your day brighter.
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Interpreting
Interpreting, or "interpretation," is the facilitation of oral or sign-language communication, either simultaneously or consecutively between two, or among three or more, speakers who are not speaking, or signing, the same language. The term "interpreting," rather than "interpretation," is preferentially used for this activity by korean interpreter chennai Anglophone translators, to avoid confusion with other meanings of the word "interpretation." Unlike English, many languages do not employ two separate words to denote the activities of written and live-communication (oral or sign-language) translators. Even English does not always make the distinction, frequently using "translating" as a synonym for "interpreting."
Interpreters have sometimes played crucial roles in history. A prime example is also known as an early-16th-century Nahua woman from the Mexican Gulf Coast. As a child she had been sold or given to Maya slave-traders from Xicalango, and thushad become bilingual. Subsequently, given along with other women to the invading Spaniards, she became instrumental in the Spanish conquest of Mexico, acting as interpreter, adviser, intermediary and lover to Hernán Cortés.
Nearly three centuries later, in the United States, a comparable role as interpreter was played for the and Expedition of 1804–6 by Sacagawea. As a child, the Lemhi Shoshone woman had been kidnapped by Hidatsa Indians and thus had become bilingual. Sacagawea facilitated the expedition's traverse of the North American continent to the Pacific Ocean.
In the United States today, interpreting as a line of work has become increasingly professionalized in recent decades, and there is korean interpreter chennai now a variety of professional associations and certifications available to provide resources on ethics and practices and ensure trustworthy, quality interpretation services.
However, many US companies and organizations remain unaware of the importance of turning to professional or experienced interpreters rather than asking their bilingual colleagues or community members to interpret. Turning to bilingual individuals who are not experienced interpreters can lead to unreliable or unethical interpreting practices, and it can place an unwanted burden on those individuals, whether it be professionally or emotionally.
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Types of Language interpretation
Conference
Conference interpreting refers to interpretation at a conference or large meeting, either simultaneously or consecutively. The advent of multi-lingual meetings has reduced the amount of consecutive interpretation in the last 20 years.
Conference interpretation is divided between two markets: institutional and private. International institutions (EU, UN, EPO, et cetera), which hold multilingual meetings, often favor interpreting several foreign korean interpreter chennai languages into the interpreters' mother tongues. Local private markets tend to have bilingual meetings (the local language plus another), and the interpreters work both into and out of their mother tongues. These markets are not mutually exclusive. The International Association of Conference Interpreters (AIIC) is the only worldwide association of conference interpreters. Founded in 1953, its membership includes more than 2,800 professional conference interpreters, in more than 90 countries.
Judicial
Judicial, legal, or court interpreting occurs in courts of justice, administrative tribunals, and wherever a legal proceeding is held (i.e., a police station for an interrogation, a conference room for a deposition, or the locale for taking a sworn statement). Legal interpreting can be the consecutive interpretation of witnesses' testimony, for example, or the simultaneous interpretation of entire proceedings, by electronic means, for one person, or all of the people attending. In a legal context, where ramifications of misinterpretation may be dire, accuracy is paramount. Teams of two or more interpreters, with one actively interpreting and the second monitoring for greater accuracy, may be deployed.
The right to a competent interpreter for anyone who does not understand the language of the court (especially for the accused in a criminal trial) is usually considered a fundamental rule of justice. Therefore, this right is often guaranteed in national constitutions, declarations of rights, fundamental laws establishing the justice system or by precedents set by the highest courts. However, it is not a constitutionally required procedure (in the United States) that a certified interpreter be present at police interrogation.This has been especially controversial in cases where illegal immigrants with no English skills are accused of crimes.
In the US, depending upon the regulations and standards adhered to per state and venue, court interpreters usually work alone when interpreting consecutively, or as a team, when interpreting simultaneously. In addition to practical mastery of the source and target languages, thorough knowledge of law and legal and court procedures is required of court interpreters. They are often required to have formal authorization from the state to work in the courts – and then are called certified court interpreters. In many jurisdictions, the interpretation is considered an essential part of evidence. Incompetent interpretation, or simply failure to swear in the interpreter, can lead to a mistrial.
