afra3635-weekly-blog

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Week 14

13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution: Abolition of Slavery

Free African Americans Contribution to the War Effort 

Black men contributed to the civil war not only as just soldiers but also in other ways. “Not only black soldiers and sailors but also another 200,000 black women and men ultimately traveled with the Union armies over the course of the war and labored in nonmilitary capacities.”(White, Bay, Martin Jr., 281) Free African Americans in the north worked with union soldiers as spies and servants. Black men were road builders, carpenters, wagon drivers livestock tenders, and foragers; women served primarily as cooks, laundresses, teachers, and nurses. Many people had many roles at once like Harriet Tubman who was a scout, spy, teacher, and nurse. Susie King Taylor, a former slave started a school in Sea Islands and served as a teacher, nurse, and laundress for the all-black Thirty-Third U.S. Colored Troops. Blacks were being educated during this time which is very important because white plantation owners wanted to do anything in their power to stop blacks from educating themselves. Another example of black people in action is Mary Elizabeth Bowser who worked undercover as a house servant and spied for the Union in the Confederate White House. Elizabeth Keckley also helped by establishing charitable organizations that assisted with the problem of contraband crowding in the Union capital. It was supported by Henry Highland Garnet, Frederick Douglass, and Sojourner Truth, who also raised food and money for black regiments. “Our work has been to provide shelter, food, clothing, medicines, and nourishment for them..”(White, Bay, Martin Jr., 281)  Blacks are very involved in the war effort and making ways to help wherever they can. “From the battlefields and war-torn plantation of the South to the military hospitals and contraband camps in the North, it was often the unpaid work of black women that alleviated the suffering and provided humanitarian aid.” (White, Bay, Martin Jr., 281)

The free blacks also had goals to give over confiscated and abandoned confederate land to former slaves through Special Field Order 15 which was issued by General Sherman on January 16, 1865. Each head of the household could receive up to forty acres of land along the Florida, Georgia, and South Carolina coast. 

New York Draft Riot 

“Shortly after the Union’s victories at Gettysburg and Vicksburg, Union troops were hastily transferred to New York City to put down a riot.”(White, Bay, Martin Jr., 278) A military draft instituted on March 3, 1863, had proved so unpopular in various parts of the North that it triggered violence. The draft was unpopular because many people did not want to fight a war to end black slavery but also because they saw the draft as unjust.  The prosperous could pay 300 to purchase exemption or hire a substitute but the poor and working-class had no choice but to serve. When newspapers published the names of the first draftees, chose by lottery, a mob of white men attacked the Manhattan draft office. “The New York draft riots spread quickly, and for four days roving white mobs, including a large number of criminals and Risih working-class men, turned to ransacking black neighborhoods.”(White, Bay, Martin Jr., 278) They burned the Colored Orphan Asylum to the ground. Thousands of blacks were homeless and destitute. “Dozens were lynched; some were murdered in their homes.”(White, Bay, Martin Jr., 278) The causes were deep-seated. Emancipation may have become a war aim, but for many whites, it was not welcome. Many white soldiers resented being asked to fight and die to free slaves. Many white-working class men and women feared that emancipation would mean a flood of black laborers coming north to take their jobs and undercut their wages and status. The racist language of northern white Democratic politicians and the Democratic press inflamed these fears and tensions. 

Importance of the 13th Amendment

“The 13th amendment was the culmination of a war initially undertaken to preserve the union before being transformed into a war to end slavery.” (White, Bay, Martin Jr., 284) Many blacks did not have their rights recognized and for legislation to be passed to end slavery in union territories means that slaves and free people are fully free now. In the past, we read about how blacks had to fight for rights for a long time, even free blacks. It is important to note that freedom does not mean equality. The thirteenth amendment comes about after the Emancipation Proclamation to finally free the slaves because it was a question throughout the war the status of African Americans. 

“The House Joint Resolution proposing the 13th amendment to the Constitution, January 31, 1865; Enrolled Acts and Resolutions of Congress, 1789-1999; General Records of the United States Government; Record Group 11; National Archives.”

13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution: Abolition of Slavery

“The House Joint Resolution proposing the 13th amendment to the Constitution, January 31, 1865; Enrolled Acts and Resolutions of Congress, 1789-1999; General Records of the United States Government; Record Group 11; National Archives.”

The Fall of Black Reconstruction 

Black Reconstruction, which took place from 1866 to 1877, was a “ revolutionary political period…, when, for the first time ever, black men actively participated in the mainstream politics of the reconstructed southern states and in turn, transformed the nation’s political life” (White, Bay, Martin Jr., G-1). The Reconstruction era saw the passing of civil rights acts, amendments, and reconstruction acts. The passing of such legislation, along with the reauthorization of the Freedmen’s Bureau, sought to protect the civil rights of the freedpeople. The Civil Rights Act of 1866, which was then affirmed by the Fourteenth Amendment, defined U.S citizenship for the first time. It also established that all citizens were equally protected by the law. However, the voting rights of black men were not protected and ensured by either. The Reconstruction Act of 1867 dissolved all state governments, with the exception of Tennessee. In order for the state to reenter the Union, the state was required to create a new state constitution that guaranteed black voting rights and ratified the Fourteenth Amendment. As the South began reconstructing states, Black Reconstruction saw the rise of black involvement in politics. Over 2,000 blacks served as officeholders, fourteen served in the House of Representatives, and two served in the Senate.   To ensure black men’s right to vote, which was viewed by African Americans as the most important civil right, Congress ratified the Fifteenth Amendment in 1870. This amendment stated that, “the right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude” (White, Bay, Martin Jr., 318). However, this period of Black Reconstruction, and Reconstruction in general, did not last very long. 

White Southerners were infuriated with the involvement of blacks in politics. This discontent turned into a initiation of a counterrevolution to restore white power and superiority. They were in search of “redemption.” By the late 1860s, southern whites began to push blacks out of office. The greatest element they used to achieve their “redemption” was intimidation. They did this through the use of violence. White Supremacist groups began to form in the South that terrorized black communities. The most notable being the Ku Klux Klan (KKK), which was founded in 1865 in Tennessee. These white supremacist groups would often target successful black businesses or people. However, many facets of black life were targeted and destroyed such as schools, churches, businesses, buildings, homes, livestock, and more. Included in that list were black people. They were “beaten, raped, murdered, and lynched” (White, Bay, Martin Jr., 319). Despite the attempt to put down this violence, through the Force Acts in 1870 and 1871, the lawlessness and brutality continued. The Colfax Massacre is the greatest example of the amount of violence that black people faced. This massacre, which took place on Easter Sunday in 1873, culminated with 280 black people killed. Through all of this endless violence, the Republican Party accepted the return of ex-Confederates into the government. Northern Republican support waned and they gave in to the uprising of white southerners. Black people even began to be blamed for the violence they were facing. This indicated that the government had abandoned the freedpeople. The Black Revolution came to an end, and once again, black people were left on their own to face white violence and brutality. 

Currier & Ives. The first colored senator and representatives - in the 41st and 42nd Congress of the United States. New York: Published by Currier & Ives. Photograph. Retrieved from the Library of Congress, <www.loc.gov/item/98501907/>.

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WEEK 12

Election of Abraham Lincoln and Secession from the Union

Abraham Lincoln was a Republican moderate who ran in the 1860 U.S. presidential election when slavery was a national issue. When the results come in, Lincoln becomes president of the United States. He won only 39% of the vote because so many people were running for president. The south does not agree with the results because Lincoln wasn’t even on the ballot in some southern states. As a result tensions over slavery reach a breaking point. “The south believed they owed no loyalty to a Union that could elect a president without any southern support, the slave states made plans to withdraw.”(White, Bay, Martin Jr., 262) Some of the reasons that the South wanted to secede were because the southerners believed that the union aided and abetted slaves escaping from the south. South Carolina is the first of the Confederate states to secede from the Union on December 24, 1860. By February 1, 1861, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas also had seceded, and on February 4, delegates from these states met in Montgomery, Alabama, to create the Confederate States of America. 

The Confederate States of America prepared for war and began building an army and navy. At this point in time, President Lincoln’s only interest was maintaining the Union if that meant getting rid of slavery or keeping slavery. In one of the first cabinet meetings, Lincoln wanted to resupply Fort Sumter and made his intentions known to the governor of South Carolina. The south demanded the fort’s surrender and fired upon the fort resulting in the beginning of the Civil War. The Union forces in reply asked for able bodied men to join the cause. Free black men flock to join the Union forces to fight against the Confederates. “For many whites, black men serving in the Union forces evoked thoughts of slave insurrections and violated notions of white male superiority.”(White, Bay, Martin Jr., 264) Lincoln did not want to make the war about slavery so he would not lose the border states which he felt were very important to winning the war.  Some slaves were captured by Union forces and treated as confiscated Confederate property. These slaves became diggers and dockworkers, servants and laundresses and cooks for Union soldiers. The slaves were also putting pressure on Union forces and also president Lincoln to declare their status. In early August 1861, Congress passed the First Confiscation Act, which authorized the confiscation of slaves as Confederate property settling the question on the status of slaves.  The Second Confiscation Act declares freedom for all slaves employed in the rebellion and for refugee slaves able to make it to Union-controlled territory. “President Lincoln at this point understood the military advantage of freeing fugitive slaves and making them military labor.”(White, Bay, Martin Jr., 270) Lincoln issued an Emancipation Proclamation freeing the slaves in states or parts of states still in rebellion against the United State as of January 1, and listed that the regions would be forever free. 

