#2d Law of Thermodynamics

[educationtech]

Engineering Entrance Exam Syllabus in India - ACEIT

B.Tech is a 4-year Engineering Degree that offers the field of Engineering and Technology. In the technical field, B.Tech has its own charm. B.Tech holders have many opportunities in their field, they can be consultants, difficulty count experts, researchers, managers, and engineers in a firm.

The full form of B.Tech is Bachelor of Technology, and this word is taken from the Latin word Baccalaureus Technologies. This is the Undergraduate Degree course and is well taken by the students after the 12th class. In India, B.Tech is the most famous and demanded course because in B.Tech we can learn more about technology and technology is future.

You can complete your B.Tech in 8 semesters. Every semester has different specialization topics.

Syllabus Of B.Tech Entrance Exam

The Engineering Entrance Exams Syllabus belongs to the 11th and 12th classes, and some important questions come from the CBSE syllabus. If you want to crack the Engineering Entrance Exam then you need to learn all related books, and boards, the state doesn’t matter for these entrance exams because these are conducted in a single shot all over India.

Mathematics

Vectors

Matrices and Determinants

Probability

Three Dimensional Geometry

Theory of Equations

Sets and Functions

Complex Numbers

Permutations and Combinations

Limit and Continuity

Binomial Theorem

Physics

Current Electricity

Heat and Thermodynamics

Electrostatics

Wave Motion

Simple Harmonic Motion

Laws of Motion

Ray Optics

Vector Motion

Motion in 2D

Fluids

Chemistry

Chemical Kinetics

Chemical Bonding

Ionic Equilibrium

Chemical Thermodynamics

Gaseous State

Polymers

Alcohol Phenol and Ether

Redox Reactions

Atomic Structure

Surface Chemistry

Here I Am Talking About JEE Main Exam Pattern

Paper details of this examination. The first paper gonna be Online and the second one is Offline.

Candidates can select the paper type, and which kind of paper they want to fight for.

First Paper has Goal kind questions, the second paper has goal and drawing-flair questions.

The given time for the examination is 3 hours. Paper 1 worth is 300 marks and the second paper is well worth four hundred marks in total.

Each right answer has 4 marks and the wrong one can deduct your 1 mark.

Read Full Blog : Arya College

[pssphysics]

NEET Physics Preparation Tips with Best Physics Institute Odisha!

Are you struggling with Physics compared to Biology and Chemistry? Don't worry; we as the best Physics institute in Odisha, are here to assist you in mastering the art of learning and the techniques required to excel in NEET Physics. When preparing for NEET Physics, continuous practice and a solid grasp of concepts and formulas are essential. To succeed in NEET, your first step should be to thoroughly understand and master all the major Physics topics outlined in the syllabus. This is crucial for effortlessly solving complex numerical problems.

Effective NEET Physics Preparation Tips

Certain key concepts within NEET Physics demand special attention:

Mechanics:

Covering Physics topics such as Mechanics, Gravity, Kinematics, Laws of Motion, Mechanics of Solids and Fluids, Oscillations, Systems of Particle and Rotational Motion, Units and Dimensions, Waves, Work, Energy, and Power is vital. Mechanics contributes significantly to the question pool, with nine chapters in Class 11 alone, ranging from Units and Dimensions to Oscillations and Waves.

Heat and Thermodynamics:

Questions related to Thermodynamics, Thermal Properties, and Kinetic Theory of Gases appear every year, comprising 6.6% of the paper.

Electrostatics and Magnetism:

This unit holds a substantial weightage of 16.2%, with chapters interlinked. Electrostatic potential and capacitance contribute about 35.6%, followed by Moving charges and Mechanism at 31.5%. According to the experts at the best physics institute in Bhubaneswar, these sections emphasize essential numerical problems, including concepts like electrostatic potential and work done, motion in electric and magnetic fields, potential energy in an external field, cyclotrons, and torque on current loops, among others.

Kinematics:

Kinematics is both fascinating and crucial in NEET Physics. You'll face questions related to evaluating maximum height, range, velocity, and time of flight (2D motion), making detailed notes on theorems, formulas, and derivations crucial for last-minute preparations. Strengthen your understanding of acceleration, displacement, average velocity, and relative velocity to perform well in this unit.

This article provides insights based on previous years' question papers, including approximate weightage, question distribution, and figures, which may vary. Students can enhance their theoretical knowledge and numerical problem-solving skills using PSS Physics's Notes and Videos for NEET.

Stay updated with PSS Physics for more information on NEET eligibility, test patterns, application forms, preparation tips, previous years' question papers, sample papers, NEET Physics study materials, and other NEET concepts. Elevate your NEET Physics preparation and aim for success with best Physics institute Bhubaneswar, Odisha.

[timetravelandgravityengineering]

So there's no rotational symmetry in 1d >2d geometry so all combinations must be represented

However in 2d & 3d the dimensionality reduces because of the same rule.

That clears that problem

I stated that earlier

Its confusing cause it still using the dimensions above that to observe so 3d can only be observed in the 4d

4d structures would act in a fluid dimension of 5d observation of time light and gravity.

Its like 19th century being 1800 or 21st being 2020

So quantum proximity is actually a quality of strings and strings are under the zeroth law of thermodynamics

All energy is the same energy

Its not that there is "too many" dimensions as Penrose states the dimensions must be fully represented in each combination.

2d holographic set thorium

[jj-baruch]

Lay On MacDuff

There had been thousands like it in the nation’s history and doubtless would be thousands more like it in the country’s future. A tent revival meeting set up by a non-descript faith healer sprawled at the end of a gravel parking lot of the loop around a small West Texas town and attracted a crowd of true believers. People had heard of Elroy “Lay On” MacDuff. First it was only a few who attended, having seen postings online or catching the handbills scattered in the ever present winds about town. Then it was dozens. Then it was a packed house. No tickets were sold, no admission fee required, but the offering bowl at the front was full when the two men investigating the claims arrived and not a single person was guarding it.