Escort interpreter
In escort interpreting, an interpreter accompanies a person or a delegation on a tour, on a visit, or to a business meeting or interview. An interpreter in this role is called an escort interpreter or an escorting interpreter. An escort interpreter’s work session may run for days, weeks, or even months, depending on the period of korean interpreter chennai the client’s visit. This type of interpreting is often needed in business contexts, during presentations, investor meetings, and business negotiations. As such, and escort interpreter needs to be equipped with some business and financial knowledge in order to best understand and convey messages back and forth.
Public sector
Also known as community interpreting, is the type of interpreting occurring in fields such as legal, health, and local government, social, housing, environmental health, education, and welfare services. In community interpreting, factors exist which determine and affect language and communication production, such as speech's emotional content, hostile or polarized social surroundings, its created stress, the power relationships among participants, and the interpreter's degree of responsibility – in many cases more than extreme; in some cases, even the life of the other person depends upon the interpreter's work.
Medical
Medical interpreting is a subset of public service interpreting, consisting of communication among Healthcare personnel and the patient and their family or among Healthcare personnel speaking different languages, facilitated by an interpreter, usually formally educated and qualified to provide such interpretation services. In some situations medical employees who are multilingual may participate part-time as members of internal language banks. Depending on country/state specific requirements, the interpreter is often required to have some knowledge of medical terminology, common procedures, the patient interview and exam process. Medical interpreters are often cultural liaisons for people (regardless of language) who are unfamiliar with or uncomfortable in hospital, clinical, or medical settings.
For example, in China, there is no mandatory certificate for medical interpreters as of 2012. Most interpretation in hospitals in China is done by doctors, who are proficient in both Chinese and English (mostly) in his/her specialty. They interpret more in academic settings than for communications between doctors and patients. When a patient needs English language service in a Chinese hospital, more often than not the patient will be directed to a staff member in the hospital, who is recognized by his/her colleagues as proficient in English. The actual quality of such service for patients or medical translation for communications between doctors speaking different languages is unknown by the interpreting community as interpreters who lack Healthcare background rarely receive accreditation for medical translation in the medical community. Interpreters working in the Healthcare setting may be considered Allied Health Professionals.
In the United States, however, providing a Medical Interpreter is required by law. Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, color, or national origin in any program or activity that receives Federal funds or other Federal financial assistance. Because hospitals are federally funded, they are required by this law to provide a professional interpreter to any patient that may need one.
Telephone
Also referred to as "over-the-phone interpreting," "telephonic interpreting," and "tele-interpreting," telephone interpreting enables interpretation via telephone. Telephone interpreting can be used in community settings korean interpreter chennai as well as conference settings. Telephone interpreting may be used in place of on-site interpreting when no on-site interpreter is readily available at the location where services are needed. However, it is more commonly used for situations in which all parties who wish to communicate are already speaking to one another via telephone (e.g. telephone applications for insurance or credit cards, or telephone inquiries from consumers to businesses).
On-site
Also called "in-person interpreting" or sometimes colloquialized as "face-to-face", this delivery method requires the interpreter to be physically present in order for the interpretation to take place. In on-site interpreting settings, all of the parties who wish to speak to one another are usually located in the same place. This is by far the most common modality used for most public and social service settings.
Video
Interpretation services via Video Remote Interpreting (VRI) or a Video Relay Service (VRS) are useful for spoken language barriers where visual-cultural recognition is relevant, and even more applicable where one of the parties is deaf, hard-of-hearing or speech-impaired (mute). In such cases the direction of interpretation is normally within the same principal language, such as French Sign Language (FSL) to spoken French and Spanish Sign Language (SSL) to spoken Spanish. Multilingual sign language interpreters, who can also translate as well across principal languages (such as to and from SSL, to and from spoken English), are also available, albeit less frequently. Such activities involve considerable effort on the part of the translator, since sign languages are distinct natural languages with their own construction and syntax, different from the aural version of the same principal language.
With video interpreting, sign language interpreters work remotely with live video and audio feeds, so that the interpreter can see the deaf or mute party, converse with the hearing party and vice versa. Much like telephone interpreting, video interpreting can be used for situations in which no on-site interpreters are available. However, video interpreting cannot be used for situations in which all parties are speaking via telephone alone. VRI and VRS interpretation requires all parties to have the necessary equipment. Some advanced equipment enables interpreters to control the video camera, in order to zoom in and out, and to point the camera toward the party that is signing.
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Korean Interpreter chennai offers korean interpretation services for machine installation, business meeting arenas with advance notice, face to face interpreting anywhere in india.