Portrait of Abraham Lincoln. Author: Alexander Gardner (1821-1882). Date: November 8, 1863. Source: Mead Art Museum.

Initial Aims of the Civil War and Lincoln’s Solutions to Slavery

The initial aims of the war for the Union was to protect and maintain the Union. Lincoln refused to state that the reason behind the war was to abolish slavery. He understood that this would lead to a loss of the already minimal support in the border states, which were slave states. He made sure to present the war as one with the purpose of preserving the Union. Lincoln refused to take any of the advice by abolitionists to present the war as a moral war to end slavery. Lincoln “refused to acknowledge slavery as the cause of the war, or abolition as its goal. He knew he could not afford to alienate the border states, where slavery still existed” (White, Bay, Martin Jr., 266). Although that was what this war was truly about, claiming this would lose the support of crucial states. Also, Lincoln was never an abolitionist who shared abolitionist sentiments. For the Confederacy, this war was always about protecting slavery. They wanted to break away from the Union and create their own nation, in which slavery would always be protected and secured. Initially, the Civil War was a "white man's war." Although many black people immediately and enthusiastically responded to Lincoln's call for volunteers, black men were not allowed to serve in the Union military. Black men were rejected from any military service. This was for many different reasons. Lincoln claimed that this war was not about slavery, therefore, if Black men were allowed to serve, the Confederacy would immediately call them out for lying. The efficacy and capabilities of Black troops were called into question because of racism. The idea that Black people were cowards and would flee at the first shot, was a racist one, yet one that was still believed by the Union. Also, the sight of Black men serving with the Union forces was believed to evoke slave insurrections. Another reason for the rejection of Black service in the Union military is because this was a "white man's war" and their presence challenged their idea of white superiority. 

Lincoln's early solutions to the issue of slavery was gradual and compensated slave emancipation. However, it was the slave owners, not the slaves, that received the compensation. This gradual and compensated emancipation allowed for the states to take their own initiative. This was aimed at the border states. He allowed for them to take the initiative because he did not want to make it seem like he was forcing this upon the border states. He needed their support. However, as expected, none of the border states decided to take the initiative and adopt emancipation plans. In Washington D.C., Congress passed legislation to bring slavery to an end here. It compensated owners who proved their loyalty to the Union and freed their slaves. They would receive three hundred dollars for every slave they freed. The slaves that were freed would receive compensation, a hundred dollars, if they chose to emigrate to any country outside of the United States. Among this was the idea of colonization by ridding the nation of free blacks. Around “3,000 slaves were freed by this act, and several hundred chose to accept payment to relocate to Haiti” (White, Bay, Martin Jr., 266). In June of 1862, congress ended slavery in the areas located west of the Mississippi River. 

Emancipation Proclamation

At the beginning of the Civil War, the central aim of the war, for the Union and Abraham Lincoln, was to keep the Union together. However, as fugitive slaves began shaping the war and Lincoln finally was able to see that this war had always been about slavery, that changed. Abraham Lincoln began to understand the benefits and advantages that would come with the freeing of fugitive slaves. Not only that, but making this war a moral one against slavery would bring the Union diplomatic benefits. Nations like Great Britain and France were antislavery and by making making the central aim of the war about bringing slavery to an end, it was bringing in support of foreign powers. Simultaneously, this support of foreign powers for the Union, completely lowered the chances of the Confederacy being diplomatically recognized by European powers. Also, by freeing slaves in rebellious states and employing them for military labor and as soldiers, it would become a huge military advantage for the Union. Lincoln finally began to see what the abolitionists were pushing him to do since the first shot of the war was fired. They understood the overall benefits, both militarily and politically, that emancipation would bring for the Union in this war. 

The Emancipation Proclamation transforms the aims of the war because it was no longer about keeping the Union united. The war was a moral war now, one that had the central aim of freeing slaves. The Emancipation Proclamation legalized black men taking up arms and fighting for the Union. The Emancipation Proclamation was a presidential proclamation “freeing all slaves under Confederate control and authorizing the use of black troops in the Civil War” (White, Bay, Martin Jr., G-2). This momentous step allowed for former slaves to face those who were once their owners. It made it legal for a black soldier to kill the men that kept them in chains for so long. This might have been the most important part of the proclamation. The Civil War was about bringing slavery to an end and freeing those in bondage. However, the proclamation includes limitations. It only frees slaves that lived in rebellious, or Confederate, states. This meant that slavery could continue in Union territory, such as the border states, pro-Union states in the Confederacy, and Confederate areas that were under Union control. 

This is an image of the Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation.

Lincoln, Abraham. Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation. 1862. Pdf. Retrieved from the Library of Congress, <www.loc.gov/item/scsm000950/>.

U.S. Colored Troops

After the proclamation, the War Department created a bureau to oversee the U.S. Colored Troops. The proclamation allowed for black men to be received into the Union army and take up arms. However, the enrollment and recruitment of free blacks was very slow at first. Many were skeptical that their sacrifice would be worthy. They wanted to be sure that they would be guaranteed full citizenship rights, as they were tired of false promises and false hope. Abolitionists, like Frederick Douglass, attempted to increase the number of black recruits by promoting black military service. He emphasized the link between military service and citizenship, as once they have fought for the nation, "there is no power on earth or under the earth which can deny that he has earned the right of citizenship in the United States" (White, Bay, Martin Jr., 273). By the end of the war, nearly 179,000 black men had enlisted in the U.S. Colored Troops. Of the 750,000 total casualties of the Civil War, almost 40,000 of them were black troops. 

However, there were many risks that black troops faced, among the common dangers of war. The Confederacy treated black Union soldiers as slaves in rebellion. It became the Confederate policy to treat black Union soldiers as the instigators of slave insurrections. Due to this, black soldiers faced re-enslavement, torture, and even death, if they were captured. It was part of the policy that the black soldier that was captured be returned to their slave holder and if that was not possible they were handed over to the state to determine their future. However, many times, the Confederate soldiers did not abide by this and would ruthlessly murder the black soldiers. An example of the ruthlessness of the Confederacy when dealing with black troops can be seen in Fort Pillow. During the battle, the Confederate soldiers did not allow for the black troops to surrender. Instead, they massacred them. In total, 255 black Union soldiers were massacred in Fort Pillow. In this battle, the deep rooted racism and dehumanization of black lives were on display. The Confederate soldiers acted the way they did because they were facing black troops. It can almost be guaranteed that the Fort Pillow massacre would not have occurred if it were white Union troops. U.S. Colored Troops used the Fort Pillow battle as motivation during other battles to win for their fallen soldiers. During a battle in Richmond, led by General Butler, the black troops were told by Butler to not stop firing and to "Remember Fort Pillow". It became a battle cry for black troops. 

U.S. Colored Troops. New York Public Library. https://www.battlefields.org/learn/topics/united-states-colored-troops

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WEEK 11

Westward Expansion

Between the years of 1830 and 1860, hundreds of thousands of Americans moved west toward the newly added territories. Among these people were Native Americans and enslaved African Americans who were forced to relocate, unlike their white counterparts. As they moved west, slavery was also brought along with them. Texas, which was original Mexican territory, was an example of how slavery expanded into this region. By 1830, around twenty thousand Americans had already settled in Mexican Texas. These Americans reintroduced slavery into a territory where slavery had already been abolished by bringing along two thousands slaves into the territory. This led to Texas being admitted as a slave state in 1845. The idea of westward expansion and manifest destiny inccreased tensions over slavery. Manifest destiny was the imperialist belief that the expansion of the United States was justified and inevitable. This increased tensions between the North and South because the question remained whether the added territory would become free of slave states. 

The North wanted more free states, whereas the South wanted more slave states. This was important on many levels, especially because this affected the balance of Congress. The expansion of the United States brough the issue of slavery onto a political platform. Both the North and the South did not want to be overruled in power by the other. The issue and debate of free versus slave states became a central part of American political life due to the expansion of the United States. The introduction of new territory meant that the nation had to decide whether those states were going to be free or slave states. This issue was important because it included the spread of slavery, representation in Congress, and labor. Many Northerners who were pushing for these states to be annexed as free states, were anti-slavery. However, many anti-slavery activist, like David Wilmot, did not truly care for black lives. David Wilmot was a Representative from Pennsylvania who introduced a proviso that pushed for neither slavery or indentured servitude to be allowed to exists in any of the new territoty gained from the Mexican-American war. Wilmot “was against slavery, but he was not pro-black. He aimed to keep slavery out of the territories so that free white labor would have a chance to thrive there, and to present blacks from coming into that area” (White, Bay, Martin Jr., 236). 

Wilmot, David. David Wilmot. Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. (cph 3b14456)

Fugitive Slave Act of 1850

The Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 had a devastating impact on the African American community in the North, free and fugitive. This act made it a federal crime for anyone to interfere or hide fugitive slaves. It made it legal for federal marshals, police, and citizens to kidnap and re-enslave Black people. Citizens were called upon to aid in the capture of fugitive slaves and anyone who refused to do so were fined up to $1000 and faced imprisonment for six months. However, while this act impeded on the rights of white northerners, it posed a danger to all African Americans. The Fugitive Slave Act was an existential threat to Blacks. African Americans, both fugitive and free, faced re-enslavement and the constant danger of being kidnapped by federal marshals. This act caused many Blacks to emigrate to places like Canada, Mexico, the West Indies, and even Europe. The North was no longer safe for African Americans. 