Adherents, in this town and elsewhere, insisted that MacDuff’s miracles were real. That wasn’t the least bit strange or worthy of investigation. Medical records after the fact, though, indicated serious changes in patients who’d suffered various conditions for years coming away right as rain. The lame walked and the blind could see. Doctors were, of course, dubious, but gradually whispered chatter in the hospital lounge as their confusion grew made its way elsewhere after radiologists began talking and two men, more than suited for the task, put on their suits and attended a faith healing session.

They took up a pair of chairs in the back row near the corner hoping not to be noticed. They weren’t. All eyes were on MacDuff as he came on stage in an ice cream white suit and matching patent leather shoes. His shirt was open at the collar and showed a nasty scar along his left external jugular vein. In giving his witness, he insisted that the woman who healed him taught him how to do it, through faith, and that it was his calling to share that with others. He never quite specified in which divinity he had faith, but the hymnal pamphlets all appeared to be fairly standard issue under a casual observation. To the investigators, that lack was intriguing in itself as it closely matched with the man’s spiel on stage. But they didn’t care about his version of the good news. They wanted to know about the healing, if such it was. The organist and small choir that doubled as stagehands in setting up the tent on the road were probably irrelevant but it was too early to be sure just yet.

The second man, a subordinate to the first, leaned over to his partner and tapped on his knee in a shorthand form of Morse code that might be translated as “Tell me again why we’re here? Even if real, it seems literally the opposite of harmless.”

The senior in both authority and apparent age, replied in kind. “It’s a violation of the Second Law of Thermodynamics. It’s one of the few laws of nature made into a statute.”

The second man scratched his curly ginger hair, not entirely sure he understood his gaunt, craggy-faced associate. He knew, in a general way, that the Second meant any increase in order in one spot required an equal, but more likely greater, increase in disorder somewhere else. But what that had to do with anything here was beyond him. The second man was, after all, only newly recruited from the FBI into this special office jointly run by the Department of Energy. He also wasn’t sure why the Witch Hunters were involved in what was almost certainly a con job. But he kept quiet and listened and watched. He was good at that.

Hymns and exhortations done with, the choir gently humming in slowly evolving harmonics, MacDuff called on the crowd for someone in need of healing to come up to the stage. A bent and broken bluehair was rolled up in her wheelchair and, where the investigators had seen other alleged faith healers force loved ones to lift such a chair and its occupant onto the stage so all eyes remained on the main attraction, MacDuff jumped down onto the temporary floor and knelt so he could speak to her at eye level. He quickly stood back up and announced through his microphone, “This is Mrs. Loretta Penhaligon, ladies and gentlemen, a widow of some years, here with her two sons and their wives. She is confined to this wheelchair and even then cannot sit upright in it. She has prayed for deliverance, that she might look her grandchildren and great-grandchildren in their loving eyes before she departs this world for glory.” He spread his hands and smiled, the lights glinting off his dental veneers and hair pomaded to immobility. The organist, with perfect timing, gave the movement a bit of a sting.

“Now, folks, loving and wanting to see love returned. Isn’t that the gate and the key to what faith is all about?”

Choruses of Amens were shouted all around the tent. The second man darted his eyes to his boss and saw the man was already nervous. The second observer knew his boss was a particularly stern sort of Catholic and his bubbe was as bubbe as they come, so neither would’ve agreed with MacDuff. But doctrinal differences weren’t why they were there. Whatever was causing his concern was obviously much worse than that.

“And so, now,” MacDuff resumed before the shouts fully died away, “I shall lay on and, through faith, be the humble conduit for her healing.”

Something changed in the atmosphere of the tent. The second man’s leg hairs felt staticky and the ones on his neck stood straight up. It was like the sudden drop in barometric pressure that presaged a storm, and yet sunlight and a friendly breeze still came through the open tent flaps. A strange stink, faint and far away, as of a whole universe of rotting carrion was just beyond perception, came to his nose as he felt tendrils of power coursing through the tent and focusing itself on MacDuff.

Mrs. Penhaligon, all 4’10” of her plus her bouffant, stood up.

The second man knew now which god MacDuff served even if the healer didn’t. “YG,” his boss tapped on his knee. The second man nodded firmly. This was bad.

*          *          *

They waited until late at night, when the crowds had gone home and the choristers and organist were asleep in their trailers to minimize fuss. MacDuff was duly arrested pursuant to Title 16 USC 12, read his rights, and taken into custody.

“But I’m helping people! Really helping!” MacDuff protested as he sat at a wooden table in a nondescript room of green-painted cinderblocks and cement floor glaring the two agents in shock and confusion.

From the other side of the table, nearer to the door, the gaunt senior agent effected what passed for a smile on his grim face. “We know. And that’s the problem.”

For this and more, please visit me at https://patreon.com/jjbaruch

[academiawho]

2/6 - a productive day

Day 1/14 of @alfalfaaarya's productivity streak

Heyaaa, this is my first actual neet-related study post in the prode month!

Completed the following:

Motion in 1D

Motion in 2D

Laws of Motion

Animal Kingdom

I still have to do thermodynamics and states of matter from chemistry for my mock test, which I'll cover up tomorrow from early morning

Let me know if you'd like me to post in the morning✨

Any ideas are welcome too!

[evitcani-writes]

Is Reality a Simulation?

Okay, so I want to preface this post with: I am a computer scientist. I’m not a physicist. I want to talk about how and why the theory of reality being a simulation is ridiculous. 

Main points you can read in the jump below (this will be long):

The people who argue reality is a simulation aren’t computer scientists (we have proof that reality isn’t a simulation... yes, really)

We are reaching a plateau in digital technological advancement 

The technology needed to simulate the universe would require more matter than the universe holds

You are reading this post which is eliciting thoughts and feelings

Finally, I talk about the proof we have reality isn’t a simulation

Below the cut, I’ll go into detail.