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Translation
Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. The language korean interpreter chennai draws a terminological distinction (not all languages do) between translating (a written text) and interpreting (oral or sign-language communication between users of different languages); under this distinction, translation can begin only after the appearance of writing within a language community.
A translator always risks inadvertently introducing source-language words, grammar, or syntax into the target-language rendering. On the other hand, such "spill-overs" have sometimes imported useful source-language calques and loanwords that have enriched target languages. Translators, including early translators of sacred texts, have helped shape the very languages into which they have translated.
Because of the laboriousness of the translation process, since the 1940s efforts have been made, with varying degrees of success, to automate translation or to mechanically aid the human translator.More recently, the rise of the Internet has fostered a world-wide market for translation services and has facilitated "language localization".
Etymology
The English word "translation" derives from the Latin word translatio,which comes from trans, "across" + ferre, "to carry" or "to bring" (-latio in turn coming from latus, the past participle of ferre). Thus translatio is "a carrying across" or "a bringing across": in this case, of a text from one language to another.
Some Slavic languages and the Germanic languages (other than Dutch and Afrikaans) have calqued their words for the concept of "translation" on translatio.
The Romance languages and the remaining Slavic languages have derived their words for the concept of "translation" from an korean interpreter chennai alternative Latin word, traductio, itself derived from traducere ("to lead across" or "to bring across", from trans, "across" + ducere, "to lead" or "to bring")
The Ancient Greek term for "translation" (metaphrasis, "a speaking across"), has supplied English with "metaphrase" (a "literal", or "word-for-word", translation)—as contrasted with "paraphrase" ("a saying in other words", from paraphrasis)."Metaphrase" corresponds, in one of the more recent terminologies, to "formal equivalence"; and "paraphrase", to "dynamic equivalence".
Strictly speaking, the concept of metaphrase—of "word-for-word translation"—is an imperfect concept, because a given word in a given language often carries more than one meaning; and because a similar given meaning may often be represented in a given language by more than one word. Nevertheless, "metaphrase" and "paraphrase" may be useful as ideal concepts that mark the extremes in the spectrum of possible approaches to translation.
Back-translation
A "back-translation" is a translation of a translated text back into the language of the original text, made without reference to the original text. Comparison of a back-translation with the original text is sometimes used as a check on the accuracy of the original translation, much as the accuracy of a mathematical operation is sometimes checked by reversing the operation. But the results of such reverse-translation operations, while useful as approximate checks, are not always precisely reliable.Back-translation must in general be less accurate than back-calculation because linguistic symbols (words) are often ambiguous, whereas mathematical symbols are intentionally unequivocal. In the context of machine translation, a back-translation is also called a "round-trip translation." When translations are produced of material used in medical clinical trials, such as informed-consent forms, a back-translation is often required by the ethics committee or institutional review board.
It provided humorously telling evidence for the frequent unreliability of back-translation when he issued his own back-translation of a French translation of his short story, "The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County". He published his back-translation in a 1903 volume together with his English-language original, the French translation, and a "Private History of the 'Jumping Frog' Story". The latter included a synopsized adaptation of his story that Twain stated had appeared, unattributed to Twain, in a Professor Sidgwick's Greek Prose Composition under the title, "The Athenian and the Frog"; the adaptation had for a time been taken for an independent ancient Greek precursor to Twain's "Jumping Frog" story.
When a document survives only in translation, the original having been lost, researchers sometimes undertake back-translation in an effort to reconstruct the original text. An example involves the novel The Saragossa Manuscript by the Polish aristocrat Jan Potocki (1761–1815), who wrote the novel in French and anonymously published fragments in 1804 and 1813–14. Portions of the original French-language manuscript were subsequently lost; however, the missing fragments survived in a Polish translation, made by Edmund Chojecki in 1847 from a complete French copy that has since been lost. French-language versions of the complete Saragossa Manuscript have since been produced, based on extant French-language fragments and on French-language versions that have been back-translated from Chojecki's Polish version.
Many works by the influential Classical physician Galen survive only in medieval Arabic translation. Some survive only in Renaissance Latin translations from the Arabic, thus at a second remove from the original. To better understand Galen, scholars have attempted back-translation of such works in order to reconstruct the original Greek.