African Americans responded to the Fugitive Slave Act through vigilance committees, civil disobedience, and armed resistance. Vigilance committees were formed by African Americans before the passing of this act, however, it gained the support of white abolitionists after the passing of the act. These committees, which assisted fugitives by providing temporary shelter, food, clothing, legal assistance, and even jobs, began to spring up throughout the North. These vigilance committees would warn the black population about slave catchers and spread information about them in hopes of saving more African Americans from being re-enslaved. Civil disobedience is the refusal to obey an unjust law. Some African Americans resorted to this method to attempt to stop the arrests and re-enslavement of Blacks. They would often block and harass the slave catchers. They would interfere with the federal marshals. They would break into courtrooms and jails to free the fugitives. This was the case with Shadrack Minkins, Jerry Rescue, and Anthony Burns. Armed resistance was the call for self-protection. African Americans began to arm themselves to avoid being kidnapped and fight for their freedom. They were prepared to meet the slave catchers with armed resistance. The fugitive slave crisis increased the tension and conflict between the North and South. The North took this crisis as a way to shed light on the realities of slavery and its impact. While the South took this as the North attempting to ruin their way of life and destroying slavery.

Hulton Archive / Getty Images

Kansas Nebraska Act:

The Kansas Nebraska Act of 1854 was introduced by Senator Stephen A. Douglass. This act made it so that the Nebraska and Kansas territories could vote to determine if they would be free or slave states. As a result their were many confrontations between proslavery and antislavery forces. In retaliation to an attack in May 1856 by proslavery forces on missouri, John Brown, a radical abolitionist took revenge and murdered five proslavery settlers at Pottawine Creek. This is what lead to it becoming bleeding Kansas because of all the violence and bloodshed. It was so violent that the south carolina respresantive Preseton S. brooks beat Massachusetts senator charles sumner into unconsciousness at his desk. “Brooks claimed to be upholding the honor of his kinsman. On top of that their is the formation  Free soil party an antislavery party was formed which would form into the republican party. With the Democratic Party who was proslavery, slavery was increasingly becoming a political issue.

Kansas Nebraska Act:

 Kansas Nebraska Act of 1854 was introduced by Senator Stephen A. Douglass. This act made it so that the Nebraska and Kansas territories could vote to determine if they would be free or slave states. As a result their were many confrontations between proslavery and antislavery forces. In retaliation to an attack in May 1856 by proslavery forces on missouri, John Brown, a radical abolitionist took revenge and murdered five proslavery settlers at Pottawine Creek. This is what lead to it becoming bleeding Kansas because of all the violence and bloodshed. It was so violent that the south carolina respresantive Preseton S. brooks beat Massachusetts senator charles sumner into unconsciousness at his desk. “Brooks claimed to be upholding the honor of his kinsman. On top of that their is the formation  Free soil party an antislavery party was formed which would form into the republican party. With the Democratic Party who was proslavery, slavery was increasingly becoming a political issue.

Photo of Stephen A. Douglass taken between 1855 and 1861. Source: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs division. Image is part of Brady-Handy Photograph Collection

Dredd Scott Case:

Dredd and Harriet Scott were slaves from Missouri who fled to Wisconsin to be free. The Dredd Scott case was between the Scotts and their master over whether they would remain free or go back into slavery. They said that because they made it to free land that they should remain free. The Scots were not entitled to sue in the courts of Missouri because he was not considered a citizen. The result from the case was that no person of African descent could be a citizen of the United States. Africans were “regarded as beings of an inferior order, and altogether unfit to associate with the white race, either in social or political relation; and so far inferior that they had no rights which the white man was bound to respect. Slaves were legally protected as property under the constitution and congress had no authority to deny the right of property. It could not forbid slaveholding anywhere. All laws that forbade slavery were unconstitutional including the Missouri compromise of 1820. (243) The results from the Dred Scott case was that it diminished black prospects for a viable life and meaningful future in the United States. Many blacks thought about emigrating to establish a “black nation” outside the U.S.  People who were favorable towards emigration like Martin R. Delaney talked about how black self-reliance demanded black self-determination.. There was a belief that African Americans were a nation within a nation that required self-determination. In this new black nation you could enjoy the dignity of manhood, the rights of citizenship, and all the advantages of civilization and freedom. Blacks would be able to self-rule.

Posthumous Portrait of Dredd Scott. “Dred Scott (1795 – 1858), plaintiff in the infamous Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857) case at the Supreme Court of the United States, commissioned by a "group of Negro citizens" and presented to the Missouri Historical Society, St. Louis, in 1888.” Date: 1888 by Louis Schultze. Source: Missouri Historical Society.

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WEEK 10

Black Negro Convention

The first national negro convention started in the 1830s to face challenges in the north which brought together free black communities in the north and some in the south. They addressed and spoke on black issues to find common solutions. It helped unify black activism on a national level and allowed blacks to get a sense of belonging to a political movement. The convention was called by Bishop Richard Allen who was a slave from Delaware who purchased his freedom after convincing his master with the great awakening. He also led the first boycott walking out of a white church. Allen founded the African Methodist Episcopal church and called for a convention to discuss the issues of the black population of the United States. They discussed issues that included equality and citizenship. African Americans were the first abolitionists and directed the movement forward. They passed resolutions condemning slavery and race prejudice and called on African Americans to agitate for the vote. The abolitionists undertook activism and projects which were letter-writing campaigns and building black schools. The negro convention brought together black ministers, teachers, and community teachers which was made up mostly of men. Later it would include more women. You also see an appeal to moral improvement which was that an increase in morality could improve one’s condition. Future conventions continued during the civil war and discussed black education and employment. Blacks were called to support black businesses and to boycott slave-produced goods. Moral reform and uplift still remained important but there was not always agreement. As violence and oppression grew between the 1830s and 1840s blacks believed that moral reform was not an answer to white racism because they felt no matter how much they improved themselves it would not solve the challenges they faced from the larger society. Blacks also disagreed over emigration as some African Americans wanted to leave the United States and go to Haiti or British West Indies, West Africa. Most who choose emigration do end up going to British Canada where slavery was abolished in 1834. Many black leaders demanded that they stay and fight. The black conventions linked black communities and networks forming a larger black identity. 

A portrait of Richard Allen, a Methodist bishop and founder of the African Methodist Episcopal Church. Date: 1891. Source: Richard Allen, from the frontispiece of History of the African Methodist Episcopal Church (1891). Author Daniel A. Payne.

The Black Press

The first black newspaper Freedom’s Journal was first produced by John Russwurm and Samuel Cornish in 1827. Many other black newspapers started around the 1830s which coincided with the growth of the American press as newspapers became more popular and affordable. There was a large surge of black newspapers from the 1830-1860s which were supported mostly by black communities and sympathetic white patrons. The newspapers provided a weekly or monthly perspective on current events and a forum for discussing the fight for abolition as well as issues relevant to free black uplift, such as suffrage, jobs, housing, schools, and fair treatment on public transportation. Papers were spread from one person to another and had a widespread influence. It built a sense of black community. African Americans wanted newspapers to speak with their voice. The newspapers refuted racism and racist depictions like bobalition broadsides, black minstrelsy, and negative claims from the American Colonization Society. They could speak back to their oppressors and would use the papers as a form of rebuttal. The newspapers advocated for moral reform and black uplift and fought for black rights and black citizenship. Because they were de-facto anti-slavery newspapers they were banned in the south and burned and faced hostility from the whites in the north who saw them as agitating. They served to keep blacks informed on a federal and international level writing about what’s going on in Haiti and Africa. Black newspapers would also republish speeches in the papers reprint information from other black and anti-slavery newspapers. 

Image: Freedom's Journal Volume 1, March 16, 1827. From Wisconsin Historical Society.

Black Activism 

Black activism in the North could be seen through different strategies and tactics. Black activists understood that only through a widespread effort there could be effective change in the nation's racial laws, practices, and conscience. Black activists connected their communities through the formation of networks using speeches, conventions, newspapers, literature, and meetings. These different strategies and tactics were used in hope that moral reform could be brought about on a national level. It was an attempt to end slavery and and end the racism that free Blacks faced. Black activism was needed in order to free all Black people, because it was understood that free Blacks could not be truly free until all Blacks were free. This also brought forward the fight for the rights of citizenship and for Blacks to be fully recognized as U.S. citizens. 

Moral suasion “aimed to convince the white majority that slavery and the oppression of free blacks were immoral, offensive to God, and contrary to the nation’s ideals” (White, Bay, Martin Jr, 230). This tactic relied on the appeal to the nation's moral and Christian conscience. Moral suasion was used in an attempt to reform the white majority and their beliefs. Black activist hoped they could convince whites that the treatment that Blacks have endured, slavery and oppression, were morally wrong and should come to an end. An activist who was adamant on using this tactic was William Lloyd Garrison. 

Some Black activists during this time were Frederick Douglass, Sojourner Truth, Sarah Parker Remond, Elizabeth Jennings, Sarah Mapps Douglass, and Mary Ann Shadd Cary. 

Sojourner Truth, "I Sell the Shadow to Support the Substance". Library of Congress.

Abolitionist Movement 

As defined in the textbook, the abolitionist movement was "a loose coalition of organizations with black and white members that worked in various ways to end slavery immediately" (White, Bay, Martin Jr, G-1). This movement essentially was not looking for ways to compromise on slavery. They wanted slavery to come to an immediate end, without any compensation to slave owners, gradual emancipation, or colonization of Blacks outside of the United States. The abolitionist movement looked to achieve the immediate end of slavery through moral suasion and political action. The abolitionist movement should not be confused with the anti-slavery movement, as the two have different goals. The anti-slavery movement did not seek to bring slavery to an immediate end. This was actually the biggest difference among the two. Anti-slavery activist were able to recognize the evils and moral wrongs of slavery, however, it was not enough for them to want to bring it to an immediate end. Many times, anti-slavery activist had different reasons for this, as highlighted in lecture. Some wanted gradual emancipation with compensation to the slave holders. Some felt that slavery was morally wrong, but also believed that they were not in the position to interfere with the "property" of other men. Black abolitionist and activist shifted the anti-slavery movement toward abolition in the 1830s. They led the movement and were no longer looking for a gradual end to slavery or alternatives. They wanted the outright end of slavery, immediately. 