The people who argue reality is a simulation aren’t computer scientists 

I strongly believe that outsiders to a field can bring new insight. In this case, I think it comes from a lack of understanding of how computers “think” (your computer is “thinking” right now). 

And yes, I’m choosing to focus on the philosophical explanation rather than the proofs reality isn’t a simulation because you won’t internalize the math required. But you will be able to see logical steps in reasoning with some light explanation. So, moving on...

When computer scientists and software engineers talk about computers “thinking”, we mean very specific things. Your computer has to prioritize tasks in a way that makes it feel seamless to you, the user. It’s making decisions. It’s thinking.

When other people talk about how computers “think”, they mean something more like how we think. Where decisions are a product of environment, past experience, personality and intention. 

The problem we have with true AI is that we humans always give computers an intention and focus. When you are telling someone to do something they can’t refuse, it’s not free will when they do it.

We’ve reached a plateau in digital advancement

Have you noticed the trend of phones getting larger instead of smaller? This is because we’ve reached the limits of the law that says technology will get faster and smaller every year. That law is called Moore’s Law. What people fail to realize is Moore’s Law is not a straight line. It’s a logarithmic curve that eventually plateaus and ceases to get larger. 

We fell below the pace predicted by Moore’s law in 2010. We slowed even further in 2015. 

That makes sense though, right? I mean... At some point you get down to electrons and the things that make up electrons and then how are you supposed to get smaller? I mean, we are experimenting with using the density of electrons to designate 0 and 1 binary in computers. 

This is what Gordon Moore (the “Moore” in “Moore’s Law”) said in 2005:

In terms of size [of transistors] you can see that we're approaching the size of atoms which is a fundamental barrier, but it'll be two or three generations before we get that far—but that's as far out as we've ever been able to see. We have another 10 to 20 years before we reach a fundamental limit. By then they'll be able to make bigger chips and have transistor budgets in the billions.

Just as he predicted, in 2015 transistors slowed to a crawl. The amount of technology we can pack into your phone is probably as good as it gets until we ditch computers altogether.

The technology needed to simulate the universe would require more matter than the universe holds

I’m not really gonna explain this one. I kind of did it above.

This section is just for the nerds. This will not make sense to people who aren’t nerds. You can skip it.

Perfect time to say that quantum computing will be a thing in the future probably. But even that would likely have to be simulated because the only way to get real quantum computer is to have the computers be kept at near 0 Kelvin which reaching 0 Kelvin is considered at this time to be impossible. So we can’t even perfectly do that until we do the impossible. 

And if we’re simulating quantum bits by rapidly gating between 0 and 1, we still run into the issue of computers being fundamentally deterministic (i.e. unable to achieve True Random). 

I’m not even sure we’ll be able to conceptualize quantum computers as “computers”. Their use would obliterate our entire digital infrastructure and a user’s understanding of how to interface with one. We might be able to do simulations with it, but we’ve found that quantum computers are actually pretty bad at doing things that our binary computers do pretty well. Like harnessing randomness from mother nature, we’d likely end up with a hybrid system where deterministic results are created by truly random quantum computers to be fed into a deterministic interface. 

You are reading this post which is eliciting thoughts and feelings

Buried the lead on this one. This is what I really wanted to talk about. You are having thoughts about this post. Feelings. 

Computers don’t do that. They won’t do that. 

Fun fact about when you let AI talk to another AI: They completely transcend human understanding. Just like you come up with shorthand references like “yeet” that confuse boomers. AI will ultimately begin to develop language like that Dueling Carls video.

(Please god turn down your video before watching)

It’s almost hilarious how well this video demonstrates exactly what computers do. They start at the level of human understanding and then faster than you can blink, they ascend beyond what we could ever hope to conceptualize. The things about Facebook’s chatbots aren’t true of course, but they held a seed of truth.

AI will exist on another level. 

This is because computers (like humans) are greedy. They use the fewest possible resources to reach the same goal. If you programmed a computer to simulate the universe, then it would try to take shortcuts where it could. 

The fact that some people can think visually (seeing “pictures” in their mind) and others can’t really demonstrates that humans aren’t simulated. Or even further, did you know that humans really do have a 6th sense? It’s your ability to know where your body is when you can’t see it. Called propioception. 

We know it exists because people can be born without it. When they close their eyes they physically can no longer use their limbs. It’s genetic. 

Why would a computer account for these things? It’s made it harder to simulate a gene for propioception. Well, maybe the humans who programmed it, told it to account for that. 

Then why are you having thoughts about this post? Why read it at all? It’s going to get what... 5 notes? Why account for you at all. It can have you do things without that “inner voice” that’s reading these words. It doesn’t have to give you intention behind your actions. So then humans made it give you intention. 

Humans telling a computer to create humanity. And having to account for every single little thing. Telling it not to ignore the nuances of all human existence. 

Why would we do that unless we wanted to simulate our entire human history? 

How would we simulate all of our history if we didn’t know everything that everyone ever thought or felt? 

If you are a simulation, then you are memory of someone who is real. 

Finally, I talk about the proof we have reality isn’t a simulation

If you skipped to here, you’re going to be really disappointed. The math is complicated. You can read it here. 

Here’s a summary of their findings. 