When historians suspect that a document is actually a translation from another language, back-translation into that hypothetical original language can provide supporting evidence by showing that such characteristics as idioms, puns, peculiar grammatical structures, etc., are in fact derived from the original language. For example, the known text of the Till Eulenspiegel folk tales is in High German but contains puns that work only when back-translated to Low German. This seems clear evidence that these tales (or at least large portions of them) were originally written in Low German and translated into High German by an over-metaphrastic translator.
Supporters of Aramaic primacy—the view that the Christian New Testament or its sources were originally written in the Aramaic language—seek to prove their case by showing that difficult passages in the existing Greek text of the New Testament make much more sense when back-translated to Aramaic: that, for example, some incomprehensible references are in fact Aramaic puns that do not work in Greek. Due to similar indications, it is believed that the 2nd century Gnostic Gospel of Judas, which survives only in Coptic, was originally written in Greek.
The dominant English-language literary figure of his age, illustrates, in his use of back-translation, translators' influence on the evolution of languages and literary styles. Dryden is believed to be the first person to posit that English sentences should not end in prepositions because Latin sentences cannot end in prepositions. Dryden created the proscription against "preposition stranding" in 1672 when he objected to Ben Jonson's 1611 phrase, "the bodies that those souls were frighted from", though he did not provide the rationale for his preference. Dryden often translated his writing into Latin, to check whether his writing was concise and elegant, Latin being considered an elegant and long-lived language with which to compare; then he back-translated his writing back to English according to Latin-grammar usage. As Latin does not have sentences ending in prepositions, Dryden may have applied Latin grammar to English, thus forming the controversial rule of no sentence-ending prepositions, subsequently adopted by other writers.
Translators
A competent translator is not only bilingual but bicultural. A language is not merely a collection of words and of rules of grammar and syntax for generating sentences, but also a vast interconnecting system of connotations and cultural references whose mastery, writes linguist Mario Pei, "comes close to being a lifetime job."The complexity of the translator's task cannot be overstated; one author suggests that becoming an accomplished translator—after having already acquired a good basic knowledge of both languages and cultures—may require a minimum of ten years' experience. Viewed in this light, it is a serious misconception to assume that a person who has fair fluency in two languages will, by virtue of that fact alone, be consistently competent to translate between them.
The translator's role in relation to a text has been compared to that of an artist, e.g., a musician or actor, who interprets a work of art. Translation, like other human activities, entails making choices, and choice implies Korean interpretation gurgaon. Mark Polizzotti writes: "A good translation offers not a reproduction of the work but an interpretation, a re-representation, just as the performance of a play or a sonata is a representation of the script or the score, one among many possible representations."
The English-language novelist Joseph Conrad, whose writings Zdzisław Najder has described as verging on "auto-translation" from Conrad's Polish and French linguistic personae, advised his niece and Polish translator Aniela Zagórska: "on't trouble to be too scrupulous ... I may tell you (in French) that in my opinion il vaut mieux interpréter que traduire [it is better to interpret than to translate] ...Il s'agit donc de trouver les équivalents. Et là, ma chère, je vous prie laissez vous guider plutôt par votre tempérament que par une conscience sévère ... [It is, then, a question of finding the equivalent expressions. And there, my dear, I beg you to let yourself be guided more by your temperament than by a strict conscience....]"Conrad advised another translator that the prime requisite for a good translation is that it be "idiomatic". "For in the idiom is the clearness of a language and the language's force and its picturesqueness—by which last I mean the picture-producing power of arranged words."Conrad thought C.K. Scott Moncrieff's English translation of Marcel Proust's À la recherche du temps perdu (In Search of Lost Time—or, in Scott Moncrieff's rendering, Remembrance of Things Past) to be preferable to the French original.
The necessity of making choices, and therefore of interpretation, in translating(and in other fields of human endeavor) stems from the ambiguity that subjectively pervades the universe. Part of the ambiguity, for a translator, involves the structure of human language. Psychologist and neural scientist Gary Marcus notes that "virtually every sentence [that people generate] is ambiguous, often in multiple ways. Our brain is so good at comprehending language that we do not usually notice." An example of linguistic ambiguity is the "pronoun disambiguation problem" ("PDP"): a machine has no way of determining to whom or what a pronoun in a sentence—such as "he", "she" or "it"—refers. Such disambiguation is not infallible by a human, either.
Ambiguity is a concern to both translators and, as the writings of poet and literary critic William Empson have demonstrated, to literary critics. Ambiguity may be desirable, indeed essential, in poetry and diplomacy; it can be more problematic in ordinary prose.