Abolitionism was often a divided movement due to differences in beliefs. The Tappan brothers, who worked with Garrison to create the American Anti-Slavery Society, did not agree with Garrison's support of the women's rights movement. The tipping point in the fracturing of the abolitionists movement was Garrison's radicalization. He began to view the Constitution as a proslavery document and the U.S. Government as proslavery. He called for abolitionists to renounce the government, their citizenship, and their right to vote. This caused the Tappan brothers and many of the other delegates of the American Anti-Slavery Society to depart. Garrison also believed that the only way to achieve the abolition of slavery was through moral suasion, not through political action. This was the opposite view of the Tappan brothers who saw the Constitution as an anti-slavery document and political action as the means to achieve the abolition of slavery. 

Garrison, William Lloyd, William Lloyd Garrison. Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.

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WEEK 8

Expansion of Slavery in the South 

The expanision of slavery in the South was fueled and caused by the continued importance of cotton. Even though, slavery was outlawed in the North, in the South, there was no sight of slavery coming to a halt. Cotton, along with other cash crops, sustained the Southern economy and slavery was “necessary” in the eyes of whites. Cash crops, which are defined as "readily salable crops grown for commercial sale and export rather than local use" (White, Bay, Martin Jr. 175), are what sustained the economy in the South. The cash crops were sugar, rice, tobacco, hemp, and most importantly cotton. Cotton fueled the expansion of slavery in the 19th century because this crop was labor intensive and required care all year long. Immigrants were discouraged from settling in the South for this reason. There was no work for them and the work that was available required torturous labor. For this reason, South slave holders favored the labor of slaves over white workers. Unlike white workers, slaves could be forced to work under any condition and under any circumstances. White workers could not be owned, whereas enslaved Blacks could be. For this reason, the South continued to invest and protect slavery. Cotton was crucial to the economy of the South and the nation. By the mid 1800s, “55 percent of theSouth’s slaves worked on cotton plantations'' (White, Bay, Martin Jr. 175). Up to 75% of the cotton being produced in the world was coming from the South. Cotton also constituted half of the nation's exports. Cotton production, fueled by the labor of slaves, continued to shape the South and continue expanding slavery.

                   Bettmann Archives. Getty Images. History.com 

The Domestic Slave Trade 

The domestic slave trade was brought about after international slave trade was outlawed and slavery in the North came to an end. This caused Northern slave owners, and even Upper South slave owners, to look for ways to profit off their slaves even when they no longer needed them. This mostly meant either selling them to the Lower South or the slave owners decided to move to the Lower South, and they would forcibly bring along their slaves. The domestic slave trade was the selling of slaves from the North and Upper South to the Lower South. Slavery was essential to the Lower South and slaveholders in the Upper South could make more use of the money than they could their slaves. For this reason, they began selling their slaves to the Lower South, many times without ever telling the slaves themselves. They would often ([sell] slaves in secret to avoid giving them a chance to object” (White, Bay, Martin Jr. 181). From 1820 to 1860, over one million Blacks were forcibly moved from the Upper South to the Lower South in a mass migration. One-third of these people were taken with their slaveholders who were moving to the Lower South, the remaining two-thirds were resold, bought, and transported to the Lower South. This migration was beyond cruel and is known as the second middle passage because of this. Most of the time, slaves had to make the grueling journey on foot. The journey would be made in coffles, which could hold and contain up to three hundred people. The men were typically chained together, while the women and children followed behind or were carried in wagons. African Americans were forced to sleep outside during the migration. The impacts that this domestic slave trade had was that it completely broke apart families and friends. Being sold to the Lower South meant permanent separation from one's family without ever being able to say goodbye or have any form of contact. Also, once African Americans arrived at auction houses, they were treated as animals. They were inspected and touched by buyers. They were inspected for scars, which indicated if a slave was rebellious, illnesses, weaknesses, muscle mass, fertility in women, and their teeth, which would be telling of their age. Being sold to the Lower South was used as a way of threatening and controlling slaves by slave owners. The domestic slave trade kept slavery alive in the South.

Slave Rebellion and Black Unrest

Denmark Vesey who was originally named Telmarque was a former black slave who came from the West Indies and was relocated to Charleston, South Carolina in 1793. His owner employed him as a clerk and a domestic servant. Vesey was a highly skilled slave who knew both English and French, and was also able to read. Without a stroke of good luck, he would have remained a slave for the rest of his life but he purchased a lottery ticket and won $1500. He used the money to purchase his freedom and to start a carpentry business. Vesey socialized and identified with slaves and wanted to see them freed. Vesey began planning a rebellion, stealing guns and knives Turner and the other slaves planned to raid Charleston’s Meeting Street Arsenal to get weapons for their supporters who were expected to run into the thousands. (White, Bay, Martin Jr. 184). Before the rebellion can begin two Charleston slaves tell the plan to their owners. The authorities suppressed the uprising and hanged slaves, which included Vesey who was hanged publicly on July 2, 1822, with 5 other men. This was to show the slaves what would happen if anyone else tried to rebel. The whites also responded by having 150 guardsmen to patrol the city and arrest and whip any slave caught on the street after 9 p.m.

David Walker fled from Charleston after the plot but he kept Vesey’s memory alive to stop slavery and liberate the enslaved. He made a name for himself as “the most black abolitionist of his era.” Walker sheltered slaves in his home and contributed to Freedom’s Journal the nation’s first black newspaper which strongly opposed slavery. He also published an abolitionist manifesto, convinced that African Americans could not defeat slavery or racism without pleading their own cause. Walker’s Appeal was published in 1829 and made whites determined to suppress black voices. His pamphlet was very influential. “It galvanized a new generation of radical blacks who would lobby for abolition and civil rights. For whites, it shifted the focus of anti-slavery from colonization to emancipation.”(White, Bay, Martin Jr. 187) The response from whites was to offer a $3000 bounty for Walker’s death and a $10000 reward for anyone willing to kidnap Walker. Walker was found dead in the doorway of his home, but his influence persisted. 

 Nat Turner and other slaves lead one of the deadliest rebellions in American history. Born in 1800, Turner was a life-long resident of Southampton County, Virginia, at a time where both blacks and whites embraced Christianity. Turner said he experienced religious visions, which convinced him that “the great day of judgment” was soon. Turner waited for “signs in the heavens that it would make known to me when I should commence the great work.”(White, Bay, Martin Jr. 189)  He and some of his fellow slaves armed themselves with axes and hatchets and they murdered Turner’s owner, Joseph Travis, and his family. They stole their guns to continue their killing spree. The slaves and free blacks killed a total of 60 whites before a Virginia militia tracked them down two days later. Turner was caught after evading capture for three months and was executed. The whites went on an even greater killing spree, murdering 100 blacks who died without trial. Another 48 suspects were captured, tried, and executed by the state, including Turner. “Virginia’s leaders revised the state’s legal code to bar slaves and free blacks from preaching or even attending religious meeting without white supervision.”(White, Bay, Martin Jr. 189) “Virginia legislators also targeted free blacks with a colonization bill, which allocated new funding to remove them, deny blacks trial by jury, and made any free blacks convicted of a crime subject to sale and relocation.” (White, Bay, Martin Jr. 189) 

Discovery of Nat Turner: wood engraving illustrating Benjamin Phipps's capture of Nat Turner (1800-1831) on October 30, 1831. Between circa 1831 and circa 1876. Image was found in Encyclopedia Virginia. The print is in the Bettman Archive. Author is William Henry Shelton (1840–1932)

The Amistad

The Amistad case occurred when in 1839, a group of Africans who had just been kidnapped and enslaved seized control of the Spanish slave ship Amistad in international waters near Cuba. The U.S. Navy captured the ship and made the rebels prisoners of the U.S. government, even when Spain demanded their slaves be returned. Since the matter violated treaties prohibiting the international slave trade, it had to be determined in court. It became a widely published abolitionist cause that reached the supreme court, where ultimately the rebels were freed in 1841. (White, Bay, Martin Jr. 190)

Slave Disobedience

Many slaves participated in being disobedient to their owners in response to their treatment as slaves. Slaves would often have to steal food to survive their harsh treatment. “The former South Carolina slave Rosa Barnwell reported that her owners expected slaves to survive on a weekly allowance of approximately eight quarts of corn and four quarts of sweet potatoes.”(White, Bay, Martin Jr. 191) Slaves also faked illness to avoid assignments they found unpleasant. Some ex-slaves reported success in refusing to eat for days pretending to be too weak to stand. Running away and hiding was also a popular way slaves would try to avoid punishment. 

Slave Disobedience

Many slaves participated in being disobedient to their owners in response to their treatment as slaves. Slaves would often have to steal food to survive their harsh treatment. “The former South Carolina slave Rosa Barnwell reported that her owners expected slaves to survive on a weekly allowance of approximately eight quarts of corn and four quarts of sweet potatoes.”(White, Bay, Martin Jr. 191) Slaves also faked illness to avoid assignments they found unpleasant. Some ex-slaves reported success in refusing to eat for days pretending to be too weak to stand. Running away and hiding was also a popular way slaves would try to avoid punishment. 