In summary, we suggested that nontrivial gravitational/geometrical responses can be identified with obstructions to sign-free local QMC simulations. First, we pointed out that geometrical perturbations are unique in this context because they can always be added to a classical partition function without introducing complex phases or signs. Then, we established that having a global gravitational anomaly on an edge of a gapped system, as is the case for most fractional quantum Hall phases, implies a sign problem. The same argument extends to frustrated quantum magnets that support a chiral spin liquid phase, although here, some additional microscopic assumptions are currently required. Last, we pointed out that sign problems in critical 2D oriented loop models are also associated with a coupling of charge to curvature. Curiously, tensor network–based numerical approaches, for which the sign problem is irrelevant by construction, also struggle with simulating FQHE states (in the thermodynamic limit). This raises an intriguing connection between gravity and computational complexity via sign problems.

The point is that storing a single matrix of 20 spins of a quantum particle requires a terabyte of data. We’d run out of universe before we made even a small simulation. 

[aspiringsuperwoman]

transition to summer 2019

// written on Friday morning on the plane from boston, I am in LA now

hello! I haven’t posted a lot this year. This year has been VERY challenging. But instead of being negative, I’ll talk about some lessons I learned, physical updates and what my life is like moving forward. 

LESSONS

- I can’t have it all (!). Knowing why I want to do things and prioritizing realistically is essential. This and related lessons have helped me reform my compass of who I want to be 

   -healthy

   - kind and loved

   - doing things

   - learning and understanding things

   - leading and communicating

   - connected with the world

- I’m honestly not super proud of the past semester as a whole, but I am intensely proud of finding light in hard situations, never losing myself and being so resilient. This doesn’t have to justify anything, but it’s how I conceptualize this time of my life.

now: LITERAL UPDATES

- 8.04: quantum mechanics: wave particle duality, wave packet behavior and probability implications, operators in position and momentum spaces, behavior of quantum particles in 1D->3D potentials, derivation of hydrogen atom orbitals. 

- 8.044: statistical physics: thermodynamic basis and micro-macrosate observations. Probability theory and basis of entropy and onformation therory, analysis of microcanonical, canonical and grand canonical ensemble using entropy an dpartition functions. Fermi gas behavior and radiation. Heat cycles

- 16.003: fluids: Aero/aircraft parameters, conservation of mass, momentum and energy, derivation of 1D compressible and incompressible flow. Analysis of mach behavior and shocks, expansion waves in nozzles and oblique shock geometries. Differential flow analysis and lift derivation. Potential flow models and 2D assumtpions, 3D implications of vorticity filaments.

- 16.004: Thermodynamics: 0th, 1st and 2nd laws of thermodynamics, reversible work, heat, and change in internal energy, gibbs equations and specific heats. Engine cycles and basics in PV, TS and HS diagrams. Extensions to propulsion analysis/system. nondimensional work analysis, 2 phase media and engine behavior, coupled engine cycles, thermochemistry and heat transfer. 

- 21M.030: intro to world music: expositions of different music forms around the world, bongos.

- rocket team: made and tested hardware for July 6th flight (Hermes II, 100K feet), flight simulations. Systems engineering and recovery system hardware design for staging demonstrator (50K) and spaceshot mission (space). 

- SK, AIAA, WAE: vice president of communications and operations, hosted Jenn Gustetic, visited DC for congressional visits day

- personal: my floor is great, I have a wonderful single next year with a river view. I have great friends, and want to get to know more people in SK and course 16 next year. 

finally: THIS SUMMER - working at SpaceX!

- flight of Hermes II rocket (100K) and staging demonstrator (50K)

- trying to be healthy and fit, make new friends, watch lots of good movies and read good books,, and explore cali!!

- narrow in on what I want to do in my career, like understand where we are in the universe, have the power to make cool things, and work with people. 

- post more on here! about ideas, things learned, cool art, experiences, etc. reading this blog brings me back to times in my life i don’t want to forget, and reminds me of times that will be a little further away from me forever now.

thanks for listening to my ted talk (haha), here’s to a whole-assing a reasonable lcapacity of things that MATTER to me moving forward :) 

up & up !

[imm-blog1]

Physical Chemistry Thermodynamics, Structure, and Change

www.e-libraryme.com/2019/09/physical-chemistry-thermodyna…

Author:

Peter Atkins & Julio de Paula

Published in:

W. H. Freeman and Company

Release Year:

2014

ISBN:

978-1-4292-9019-7

Pages:

1035

Edition:

Tenth Edition

File Size:

46 MB

File Type:

pdf

Language:

English

Description of Physical Chemistry Thermodynamics, Structure, and Change

This new edition of Physical Chemistry Thermodynamics, Structure, and Change is the product of a thorough revision of content and its presentation. Our goal is to make the book Physical Chemistry Thermodynamics, Structure, and Change even more accessible to students and useful to instructors by enhancing its flexibility. We hope that both categories of the user will perceive and enjoy the renewed vitality of the text and the presentation of this demanding but engaging subject. The text is still divided into three parts, but each chapter is now presented as a series of short and more readily mastered Topics. For instance, Instead, students and instructors can match the choice of Topics to their learning objectives. We have been very careful not to presuppose or impose a particular sequence, except where it is demanded by common sense.