A translator is faced with two contradictory tasks: when translating, strive for omniscience; when reviewing the resulting translation, assume (the naive reader's) ignorance.
Translators may render only parts of the original text, provided that they inform readers of that action. But a translator should not assume the role of censor and surreptitiously delete or bowdlerize passages merely to please a political or moral interest.
Translating has served as a school of writing for many an author, much as the copying of masterworks of painting has schooled many a novice painter.A translator who can competently render an author's thoughts into the translator's own language, should certainly be able to adequately render, in his own language, any korean interpreter chennai thoughts of his own. Translating (like analytic philosophy) compels precise analysis of language elements and of their usage. In 1946 the poet Ezra Pound, then at St. Elizabeth's Hospital, in Washington, D.C., advised a visitor, the 18-year-old beginning poet W.S. Merwin: "The work of translation is the best teacher you'll ever have. Merwin, translator-poet who took Pound's advice to heart, writes of translation as an "impossible, unfinishable" art.
Translators, including monks who spread Buddhist texts in East Asia, and the early modern European translators of the Bible, in the course of their work have shaped the very languages into which they have translated. They have acted as bridges for conveying knowledge between cultures; and along with ideas, they have imported from the source languages, into their own languages, loanwords and calques of grammatical structures, idioms, and vocabulary.
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Language interpretation
Interpreting is a translational activity in which one produces a first and final translation on the basis of a one-time exposure to an expression in a source language.
The most common two modes of interpreting are simultaneous interpreting, which is done at the time of the exposure to the source language, and consecutive interpreting, which is done at breaks to this exposure.
Interpreting is an ancient human activity which predates the invention of writing. However, the origins of the profession of interpreting date back to less than a century ago.
Historiography
Research into the korean interpreter chennai various aspects of the history of interpreting is quite new. For as long as most scholarly interest was given to professional conference interpreting, very little academic work was done on the practice of interpreting in history, and until the only a few dozen publications were done on it.
Considering the amount of interpreting activities that is assumed to have occurred for thousands of years, historical records are limited.Moreover, interpreters and their work have usually not found their way into the history books.One of the reasons for that is the dominance of the written text over the spoken word (in the sense that those who have left written texts are more likely to be recorded by historians). Another problem is the tendency to view it as an ordinary support activity which does not require any special attention, and the social status of interpreters, who were sometimes treated unfairly by scribes, chroniclers and historians.
Our knowledge of the past of interpreting tends to come from letters, chronicles, biographies, diaries and memoirs, along with a variety of other documents and literary works, many of which (and with few exceptions) were only incidentally or marginally related to interpreting.
Etymology
Many Indo-European languages have words for 'interpreting' and 'interpreter'. Expressions in Germanic, Scandinavian and Slavic languages denoting an interpreter can be traced back to Akkadian, around 1900 BCE. The Akkadian root targumânu/turgumânu also gave rise to the term dragoman via an etymological sideline from Arabic.
The English word ‘interpreter’, however, is derived from Latin interpres (meaning ‘expounder’, ‘person explaining what is obscure’), whose semantic roots are not clear. Some scholars take the second part of the word to be derived from partes or pretium (meaning ‘price’, which fits the meaning of a ‘middleman’, ‘intermediary’ or ‘commercial go-between’), but others have suggested a Sanskrit root.
Modes
Consecutive
In consecutive interpreting (CI), the interpreter starts to interpret before the speaker pauses. Therefore, the time needed is much lower (possibly half the time needed). Traditionally, the interpreter will sit or stand near the speaker.
Consecutive interpretation korean interpreter chennai can be conducted in a pattern of short or long segments according to the interpreter's preference. In short CI, the interpreter relies mostly on memory whereas, in long CI, most interpreters will rely on note-taking. The notes must be clear and legible in order to not waste time on reading them. Consecutive interpreting of whole thoughts, rather than in small pieces, is desirable so that the interpreter has the whole meaning before rendering it in the target language. This affords a truer, more accurate, and more accessible interpretation than where short CI or simultaneous interpretation is used.
An attempt at consensus about lengths of segments may be reached prior to commencement, depending upon complexity of the subject matter and purpose of the interpretation, though speakers generally face difficulty adjusting to unnatural speech patterns.