Harriet Tubman fled her mistress in terror at age seven after stealing a lump of sugar. Miss Susan was a brutal mistress for whom Tubman worked as a nursemaid. She was merciless, and beat Tubman every day. The punishment for stealing was so severe for Tubman she hid in a pigpen. She was forced home due to hunger and fear of the adult pigs. Tubman would not be able to escape permanently until two decades later in 1849. Tubman was considered a truant. A truant is someone who would leave for days, weeks, or sometimes months to avoid punishment.

Harriet Jacobs was a female slave who ran away from her master Dr. James Norcom so he would no longer desire to keep her children as slaves. She knew her master only wanted to make her suffer so she got as far away as possible from him to keep her children safe. All her owner wanted to do was to psychologically manipulate her. Jacobs knew to avoid this she had to run away. Jacobs went to stay with her grandmother where her children would eventually find themselves after being released by Dr. Norcom. She had to stay in a cramped area with barely any light for years. She endured this for her children, to keep them safe. She watched as they played and she knew that it was not possible for her to be by their side but still she stayed resilient. Even though Jacobs was spotted by the neighbor and forced to flee, you still see the great lengths that female slaves in particular had to go to protect their children.

Copied from ‘Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl’ by Harriett Jacobs, p.215. The book states that the ad ran in the Norfolk, VA, American Beacon newspaper on July 4, 1835. From General Negative Collection, North Carolina State Archives, Raleigh, NC. Date: 4 July 1835. Source from State Archives of North Carolina. This is an image of James Norcon, Harriet’s owner putting out a reward for her return. 

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WEEK SIX

Black Life in The Early Republic II

The American colonists at this time are no longer under British rule. To give some more background this is during the early formation of the United States and the once colonists are now Americans. There is also diminishing slavery in the North. Even with this newfound freedom, African Americans are still facing inequality and in some cases are facing more inequality because they are free. 

Benjamin Banneker was a free black man responsible for making his own Almanac. This was a document that would tell farmers when to plant and generally inform them. Even though they would later be proved to not be scientific during this time Almanacs were very important. Before writing the Almanac, Bannaker writes a letter to Thomas Jefferson about his comments pertaining to blacks. Jefferson talks about how African Americans may be biologically different from other humans. Jefferson states that due to their biological makeup African Americans may be less intelligent and are prone to different behaviors. This is the start of biological racism.

Biological racism is a way used to rationalize racism. With the idea of natural rights and the enlightenment, and the idea of science there comes many conclusions. The theory is that if you can have natural rights, a natural state, and a natural state of nature than you can have a natural state of mankind. Some go further to say that these natural states of mankind can equip some humans with certain abilities and some without. We can use race to provide these distinctions.  In 1791 Banneker questions Jefferson on this and says how can you, the writer of the Declaration of Independence, spouter of freedom and liberty, say that African Americans may be less than humans. Jefferson is an owner of slaves while also being a strong advocate for equality for all contradicting his stances. Jefferson doesn’t really respond to this and says that some blacks can be remarkable but because blacks were enslaved that means that they may not be as intelligent as other groups. Most whites believed at the time that blacks are destined to servitude for the entirety of their life. 

Portrait of Benjamin Banneker from the cover of his 1795 Almanac. Courtesy of the Maryland Historical Society

The Limits of Freedom in the North

“By 1804, every northern state had either abolished slavery outright or passed a plan to eliminate slavery over time, and the new states that emerged in the Old Northwest followed suit.” (White, Bay, Martin Jr., pp. 148 )Issues arise leading to the emancipation of slaves in the north. White northerners are unable to escape questions about slavery because they spoke about slavery during the revolution. There also comes issues with the continuation of the slave trade in the north. The English are the biggest players in the trade so if you support the slave trade than you would be supporting England economically. This boycotting of the slave trade happens in the North but not in the south. Blacks are also writing petitions and engaging in activism to question the northerners about founding states on liberty but still allowing slavery in the society. 

The north experiences changing labor and they need artisans and craftsmen where they do not have large plantations like in the south.  Slavery is no longer seen as a necessity in the north so slaves are freed. The South has hundreds of slaves working on plantations paralleling the large British Caribbean colonies. The south still very much relies on slave labor. 

Another reason for emancipation in the north is because of anti-slavery groups like the Pennsylvania Abolition Society(1775). They are not looking for the abolition of slavery, but to reduce slavery or gradually end slavery.

Barriers to equality

In Ohio, there were black laws that say that blacks are not welcome. “In 1804, Ohio passed black laws requiring all free blacks to supply legal proof of their free status and to post a $500 bond to guarantee good behavior.”(White, Bay, Martin Jr., pp. 148 )  Whites don’t believe that blacks should have access to citizenship. The idea of blacks as citizens is an unwelcoming thought to whites. They believe that if you allow black people in the state you will also be allowing black slaves in. The whites think of slavery as something which will take over white labor as they can pay them less or nothing at all. The main reason is whites don’t want their labor to be “stolen” by enslaved people. 

The Naturalization Act of 1790 says if have come to the United States and have been here for two years you can become a citizen. This does not apply to black people of African descent. We see a lot of racial discrimination and the blacks are unable to find representation in courts, get the same jobs as whites, and get access to education. What we see is with more emancipation leads to more racial discrimination.  

Gradual Emancipation

Slavery was not outright abolished but it was very gradual. These are some examples of years when states emancipated slaves. PA (1780), CT & RI (1784), NY (1799), NJ (1799). Emancipation at this time is so gradual you can still have indentured servitude for a set period of years before you receive your freedom. This is could be 5, 10 years, or maybe more.  In the Indiana territory, they had forms of indentured servitude before slaves got freedom. Slaves would be free but their children belonged to slave owners for maybe 10 years. It was a way for slave owners to hold onto their slaves. They will also sell their slaves to the south. Slavery continues for decades after the act and only applies to slaves born after the act. Slaves born before this act could be enslaved for the rest of their life before the law is changed. Life expectancy is around 40 and 50 at this time. Keeping children as enslaved for 15 years can be using up much of their life. 

The Racial Atmosphere in the North

The racial atmosphere that free African Americans faced in the North was one with lots of discrimination and violence. As African Americans moved farther away from slavery and closer to freedom, they experienced more racial hostility. Gradual Emancipation laws in the North allowed for the free African American community to grow over time. However, as the free population increased, Blacks were seen as a social menace and economic threat to whites. This hostility limited Blacks to perform the jobs that nobody else wanted to do. This limitation of labor options forced Blacks to take n menial jobs, which furthered their impoverishment. However, the racial hostility whites projected onto Blacks did not root from the poverty African American communities faced. This is known because even when Blacks participated in prosperous activities, whites were still angered and made increasingly nervous about the rising of Blacks. Blacks began establishing “their own institutions, as well as the public events they staged to celebrate emancipation,” this all suggested that “Blacks were beginning to succeed in raising their social status” (White, Bay, Martin Jr. 156). The more prosperity that African Americans experienced brought along even more mockery, violence, and hostility from whites. Blacks were harassed, both physically and verbally, daily by whites. This harrassment resulted in Blacks being banned from participating in national celebrations, such as the Fourth of July. The reasoning behind this was that such events and celebrations served as uniting factors for citizens. However, Blacks were not considered citizens by whites and they were certainly not equal in their eyes. Blacks were to remain outcasts of white society. This led to Blacks moving their Independence Day celebrations to July 5th instead. 

The mobs of white people were not content with stopping at outcasting Blacks. They began disrupting and destroying Blacks communities and their prosperity. White mobs “began targeting black institutions, disrupting services at Black churches, and sometimes even attacking black congregations” (White, Bay, Martin Jr. 156). Public and private spaces were no longer safe for African Americans. This racism and mob violence led to the mockery of emancipation itself. Racist broadsides were posted and created to make fun of Black celebrations of the abolition of the slave trade in the United States. Racist whites called these celebration events  “bobalition” celebrations, which was “a deliberate garbling of abolition” (White, Bay, Martin Jr. 156). These broadsides were purposely written in "black dialect" and it included grotesque caricatures. Broadsides were created to satirize the African American celebrations. The broadsides would be printed and posted the day before the celebration so that Black people would see them when marching and celebrating. 

Bobolition of Slavery!!!!. Broadside. Greenfield, Massachusetts. 1818. Massachusetts Historical Society. 

Black Activism and White Limitations

Free African Americans engage in activism by appealing and petitioning Congress to end "unconstitutional bondage." They wanted to bring slavery to an end immediately. Many of their petitions were ignored by Congress because the petitions called for African Americans to have the same federal protections that were offered to all other citizens. They used pamphlets to condemn and confront slavery. Absalom Jones and Richard Allen issued a protest pamphlet in 1794, that asked direct questions and did not back down from pointing out racism. African American activism also came in the form of holding separate celebrations and parting ways with white antislavery reformers or allies. Black activism was direct and straightforward. White antislavery reforms were not. 

 White antislavery reformers were limiting the freedoms African Americans deserved. White antislavery organizations such as NYMS and PAS believed that racism could be fixed by "fixing" African Americans. They were insinuating that African Americans were the real issue and that their actions were angering whites. White antislavery allies suggested that African Americans reform their action and avoid angering whites. This ideology was stressed in the schools sponsored by white antislavery organizations. These white allies were also very reluctant and hesitant about challenging the "property rights" of other whites. They wanted to condemn slavery without calling for slaveholders to free their slaves. They favored gradual emancipation, over immediate emancipation like African Americans were calling for. This reluctance to call out slaveholders and condemn their actions is what led to Black activists parting ways with them. These white allies did not fully believe that Blacks were equal and deserving of full citizenship rights. 