Content of Physical Chemistry Thermodynamics, Structure, and Change

Foundations 1 A Matter 2 A.1 Atoms 2 (a) The nuclear model 2 (b) The periodic table 2 (c) Ions 3 A.2 Molecules 3 (a) Lewis structures 3 (b) VSEPR theory 4 (c) Polar bonds 4 A.3 Bulk matter 5 (a) Properties of bulk matter 5 (b) The perfect gas equation 6 Checklist of concepts 7 Checklist of equations 8 B Energy 9 B.1 Force 9 (a) Momentum 9 (b) Newton’s second law of motion 10 B.2 Energy: a first look 11 (a) Work 11 (b) The definition of energy 11 (c) The Coulomb potential energy 12 (d) Thermodynamics 14 B.3 The relation between molecular and bulk properties 15 (a) The Boltzmann distribution 15 (b) Equipartition 17 Checklist of concepts 17 Checklist of equations 18 C Waves 19 C.1 Harmonic waves 19 C.2 The electromagnetic field 20 Checklist of concepts 22 Checklist of equations 22 Discussion questions and exercises 23 PART 1 Thermodynamics 27 CHAPTER 1 The properties of gases 29 Topic 1A The perfect gas 30 1A.1 Variables of state 30 (a) Pressure 30 (b) Temperature 31 1A.2 Equations of state 32 (a) The empirical basis 32 (b) Mixtures of gases 35 Checklist of concepts 36 Checklist of equations 36 Topic 1B The kinetic model 37 1B.1 The model 37 (a) Pressure and molecular speeds 37 (b) The Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution of speeds 39 (c) Mean values 40 1B.2 Collisions 42 (a) The collision frequency 42 (b) The mean free path 43 Checklist of concepts 44 Checklist of equations 44 Topic 1C Real gases 45 1C.1 Deviations from perfect behavior 45 (a) The compression factor 46 (b) Virial coefficients 47 (c) Critical constants 48 1C.2 The van der Waals equation 48 (a) Formulation of equation 48 (b) The features of the equation 50 (c) The principle of corresponding states 52 Checklist of concepts 53 Checklist of equations 53 Discussion questions, exercises, and problems 54 Mathematical background 1 Differentiation and integration 59 CHAPTER 2 The First Law 63 Topic 2A Internal energy 64 2A.1 Work, heat, and energy 65 (a) Operational definitions 65 (b) The molecular interpretation of heat and work 66 2A.2 The definition of internal energy 66 (a) Molecular interpretation of internal energy 67 (b) The formulation of the First Law 67 2A.3 Expansion work 68 (a) The general expression for work 68 (b) Expansion against constant pressure 69 (c) Reversible expansion 70 (d) Isothermal reversible expansion 70 2A.4 Heat transactions 71 (a) Calorimetry 71 (b) Heat capacity 72 Checklist of concepts 74 Checklist of equations 74 Topic 2B Enthalpy 75 2B.1 The definition of enthalpy 75 (a) Enthalpy change and heat transfer 75 (b) Calorimetry 76 2B.2 The variation of enthalpy with temperature 77 (a) Heat capacity at constant pressure 77 (b) The relation between heat capacities 79 Checklist of concepts 79 Checklist of equations 79