On occasion, document sight translation is required of the interpreter during consecutive interpretation work. Sight translation combines interpretation and translation; the interpreter must render the source-language document to the target-language as if it were written in the target language. Sight translation occurs usually, but not exclusively, in judicial and medical work.
Consecutive interpretation may be the chosen mode when bilingual listeners are present who wish to hear both the original and interpreted speech or where, as in a court setting, a record must be kept of both.
When no interpreter is available to interpret directly from source to target, an intermediate interpreter will be inserted in a relay mode, e.g. a Greek source language could be interpreted into English and then from English to another language. This is also commonly known as double-interpretation. Triple-interpretation may even be needed, particularly where rare languages or dialects are involved. Such interpretation can only be effectively conducted using consecutive interpretation.
Simultaneous
Simultaneous interpretation (SI) suffers the disadvantage that if a person is performing the service the interpreter must do the best he or she can within the time permitted by the pace of source speech. However they also have the advantages of saving time and not disturbing the natural flow of the speaker. SI can also be accomplished by software where the program can simultaneously listen to incoming speech and speak the associated interpretation. The most common form is extempore SI, where the interpreter does not know the message until he or she hears it.
Simultaneous interpretation using electronic equipment where the interpreter can hear the speaker's voice as well as the interpreter's own voice was introduced at the Nuremberg trials. The equipment facilitated large numbers of listeners, and interpretation was offered in French, Russian, German and English. The technology arose in the and when American businessman Edward Filene and British engineer Alan Gordon Finlay developed simultaneous interpretation equipment with IBM. Yvonne Kapp attended a conference with simultaneous translation in 1935 in the Soviet Union.As it proved successful, IBM was able to sell the equipment to the United Nations, where it is now widely used in the United Nations Interpretation Service.
In the ideal setting for oral language, the interpreter sits in a sound-proof booth and speaks into a microphone, while clearly seeing and hearing the source-language speaker via earphones. The simultaneous interpretation is rendered to the target-language listeners via their earphones.
The progressive shift from consecutive to simultaneous
The Memoir of a Soviet Interpreter gives a short history of modern interpretation and of the transition from its consecutive to simultaneous forms. He explains that during the nineteenth century interpreters were rarely needed during European diplomatic discussions; these were routinely conducted in French, and all government diplomats were required to be fluent in this language. Most European government leaders and heads of state could also speak French. Historian Harold Nicolson attributes the growing need for interpretation after World War I to the fact that U.S. President Woodrow Wilson and British Prime Minister "were no linguists". At the time, the concept and special equipment needed for simultaneous interpretation, later patented by Alan Gordon Finlay, had not been developed, so consecutive interpretation was used.
Consecutive interpreters, in order be accurate, used a specialized system of note-taking which included symbols abbreviations and acronyms. Because they waited until the speaker was finished to provide translation, the interpreters then had the difficult task of creating from these notes as much as half an hour of free-flowing sentences closely matching the speaker's meaning as skilled interpreters, and notes one unusual case in which interpreted a speech by a French diplomat who spoke for two and a half hours without stopping.
After World War II, simultaneous interpretation came into use at the Nuremberg trial, and began to be more accepted. Experienced consecutive interpreters asserted that the difficulties of listening and speaking at the same time, adjusting for differences in sentence structure between languages, and interpreting the beginning of a sentence before hearing its end, would produce an inferior result. As well, these interpreters, who to that point had been prominent speakers, would now be speaking invisibly from booths. when the United Nations expanded its number of working languages to five (English, French, Russian, Chinese and Spanish), consecutive translation became impractical in most cases, and simultaneous translation became the most common process for the organization's large meetings.Consecutive interpretation, which provides a more fluent result without the need for specialized equipment, continued to be used for smaller discussions.
Whispered
Since time immemorial, whispering interpretation has been used, known in the trade by the French term chuchotage. To avoid disturbing the original speaker and those present listening to the original speaker, the interpreter's voice korean interpreter chennai is kept at a low volume. To do this, the interpreter and the person requiring interpretation must sit or stand in close proximity to one another. No actual whispering is involved as this is difficult to decipher as well as being too much of a strain on the voice: the interpreter uses normal 'voiced' speech at a low volume. Only one or at the most two people in need of interpretation can be accommodated, unless portable electronic equipment is used.This form of interpretation puts a strain on the interpreter who has to sit for long periods leaning towards the person in need of interpretation.
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