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WEEK FIVE

Slavery in the Early Republic

After the Revolutionary War, not all slaves were freed, as they were promised. Those on the Patriot’s side, were more likely to find themselves free after the war than Black Loyalists. Due to this, slavery played a huge role in the founding of the early republic and the forming of the Constitution. Right after the Revolutionary War, ten out of the thirteen states banned the importation of slaves from outside the republic from 1776 to 1787. South Carolina was one of the ten states, however, it reinstated the importation of slaves just three years after banning it. However, this did not mean that slavery was on the path of being abolished in the United States. In the U.S. Constitution, politicians extended slavery and the slave trade by agreeing that the United States would not step away from international slave trade prior to 1808. This was motivated by the threat of southern states, such as Georgia and South Carolina, to depart from the Union if the Constitution included a measure limiting slavery. 

The Northwest Ordinance was legislation that laid out the status of slavery in the New Nation. In the states northwest of the Ohio River (Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, Wisconsin, and part of Montana) they all agreed to ban slavery in these territories. However, the Northwest Ordinance was not an anti-slavery legislation or triumph. Instead, “it lent tacit approval to slavery south of the Ohio River, giving the institution license to expand there and specifying that slaves who escaped to those territories should be “lawfully reclaimed and conveyed” to their owners” (White, Bay, Martin Jr. 134). The Constitutional Convention placed no further limitations or constraints on slavery. The politicians left the status of slavery within each state under the jurisdiction of the state legislature. This cleaned their hands of having to deal with slavery and it was no longer their jobs to address the issue. However, the Founders seemed to protect the interests of slave states with clauses such as the Fugitive Slave Clause which forbid all states, even the ones that banned slavery, from sheltering and emancipating fugitive slaves. This clause was later reinforced by the Fugitive Slave Act of 1793, which "established the legal mechanisms by which escaped slaves could be seized and returned" (White, Bay, Martin Jr. 135).

The delegates needed a way to balance opposing interests of slaveholding and non-slaveholding states, when it came to the issue of deciding how slaves should be counted toward federal representation and the tax burden of each state. The slaveholding states wanted their slaves to be counted for representation, but to not be taxed. The non-slaveholding states wanted the complete opposite. The Three-Fifths Compromise was what the delegates decided on to resolve this conflict. This compromise counted three-fifths of each state’s slave population to determine each state’s tax burden and representation in the House of Representatives. This clause  allowed for slavery to increase dramatically in the South. By 1860, the slave population was 3,953,760, which could almost all be found in the South. The consequences of the three-fifths clause were not foreseen by the delegates. The Cotton BoomIn the 1790s, “Southern planters developed two new cash crops, sugar and cotton, that secured the future of slavery and turned the South into a growing Slave Power” (White, Bay, Martin Jr. 136). Cotton became the most popular slave-grown crop that flourished throughout the Mississippi Valley and in the new slave states, which were acquired when Louisina came under U.S. control. Cotton began to create a slave empire in the South when Eli Whitney’s cotton gin was invented in 1793. This machine facilitated the processing of cotton and shortened the time spent on taking out the seeds. Before the cotton gin, “cotton farming had little commercial appeal because salable cotton required far too much work to be cost-effective” (White, Bay, Martin Jr. 136). The cotton gin, which used rollers to separate the cotton from its seeds, revolutionized the production of cotton by transforming “upland” cotton into a commercial crop. “Upland cotton” required for the seeds to be carefully taken out by hand, which began to flourish in the mainland before the cotton gin. However, the cotton gin sped up this process. The cotton gin allowed a single person to go through and clean around fifty pounds at a time, whereas before cleaning one or two pounds of cotton took a whole day. This allowed for the production of cotton to skyrocket from 150,000 pounds annually in 1793 to 6.5 million pounds a year in 1795. By 1815, the south was producing over 100 million pounds of cotton a year. This cash crop was labor intensive and required work all year round which made it the ideal crop for slave labor. This meant that slavery was sustained by this crop and there was a continued demand for slaves throughout the South. This demand, along with the new expansion of land acquired by the Louisiana Purchase, had white migrants settling in new regions. The wealthiest settlers would bring along their hundreds of slaves to the new land. The cotton boom disrupted the lives of the enslaved people because when the white migrants began to move, they would separate the families of slaves. They would be torn apart from their spouses and children. White migrants were very selective with the slaves they chose to bring with them. They wanted strong young adults who could do the heavy labor which would cause a separation from their families. An example of this is Charles Ball who was sold to a slave trader without any warning and was never able to see his wife and children ever again.

This image, which was created by William L. Sheppard for Harper’s Weekly, shows slaves working the cotton gin to process pounds of cotton. Sheppard, William L. “Slaves Operating Cotton Gin”. Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica. 

The American Revolution II 

American colonists were crying for freedom and liberty which incited backlash from the English. An English commentator referred to the colonists as “Drivers of Negroes'' because they wanted freedom but they owned slaves. Thomas Jefferson and other elite colonists blamed the English King for importing slaves and forcing the colonists to own slaves.  The American colonists had a lot more slaves than the English weakening their claim. In the early drafts of the Declaration of Indepence, Thomas Jefferson writes large sections describing how the american colonists came to own slaves. This is in an attempt to shift blame to the English. His weak arguments are eventually omitted from the Declaration of Independence except for one line. “He has excited domestic insurrections among us.” This line is meant to bring charges that the English King is inciting slave rebellion against the colonists. This is in the Declaration of Independence because if conflict ever came that the English would try to turn the slaves against the colonists. 

The American colonists try to enlist the help of wealthy caribbean colonies like Jamaica, and Barbados to pose a threat to the English. This is important because if the Americans could get the support of these prosperous British economic hubs then you could get a treaty and avoid war. The Americans are unable to persuade the owners of the colonies because they are “absentee owners'' and live back in England. The Caribbean colonies believe the only thing keeping their large slave population in check is the English. If the colonies revolt then the English could just leave and the slaves could openly revolt on their owners. The owners even believe that the English would arm their own slaves to put down a rebellion. 

Lord Dunmore’s Proclamation

The Royal Governor in Virginia Lord Dunmore feared a patriot rebellion due to rebellions happening in the New England colonies. To get ahead of any possible rebellion he starts a rumor about arming slaves to put down a patriot rebellion. In response slaves turn up at his house saying they are ready to stop any rebellion. Surprised by this Lord Dunmore turns them away as this was only supposed to be a warning. The white colonists have an unexpected reaction to hearing his rumor. The colonists who were not completely interested in joining the patriots hear the rumors of the English arming their slaves and it enrages and frightens them into joining the patriots. The patriots head to the governor’s mansion to pull him from the mansion and set the colony into rebellion. In reaction Lord Dunmore on November 7, 1775 wrote a proclamation asking for the help of slaves to quell the rebellion in exchange for their freedom. Lord Dunmore’s Proclamation offered freedom to all “indentured Servants, Negroes, or others, able and willing to bear Arms’ for the British. He knew that blacks would serve on whichever side would allow them to fight for their own freedom. The proclamation was designed to recruit only slaves belonging to rebels. It had an adverse effect of inspiring anyone who wanted freedom into joining. The American colonists eventually beat the British and Black Loyalists and return the blacks back into enslavement.

Created: Nov 7 1775, Ratified: November 14 1775, Author was John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore (University of Virginia)

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WEEK FOUR

The Formation of African American Culture

African American culture came to fruition through the interactions and intermixing of American-born and African-born slaves. American-born blacks, who were born into slavery were typically acculturated. Especially in the north, most comprehended and spoke English. They understood the culture and lifestyle of the colonists. The African American community began to change as ships filled with enslaved Africasn continued to arrive in the northeastern ports. The newcomers “infused African culture into these increasingly acculturated black communities, made up of English-speaking slaves who had long lived and worked among whites and maintained only limited ties with their African roots” (White, Bay, Martin Jr. 93). The newcomers were welcomed along with their traditions by both Africans and Americans in the colonies. 

By the mid century, blacks began to adopt an African identity in the north, which would lead to the creation of a black organization named the African Lodge No.1, a black Masonic lodge created in 1776. This unification of cultures brought along the annual celebration known as Negro Election Day in the North. This was a mockery of white elections that blacks had witnessed. During this celebration, they elected their own leaders, kings and governors, which were authorized to speak on behalf of the community. 

In the upper south and the Chesapeake, the African American culture was shaped in similar ways. The culture could be seen through linguistics where blacks “spoke English but continued to use African idioms and syntax” (White, Bay, Martin Jr. 94). Traditional African beliefs and traditions were honored such as conjures, who were skilled in botanical medicines, and the honoring of the dead through singing and music. In the lower south where there were mass importations of African slaves, there was less acculturation. Slaves in the south had less contact with whites, compared to in the north. Due to this African cultural practices remained strong and the native born blacks spoke the creole language, Gullah, instead of English. 

The Great Awakening 

The Great Awakening was a “wave of religious revivals that began in New England in the mid-1730s and spread south during the Revolutionary era” (White, Bay, Martin Jr. 96). The Great Awakening marked the beginning of the Afro-Christian religious faith. This was a movement led by evangelical ministers from different Protestant sects. The ministers were known as New Lights and they welcomed black and indigenous converts. However, they were not against slavery, in fact some even owned slaves themselves. Instead the would preach that slavery was part of their calling and path way to Christianity. They were not aiming to dismantle the slave society, instead they were preaching that slaves should accept their status as slaves and not long for freedom because they will achieve true freedom in their afterlife in heaven. 