Topic 2C Thermochemistry 80 2C.1 Standard enthalpy changes 80 (a) Enthalpies of physical change 81 (b) Enthalpies of chemical change 82 (c) Hess’s law 83 2C.2 Standard enthalpies of formation 84 (a) The reaction enthalpy in terms of enthalpies of formation 85 (b) Enthalpies of formation and molecular modeling 85 2C.3 The temperature dependence of reaction enthalpies 86 2C.4 Experimental techniques 87 (a) Differential scanning calorimetry 87 (b) Isothermal titration calorimetry 88 Checklist of concepts 88 Checklist of equations 89 Topic 2D State functions and exact differentials 90 2D.1 Exact and inexact differentials 90 2D.2 Changes in internal energy 91 (a) General considerations 91 (b) Changes in internal energy at constant pressure 93 2D.3 The Joule–Thomson effect 95 (a) Observation of the Joule–Thomson effect 95 (b) The molecular interpretation of the Joule–Thomson effect 98 Checklist of concepts 98 Checklist of equations 99 Topic 2E Adiabatic changes 100 2E.1 The change in temperature 100 2E.2 The change in pressure 101 Checklist of concepts 102 Checklist of equations 102 Discussion questions, exercises, and problems 103 Mathematical background 2 Multivariate calculus 109 CHAPTER 3 The Second and Third Laws 112 Topic 3A Entropy 113 3A.1 The Second Law 113 3A.2 The definition of entropy 115 (a) The thermodynamic definition of entropy 115 (b) The statistical definition of entropy 116 3A.3 The entropy as a state function 117 (a) The Carnot cycle 118 (b) The thermodynamic temperature of 120 (c) The Clausius inequality 120 3A.4 Entropy changes accompanying specific processes 121 (a) Expansion of 121 (b) Phase transitions 122 (c) Heating 123 (d) Composite processes 124 Checklist of concepts 124 Checklist of equations 125 Topic 3B The measurement of entropy 126 3B.1 The calorimetric measurement of entropy 126 3B.2 The Third Law 127 (a) The Nernst heat theorem 127 (b) Third-Law entropies 129 Checklist of concepts 130 Checklist of equations 130 Topic 3C Concentrating on the system 131 3C.1 The Helmholtz and Gibbs energies 131 (a) Criteria of spontaneity 131 (b) Some remarks on the Helmholtz energy 133 (c) Maximum work 133 (d) Some remarks on the Gibbs energy 134 (e) Maximum non-expansion work 135 3C.2 Standard molar Gibbs energies 136 (a) Gibbs energies of formation 136 (b) The Born equation 137 Checklist of concepts 138 Checklist of equations 138 Topic 3D Combining the First and Second Laws 140 3D.1 Properties of the internal energy 140 (a) The Maxwell relations 141 (b) The variation of internal energy with volume 141 3D.2 Properties of the Gibbs energy 142 (a) General considerations 142 (b) The variation of the Gibbs energy with temperature 144 (c) The variation of the Gibbs energy with pressure 144 (d) The fugacity 146 Checklist of concepts 148 Checklist of equations 148 Discussion questions, exercises, and problems 149 CHAPTER 4 Physical transformations of pure substances 154 Topic 4A Phase diagrams of pure substances 155 4A.1 The stabilities of phases 155 (a) The number of phases 155 (b) Phase transitions 156 (c) Thermodynamic criteria of phase stability 156 4A.2 Phase boundaries 157 (a) Characteristic properties related to phase transitions 157 (b) The phase rule 159 4A.3 Three representative phase diagrams 160 (a) Carbon dioxide 160 (b) Water 161 (c) Helium 162 Checklist of concepts 162 Checklist of equations 163 Topic 4B Thermodynamic aspects of phase transitions 164 4B.1 The dependence of stability on the conditions 164 (a) The temperature dependence of phase stability 165 (b) The response of melting to applied pressure 165 (c) The vapor pressure of a liquid subjected to pressure 166 4B.2 The location of phase boundaries 167 (a) The slopes of the phase boundaries 167 (b) The solid–liquid boundary 168 (c) The liquid-vapor boundary 169 (d) The solid–vapor boundary 170 4B.3 The Ehrenfest classification of phase transitions 171 (a) The thermodynamic basis 171 (b) Molecular interpretation 172 Checklist of concepts 173 Checklist of equations 173 Discussion questions, exercises, and problems 174 CHAPTER 5 Simple mixtures 178 Topic 5A The thermodynamic description of mixtures 180 5A.1 Partial molar quantities 180 (a) Partial molar volume 181 (b) Partial molar Gibbs energies 182 (c) The wider significance of the chemical potential 183 (d) The Gibbs–Duhem equation 183 5A.2 The thermodynamics of mixing 184 (a) The Gibbs energy of mixing of perfect gases 185 (b) Other thermodynamic mixing functions 186 5A.3 The chemical potentials of liquids 187 (a) Ideal solutions 187 (b) Ideal–dilute solutions 188 Checklist of concepts 190 Checklist of equations 190 Topic 5B The properties of solutions 192 5B.1 Liquid mixtures 192 (a) Ideal solutions 192 (b) Excess functions and regular solutions 193 5B.2 Colligative properties 195 (a) The common features of colligative properties 195 (b) The elevation of boiling point 196 (c) The depression of freezing point 197 (d) Solubility 198 (e) Osmosis 199 Checklist of concepts 201 Checklist of equations 201 Topic 5C Phase diagrams of binary systems 202 5C.1 Vapour pressure diagrams 202 (a) The composition of the vapor 202 (b) The interpretation of the diagrams 203 (c) The lever rule 205 5C.2 Temperature–composition diagrams 206 (a) The distillation of mixtures 206 (b) Azeotropes 207 (c) Immiscible liquids 208 5C.3 Liquid-liquid phase diagrams 208 (a) Phase separation 208 (b) Critical solution temperatures 209 (c) The distillation of partially miscible liquids 211 5C.4 Liquid–solid-phase diagrams 212 (a) Eutectics 212 (b) Reacting systems 214 (c) Incongruent melting 214 Checklist of concepts 215 Checklist of equations 215 Topic 5D Phase diagrams of ternary systems 216 5D.1 Triangular phase diagrams 216 5D.2 Ternary systems 217 (a) Partially miscible liquids 217 (b) Ternary solids 218 Checklist of concepts 219 Topic 5E Activities 220 5E.1 The solvent activity 220 5E.2 The solute activity 221 (a) Ideal–dilute solutions 221 (b) Real solutes 221 (c) Activities in terms of molalities 222 (d) The biological standard state 222 5E.3 The activities of regular solutions 223 Checklist of concepts 224 Checklist of equations 225 Topic 5F The activities of ions 226 5F.1 Mean activity coefficients 226 (a) The Debye–Hückel limiting law 227 (b) Extensions of the limiting law 228 5F.2 The Debye–Hückel theory 229 (a) The work of charging 229 (b) The potential due to the charge