The Great Awakening’s “egalitarian spirit fostered the education, conversion, and eventual manumission of several notable black northerners” (White, Bay, Martin Jr. 96). An example of a notable black northerner is Phyllis Wheately. She was a young girl when she was sold into slavery and she was taught how to read and write by her owner. She became an amazing poet but did not earn her freedom until later in her life. The education of slaves was emphasized by the New Lights due to the belief that if they were educated, slaves would become more manageable, obedient, and less likely to revolt. Therefore, this would lower the need to beat and whip the enslaved people.  In the late eighteenth century, black lay teachers began leading their own conversions. However, they had to meet in secret, which is why it became known as the "invisible institution." During this time slaves were forbidden from holding public gatherings. John Marrant was a black lay teacher who was caught having a congregation and those that were there were beaten so badly that after that they only prayed in secret. This invisible institution flourished as blacks embraced the message of equality before God and the promises of being able to achieve freedom on earth and in heaven. 

                                  This is an image of Phyllis Wheately. 

American Revolution I

Background: In 1754 the Thirteen Colonies did not resemble the states that they are today. Not all the land that would later make up the thirteen states was under English control at this time. Much of the North American territory at this time was occupied by the Spanish, French, and Native Americans.

White colonists 

The British are taxing the American colonists more than British citizens of the mainland causing an outcry from the colonists. The British say they provide enough services to warrant the increase. One of the things the colonists want to do is expand past their territory and take over foreign land in the Americas. The English do not want the repercussions from fighting with the Native peoples, or the French, so they don’t want to expand. There becomes an issue on if the colonists can expand.

The colonists also had a major problem with the English taxation on them. The English believed that they invested in the colonies, providing them with troops, goods, protection, and services warranting an increase. Because they provide all these services for the colonists the British believe they should pay more than the average British citizen. The colonists take this as an attack. The colonists go on further to cite that they have no representation in British parliament. “No taxation without representation.” They identify as British citizens and feel they should not be taxed anymore than anyone else. 

The British imposed the Stamp Act which led to protests and riots among Americans and ushered in new groups, dedicated to combating english threats to the colonists. To protest the British imposition of taxing, two groups were formed,  the Sons of Liberty which was led by Samuel Adams, and a group in New York called the Sons of Neptune. The Sons of Liberty would engage in large scale rioting, including attacks on the governor's house. They looted his house and took off with silverware and money. In New York the Sons of Neptune smashed stores and looted. The groups would use tar and feather as a way to intimidate the British tax collectors into resigning. These two groups were very violent and caused much chaos. 

Something important to note is that the two groups used call backs to the french enlightenment period and the pursuit of liberty and freedom. They used the ideals and beliefs of the french philosophers for their own fight for freedom. 

 The colonists refered to themselves as slaves and said to the British that “they are slaves to the British as negros are slaves to them.” The enslaved people will use this rhetoric as a way to make claims for their own freedom. 

African Americans

African American slaves and free people hear this unfolding and take part in the protesting for their freedom and liberty. They look for ways to use what the colonists say about liberty and find ways that it can apply to them. When white colonists in Charleston, South Carolina protested the passage of the stamp act of 1765 with Liberty!,Liberty!, local slaves also called for liberty. This terrifies the american colonists who quickly shut down this talk. It becomes a movement for freedom only for white colonists and not for their slave captives. Many slaves do take advantage of this situation between British and colonists  and runaway or start maroon societies. Maroon societies were communities made of fugitive slaves who escaped the british and could not be easily recaptured by the british soldiers. 

Phillyis Wheatley writes poems supporting the revolution and sends them to the Earl of Dartmouth, the British King’s  newly appointed secretary of state for North America. She spoke about her own experiences with slavery and being taken from Africa and prayed “others may never feel tyrannic sway.'' Many other black figures initiated freedom suits that challenged local magistrate and colonial legislatures to recognize their natural rights. 

The Somersett case allowed enslaved persons in Britain to claim their freedom. British soil did not support slavery. When this reaches slaves in the Americas they will use this as a way to make their own claims to liberty. Some slaves will run away and attempt to make it to England to try to become free. 

 Boston Massacre 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R6WHCeIiJv4   

Video to give overview on what led to the massacre. 

Crispus Attucks was a runaway slave who traveled to Boston harbor looking for work on the docks. While he works at Boston harbor he is in labor competition with British soldiers. The soldiers did not make enough money just by being a soldier so they found work on the docks. Crispus Attucks and other people see this as the British taking more things from colonists and protest this. On March 5, 1770 Crispus Attucks and others got into a fight with British soldiers. He ends up leading the mob against the British where the British will open fire into the crowd.  Crispus Attucks is the first person to be shot and killed. Paul Revere will call this the “Bloody Massacre” which will later be known as the Boston Massacre. It will become a key piece of propaganda and inspire people who did not at first want to leave british rule and will drive them toward revolution.The mob encompassed “saucy boys, Negroes and Mulattoes, Irish Teagues and outlandish Jack Tars." In later portrayals of the massacre the mob would be later depicted as upper class white citizens. Images of Crispus Attucks were erased from later pictures of the massacre only being kept alive by African Americans. The victims are changed to appeal to white colonists to inspire them to join the revolution. 

                                                  Boston Massacre

The Boston Massacre (1770) as depicted in a coloured engraving by Paul Revere.  The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, gift of Mrs. Russell Sage, 1910 (accession no. 10.125.103); www.metmuseum.org

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WEEK THREE

Early English Settlement in America 

West Africans and Central Africans are being shipped to Europe, South America and North America. To put into perspective this is at a time when tobacco is the big crop in North America and not cotton.  Below are some statistics to see where the Africans are being shipped to bring a larger context to the slave trade. 

Destination of enslaved Africans. (1500 - 1870)

-Spanish America including spanish carribean - 15%

-Other Caribbean Islands - 41%

-Europe and Asia -  2.5%

-British North America -  4.5%

-Portuguese Brazil - 37%

Number of enslaved Africans arriving on the American continent. (1514-1866) 

Europe - 7,600 

United States - 307,000

Cuba - 765,000

Jamaica - 935,000

other Caribbean 2,760, 000

Guyanas - 356,000

Brazil - 3,169,000

Argentina/Uruguay - 92,000

There is also intertrading going on which causes the number of slaves in the region to fluctuate. Colonies in the Americas are trading with the Caribbean and vice versa and sending goods back to England. The North American English colonies are trading cloth, and food which is used to feed and clothe slaves. From the Caribbean English colonies they are selling slaves, sugar, and rum. 

This is going on during the early Chesapeake period where there were settlers, servants and slaves. The Chesapeake was located in what would be modern day Virginia and Maryland. 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dm7pluf_gEY 

This is a video to give background information about English America and slaves who worked the plantations. 

Early English America

The English are the first to have successful colonies in the “New World.” The English arrive much later in the “New World” than the Portuguese or Spanish. They were not looking for permanent colonies in the “New World” until the early 1600s. To give greater context to when this is taking place the Spanish and the Portuguese  have been creating colonies and have been occupying territory in the Caribbean and North America for around 100 years. The Spanish and Portuguese have not been successful at all in setting up colonies in North America.

The English failed with the Roanoke colony but they were successful with the Jamestown colony. Jamestown had many hardships before it became successful. They suffered through a harsh winter where they turned to cannibalism of horses and possibly people to survive the harsh winters. The colony needed to show the home country they could produce something. They begin to grow tobacco as it is not a good place for sugar or mining gold and silver. It allows Jamestown to create a tobacco economy which is the main product being sold. The English need to find labor to farm the tobacco. The colonists search for labor and start with indentured but move to exclusively slave labor. 

 English need labor to work on this new colony. They differ from the Spanish and have their own forms of servitude for labor. The Spanish only use slave labor but the English use a mixture of slave labor and indentured servitude.  The English do not have a formal slave system at this time but they are aware of the system the spanish and portuguese have and would like to replicate something like that. A slave system would be laws and regulations to differentiate slaves and indentured servants. This would allow for a constant workforce for the plantations. If slaves and indentured servants both have a path to freedom then the English colony would lose its main labor force.

Societies with slaves versus Slave Societies 

In this era with the colonies you have societies with slaves and also slave societies. The English colony is a society with slaves as the English do not have an established slave system. Slave labor is not their main source of labor as they also use indentured servants.  They don't have any laws differing slaves from indentured servants. This makes it possible for African slaves to achieve freedom. Indentured servants work for as long as their contract is and then become free men. In most cases slaves are bought and are succumbed to labor for their lifetime. The fact that slaves are able to gain their freedom like indentured servants means that Africans have a path to freedom and can die free men. Some examples of slave societies are Spanish and Portuguese colonies. This means that the main source of labor for these colonies  is slave labor.  

Indentured Servants vs. Slavery 

In this early period their are no distinct laws indicating differences between indenturred servitude and slavery so in some cases they are treated the same and allowed to receive freedom. They do the same work. They are receiving the same punishments of being beaten, whipped, flogged. Some enslaved are slaves for life but some slaves can be treated like indentured servants and have the same benefits as stated earlier. Some people might be enslaved but you call them indentured servants. Slavery is onely one form of labor in this early period. 

Background of the Africans In English America 

First Africans arrived in Jamestown in 1619. They are captured off a portuguese ship called the Bautista. They are from Angola and Central Africa. The ship was going to Mexico and they were captured by English privateers. English pirateers are hired by the english to make life difficult for the spanish.  They sell the goods and slaves to the Jamestown colony.  This is the earliest arrival of Africans in an English colony but not in North America and especially not in the Americas. 