distribution 229 (c) The activity coefficient 230 Checklist of concepts 232 Checklist of equations 232 Discussion questions, exercises, and problems 233 CHAPTER 6 Chemical equilibrium 244 Topic 6A The equilibrium constant 245 6A.1 The Gibbs energy minimum 245 (a) The reaction Gibbs energy 245 (b) Exergonic and endergonic reactions 246 6A.2 The description of equilibrium 247 (a) Perfect gas equilibria 247 (b) The general case of a reaction 248 (c) The relation between equilibrium constants 251 (d) Molecular interpretation of the equilibrium constant 251 Checklist of concepts 252 Checklist of equations 252 Topic 6B The response of equilibria to the conditions 254 6B.1 The response to pressure 254 6B.2 The response to temperature 255 (a) The van ’t Hoff equation 256 (b) The value of K at different temperatures 257 Checklist of concepts 258 Checklist of equations 258 Topic 6C Electrochemical cells 259 6C.1 Half-reactions and electrodes 259 6C.2 Varieties of cells 260 (a) Liquid junction potentials 261 (b) Notation 261 6C.3 The cell potential 261 (a) The Nernst equation 262 (b) Cells at equilibrium 264 6C.4 The determination of thermodynamic functions 264 Checklist of concepts 265 Checklist of equations 266 Topic 6D Electrode potentials 267 6D.1 Standard potentials 267 (a) The measurement procedure 268 (b) Combining measured values 269 6D.2 Applications of standard potentials 269 (a) The electrochemical series 269 (b) The determination of activity coefficients 270 (c) The determination of equilibrium constants 270 Checklist of concepts 271 Checklist of equations 271 Discussion questions, exercises, and problems 272 PART 2 Structure 279 CHAPTER 7 Introduction to quantum theory 281 Topic 7A The origins of quantum mechanics 282 7A.1 Energy quantization 282 (a) Black-body radiation 282 (b) Heat capacities 285 (c) Atomic and molecular spectra 286 7A.2 Wave–particle duality 287 (a) The particle character of electromagnetic radiation 287 (b) The wave character of particles 289 Checklist of concepts 290 Checklist of equations 291 Topic 7B Dynamics of microscopic systems 292 7B.1 The Schrödinger equation 292 7B.2 The Born interpretation of the wavefunction 293 (a) Normalization 295 (b) Constraints on the wavefunction 296 (c) Quantization 297 7B.3 The probability density 297 Checklist of concepts 298 Checklist of equations 298 Topic 7C The principles of quantum theory 299 7C.1 Operators 299 (a) Eigenvalue equations 299 (b) The construction of operators 300 (c) Hermitian operators 302 (d) Orthogonality 303 7C.2 Superpositions and expectation values 304 7C.3 The uncertainty principle 305 7C.4 The postulates of quantum mechanics 308 Checklist of concepts 308 Checklist of equations 308 Discussion questions, exercises, and problems 310 Mathematical background 3 Complex numbers 314 CHAPTER 8 The quantum theory of motion 316 Topic 8A Translation 317 8A.1 Free motion in one dimension 317 8A.2 Confined motion in one dimension 318 (a) The acceptable solutions 318 (b) The properties of the wavefunctions 320 (c) The properties of observables 321 8A.3 Confined motion in two or more dimensions 322 (a) Separation of variables 322 (b) Degeneracy 324 8A.4 Tunnelling 324 Checklist of concepts 327 Checklist of equations 328 Topic 8B Vibrational motion 329 8B.1 The harmonic oscillator 329 (a) The energy levels 330 (b) The wavefunctions 331 8B.2 The properties of oscillators 333 (a) Mean values 334 (b) Tunneling 335 Checklist of concepts 336 Checklist of equations 336 Topic 8C Rotational motion 337 8C.1 Rotation in two dimensions 337 (a) The qualitative origin of quantized rotation 337 (b) The solutions of the Schrödinger equation 338 (c) Quantization of angular momentum 340 8C.2 Rotation in three dimensions 342 (a) The wavefunctions 342 (b) The energies 344 (c) Angular momentum of 345 (d) Space quantization 345 (e) The vector model 346 Checklist of concepts 347 Checklist of equations 347 Discussion questions, exercises, and problems 349 Mathematical background 4 Differential equations 354 CHAPTER 9 Atomic structure and spectra 356 Topic 9A Hydrogenic atoms 357 9A.1 The structure of hydrogenic atoms 358 (a) The separation of variables 358 (b) The radial solutions 359 9A.2 Atomic orbitals and their energies 361 (a) The specification of orbitals 361 (b) The energy levels 362 (c) Ionization energies 362 (d) Shells and subshells 363 (e) s Orbitals 364 (f) Radial distribution functions 365 (g) p Orbitals 367 (h) d Orbitals 368 Checklist of concepts 368 Checklist of equations 369 Topic 9B Many-electron atoms 370 9B.1 The orbital approximation 370 (a) The helium atom 371 (b) Spin 371 (c) The Pauli principle 372 (d) Penetration and shielding 374 9B.2 The building-up principle 375 (a) Hund’s rules 376 (b) Ionization energies and electron affinities 377 9B.3 Self-consistent field orbitals 379 Checklist of concepts 380 Checklist of equations 380 Topic 9C Atomic spectra 381 9C.1 The spectra of hydrogenic atoms 381 9C.2 The spectra of complex atoms 382 (a) Singlet and triplet states 383 (b) Spin–orbit coupling 383 (c) Term symbols 386 (d) Hund’s rules 389 (e) Selection rules 389 Checklist of concepts 389 Checklist of equations 390 Discussion questions, exercises, and problems 391 Mathematical background 5 Vectors 395 CHAPTER 10 Molecular structure 398 Topic 10A Valence-bond theory 399 10A.1 Diatomic molecules 400 (a) The basic formulation of 400 (b) Resonance 401 10A.2 Polyatomic molecules 402 (a) Promotion 403 (b) Hybridization 403 Checklist of concepts 405 Checklist of equations 406 Topic 10B Principles of molecular orbital theory 407 10B.1 Linear combinations of atomic orbitals 407 (a) The construction of linear combinations 407 (b) Bonding orbitals 409 (c) Antibonding orbitals 411 10B.2 Orbital notation 412 Checklist of concepts 412 Checklist of equations 412 Topic 10C Homonuclear diatomic molecules 413 10C.1 Electron configurations 413 (a) σ Orbitals and π orbitals 413 (b) The overlap integral 415 (c) Period 2 diatomic molecules 416 10C.2 Photoelectron spectroscopy 418 Checklist of concepts 419 Checklist of equations 419 Topic 10D Heteronuclear diatomic molecules 420 10D.1 Polar bonds 420 (a) The molecular orbital formulation 420 (b) Electronegativity 421 10D.2 The variation principle 422 (a) Procedure 423 (b) The features of the solutions 424 Checklist of concepts 425 Checklist of equations 426 Topic 10E Polyatomic