Example of Freedom

A man named Anthony Brown is one of the few examples of an African who gets his freedom due to lack of clear laws about indentured servants and slaves. He becomes Christian and changes his name to  Anthony Johnson. He gained his freedom and became a free person and a landowner. He also used slave labor and indentured servants to work on his plantations. 

“Settlers landing on the site of Jamestown, Virginia, the first permanent English settlement in America.” MPI/Getty Images

The Uprisings of the Enslaved 

The treatment that slaves had to endure was beyond inhumane and cruel to many degrees. They were overworked, beaten, raped, and robbed of their freedoms. This treatment was not uncontestedly accepted by the enslaved. Like it is described in the textbook, “enslaved Africans proved to be difficult to control” (White, Bay, Martin Jr. 76). Regardless of how strict the slave code became, the slave insurrections and resistance continued. An example of this is the Stono Rebellion. The aftermath of the rebellion, however, is also important to talk about.  

In 1739, there was a slave rebellion in South Carolina led by Jemmy Angola. It began with around a group of 20 gathering near the banks of Stono. They began their march toward freedom, which was in Spanish Florida, while carrying a flag that stated “Liberty to Slaves”. They broke into a gun store, killed the shopkeeper, and stole all the weapons that they could arm themselves with. As they headed south, they would kill all the whites they encountered in their way, except for one man whose life was spared for being kind to his slaves. As they continued to march others began to join and they grew to be a group of 60. However, in the afternoon they were tracked down by armed whites. More than 40 slaves were killed and around 20 whites were killed by the group. The remaining enslaved were either captured or killed. This rebellion served as a wake up call to white colonists across the south. Their commitment to slavery was unshaken and from the rebellion came the South Carolina Negro Act in 1740. This act removed any remaining “freedoms” that slaves still had. They could “no longer travel beyond the boundaries of their masters’ plantations without a ticket or pass granting permission” (White, Bay, Martin Jr. 75). It gave whites the authorization to whip any slave who was caught without a pass and it also made it legal for them to kill any slave who resisted punishment or questioning. There was no longer a need for a trial, whites were allowed to kill any rebellious slave. 

Black people, especially black men, were being feared during this time. The New York Slave Plot of 1741 was accompanied by the fears that white colonizers had of slave rebellions. In their eyes, African American males were one of the greatest dangers in society. On March 18, 1741 a fire broke out at Fort George, which was the home of the governor. For the next three weeks, fires continued to rage across the state. In attempt to blame this on African Americans, indentured servants were promised their freedom if they testified and blamed African Americans for the fire. Due to this approximately 100 black males over the age of 16 were arrested along with several white with conspiracy against New York. As a result of this, 30 blacks were hanged or burned at the stake. Out of the whites arrested, four of them were hanged as well. The aftermath of the fires led to stricter control of black life in New York. White men were even asked and allowed to carry their guns, as a form of policing black people. The very existence of black people brought fear to whites. 

This is a plaque that can be found in South Carolina explaining the rebellion. It has a front and a back which are shown in the above two images. 

This is an illustration of the New York Slave Plot of 1741. It is showing all the wooden buildings burning and its flames raging.

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WEEK ONE

The Slave Trade and the Capturing of Africans

The slave trade spanned 400 years breaking up families and changing lives permanently. There were many instances of African states conducting trade with Europeans regarding slavery. Looking at Benin and Kongo, two African states I will evaluate the different levels of control these kingdoms exercised over the trade and their resulting outcomes. What I hope you will understand by the end of my review is that the slave trade was not the same for everyone involved. Some nations fell victim to the trade and others will gain great power from the trade.

Benin: Benin was a “large, centralized, complex, West African state.” They had a large army which was able to thwart any attempts by the portuguese to forcefully acquire slaves. Benin had a monopoly over the region allowing them to sell pepper, ivory, beads, textiles and slaves to the portuguese. The portuguese in return would trade the Africans copper, brass, fine clothes and horses. Horses are very important to Benin as they were used for their massive cavalry allowing them to hold power over other neighboring states. Horses make for a very valuable commodity to the Benin army.  The trade between Benin and Portugal is very stable and is only used for business which will differ when we look at Kongo. Benin also keeps all of its culture and religion and does not adopt any of the portuguese customs. Using their massive army Benin exercises great power over the trade and can cut off the trade with the portuguese at any time without a way for the portuguese to respond.

Kongo: Kongo is a very different story as they are in turmoil due to “feuding nobility.” This means that the princes and other noblemen of Kongo believe that they have a right to rule. The Kongonese nobles enlist the use of the portoguese as  “militia” to attack and kill off the other nobles vying for power. This creates a great unrest in the area as there is no set ruler resulting from the constant fighting for control. The Kongonese people adopt portuguese customs and go as far as converting to christianity. The portuguese became very involved and entangled in Kongonese politics which causes a breakdown of the rules for the slave trade among African Kingdoms. The slaves start out only being criminals and war captives but it eventually moves to just about anyone. Greed for power causes the nobles to throw each other into slavery as a way to gain power. The King of Kongo even falls victim to the side effects enlisting the help of The King of Portugal having lost all control. 

Looking at these two examples we can see how different the trade could end up for African kingdoms. Benin held a strong army, and stable power allowing them to easily navigate the trade and maintain insider/outsider principles. Kongo on the other hand throws principles out the door backstabbing each other for personal benefit. With the lust for greed and power Kongo lacks stability from the inception of trade.

Capturing of Africans 

The African kingdoms needed a supply of slaves to sell to the portuguese. Due to the Insider/Outsider rule the Africans can not use people within their own kingdom. To generate more slaves the African states would start warfare which would create more captives that could easily be sold into slavery. Neighboring or rival kingdoms no longer engaged in war over because of  land disputes or treaties being broken. You fought in wars to acquire prisoners to sell. The capturing of slaves had become so widespread that states were not the only ones dabbling in the trade. Bandits and outlaws captured africans in areas where states had no control effectively having no one to stop them. Everyone was out to make as much as they could trading human lives for riches. You may wonder why the portuguese did not just steal slaves of their own. Many of the African kingdoms had large enough armies where attempts by the portuguese were futile resulting in trade being the only way of getting African goods. Before being traded and sold African slaves would be held in Barracoons and Slave Castles as they made their way into the triangular trade. Below are some images and a video to further bring context to this expansive trade. 

This picture shows the portuguese engaging in what looks like trade with the Kingdom of Benin. Looking at their expressions we can see them humbling themselves in the Africans presence. From this picture we can decipher that the Africans held power over their territory forcing the portuguese to engage in trading instead of fighting for the land. 

 The Treacherous Voyage to the New World 

The triangle trade was a system of trading that operated from the late 16th century to the early 19th century. It consisted of the transportation of copper, guns, ammunition, beads, and textiles from Europe to the West African coast in exchange for African slaves. The journey enslaved Africans embarked on to get to the New World was known as the Middle Passage—the most dangerous and feared part of the triangle trade. On the final stage of the trade, the ships would return from the New World to Europe with slave grown crops such as sugar, rice, indigo, tobacco, and later cotton. African slaves were sought after by slave traders to grow these crops with the intention of profiting from their labor.  

The slave trade would begin by African traders purchasing slaves from the interior of Africa and marching them to the West African coast. The slaves were either prisoners of war or people who had been kidnapped by slave raiders like Olaudah Equiano. The practice of slave raiding made children extremely vulnerable to these kidnappings and the slave trade. The march to the coast was an unimaginable one. The enslaved were bound together by way of iron collars and chains. They were poorly fed and harshly treated. This journey was so inhumane that “as many as one in ten of the captured Africans died before they reached the coast” (White, Bay, Martin Jr. 22). However, many would argue that the worst was still ahead for those that survived the trek to the coast. 

Once the enslaved were put on the ship, they encountered different methods of being packed in. Like shown in the image below, the two methods were “tightly-packing” and “loosely packing”. Tightly packing seemed to be the most commonly used by the slave traders. This method entailed packing the ship up to its maximum capacity. By doing so they risked a high number of deaths, however losing 20 percent of the human cargo was still seen as a successful trip. The other method packed a smaller amount of people hoping that it would reduce the death rate. 

On the ship, the conditions that the enslaved people experienced was beyond inhumane. They were treated as cargo not human beings. To those involved in the slave trade, this was strictly a business and the life of the enslaved did not matter to them. Once on the ship the enslaved were stripped of their clothing, divided up by gender, shackled, disoriented, renamed, and forced to live in horrid conditions. In the barracoons, the enslaved had less personal space than being in a coffin. There was no air ventilation, no area designated for bathroom use, no bathing areas, no areas for the sick. This meant they had to live amongst their own secretion and bodily fluids. They were barely fed, forced to exercise, and were shackled to one another. Many times they had to remain shackled to a dead body for weeks before the slave traders threw the body overboard. The   nmjk greatest cause of death on this voyage was disease (White, Bay, Martin Jr. 31). Suicides were also a very common cause of death. This was due to the amount of depression and hopelessness that comes with facing the fate of becoming a slave. Women in particular faced a specific danger which was sexual abuse by the slave traders. The conditions that the enslaved had to face are unimaginable. However, the enslavement of Africans did not go without rebellion. The slaves would rebel and made many attempts to become free, unfortunately, many times they were unsuccessful. 

“The Plan of the Brooks, 1790s”- This image is illustrating the different methods used when packing slaves on to a ship. At the top, the method of “tight-packing” is shown. This method entails packing as many slaves that can fit on the ship. At the bottom, the alternate method of “loosely packing” is shown. In this method, less slaves are put on a ship to attempt to lessen the deaths on the voyage to the “New World”.