molecules 427 10E.1 The Hückel approximation 427 (a) An introduction to the method 428 (b) The matrix formulation of the method 428 10E.2 Applications 430 (a) Butadiene and π-electron binding energy 430 (b) Benzene and aromatic stability 431 10E.3 Computational chemistry 432 (a) Semi-empirical and ab initio methods 433 (b) Density functional theory 434 (c) Graphical representations 434 Checklist of concepts 435 Checklist of equations 435 Discussion questions, exercises, and problems 436 Mathematical background 6 Matrices 443 CHAPTER 11 Molecular symmetry 446 Topic 11A Symmetry elements 447 11A.1 Symmetry operations and symmetry elements 448 11A.2 The symmetry classification of molecules 449 (a) The groups C1, Ci, and Cs 450 (b) The groups Cn, Cnv, and Cnh 451 (c) The groups Dn, Dinh, and Dnd 452 (d) The groups Sn 452 (e) The cubic groups 453 (f) The full rotation group 454 11A.3 Some immediate consequences of symmetry 454 (a) Polarity 454 (b) Chirality 455 Checklist of concepts 455 Checklist of operations and elements 456 Topic 11B Group theory 457 11B.1 The elements of group theory 457 11B.2 Matrix representations 458 (a) Representatives of operations 459 (b) The representation of a group 459 (c) Irreducible representations 459 (d) Characters and symmetry species 460 11B.3 Character tables 461 (a) Character tables and orbital degeneracy 461 (b) The symmetry species of atomic orbitals 462 (c) The symmetry species of linear combinations of orbitals 463 Checklist of concepts 464 Checklist of equations 464 Topic 11C Applications of symmetry 465 11C.1 Vanishing integrals 465 (a) Integrals over the product of two functions 466 (b) Decomposition of a direct product 467 (c) Integrals over products of three functions 467 11C.2 Applications to orbitals 468 (a) Orbital overlap 468 (b) Symmetry-adapted linear combinations 468 11C.3 Selection rules 469 Checklist of concepts 470 Checklist of equations 470 Discussion questions, exercises, and problems 471 CHAPTER 12 Rotational and vibrational spectra 474 Topic 12A General features of molecular spectroscopy 476 12A.1 The absorption and emission of radiation 477 (a) Stimulated and spontaneous radiative processes 477 (b) Selection rules and transition moments 478 (c) The Beer–Lambert law 479 12A.2 Spectral linewidths 480 (a) Doppler broadening 481 (b) Lifetime broadening 482 12A.3 Experimental techniques 482 (a) Sources of radiation 482 (b) Spectral analysis 483 (c) Detectors 485 (d) Examples of spectrometers 485 Checklist of concepts 486 Checklist of equations 487 Topic 12B Molecular rotation 488 12B.1 Moments of inertia 488 12B.2 The rotational energy levels 490 (a) Spherical rotors 490 (b) Symmetric rotors 491 (c) Linear rotors 493 (d) Centrifugal distortion 493 Checklist of concepts 494 Checklist of equations 494 Topic 12C Rotational spectroscopy 495 12C.1 Microwave spectroscopy 495 (a) Selection rules 495 (b) The appearance of microwave spectra 497 12C.2 Rotational Raman spectroscopy 498 12C.3 Nuclear statistics and rotational states 500 Checklist of concepts 502 Checklist of equations 502 Topic 12D Vibrational spectroscopy of diatomic molecules 503 12D.1 Vibrational motion 503 12D.2 Infrared spectroscopy 505 12D.3 Anharmonicity 506 (a) The convergence of energy levels 506 (b) The Birge–Sponer plot 508 12D.4 Vibration–rotation spectra 509 (a) Spectral branches 509 (b) Combination differences 510 12D.5 Vibrational Raman spectra 511 Checklist of concepts 512 Checklist of equations 512 Topic 12E Vibrational spectroscopy of polyatomic molecules 514 12E.1 Normal modes 514 12E.2 Infrared absorption spectra 516 12E.3 Vibrational Raman spectra 518 (a) Depolarization 518 (b) Resonance Raman spectra 518 (c) Coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy 519 12E.4 Symmetry aspects of molecular vibrations 520 (a) The infrared activity of normal modes 520 (b) Raman activity of normal modes 521 Checklist of concepts 521 Checklist of equations 522 Discussion questions, exercises, and problems 523 CHAPTER 13 Electronic transitions 531 Topic 13A Electronic spectra 532 13A.1 Diatomic molecules 533 (a) Term symbols 533 (b) Selection rules 535 (c) Vibrational structure 536 (d) Rotational structure 538 13A.2 Polyatomic molecules 539 (a) d-Metal complexes 539 (b) π*←π and π*←n transitions 540 (c) Circular dichroism 541 Checklist of concepts 542 Checklist of equations 542 Topic 13B Decay of excited states 543 13B.1 Fluorescence and phosphorescence 543 13B.2 Dissociation and predissociation 545 Checklist of concepts 546 Topic 13C Lasers 547 13C.1 Population inversion 547 13C.2 Cavity and mode characteristics 549 13C.3 Pulsed lasers 550 13C.4 Time-resolved spectroscopy 552 13C.5 Examples of practical lasers 552 (a) Gas lasers 553 (b) Exciplex lasers 554 (c) Dye lasers 554 (d) Vibronic lasers 554 Checklist of concepts 555 Checklist of equations 555 Discussion questions, exercises, and problems 556 CHAPTER 14 Magnetic resonance 560 Topic 14A General principles 561 14A.1 Nuclear magnetic resonance 561 (a) The energies of nuclei in magnetic fields 561 (b) The NMR spectrometer 563 14A.2 Electron paramagnetic resonance 564 (a) The energies of electrons in magnetic fields 565 (b) The EPR spectrometer 566 Checklist of concepts 567 Checklist of equations 567 Topic 14B Features of NMR spectra 568 14B.1 The chemical shift 568 14B.2 The origin of shielding constants 570 (a) The local contribution 570 (b) Neighboring group contributions 571 (c) The solvent contribution 573 14B.3 The fine structure 573 (a) The appearance of the spectrum 573 (b) The magnitudes of coupling constants 575 (c) The origin of spin–spin coupling 576 (d) Equivalent nuclei 577 (e) Strongly coupled nuclei 579 14B.4 Conformational conversion and exchange processes 580 Checklist of concepts 581 Checklist of equations 581 Topic 14C Pulse techniques in NMR 582 14C.1 The magnetization vector 582 (a) The effect of the radiofrequency field 583 (b) Time- and frequency-domain signals 584 14C.2 Spin relaxation 585 (a) Longitudinal and transverse relaxation 585 (b) The measurement of T1 and T2 587 14C.3 Spin decoupling 588 14C.4 The nuclear Overhauser effect 589 14C.5 Two-dimensional NMR 590 14C.6 Solid-state NMR 592 Checklist of concepts 593 Checklist of equations 593 Topic 14D Electron paramagnetic resonance 594 14D.1 The g-value 594 14D.2 Hyperfine structure 595 (a) The effects of nuclear spin 595 (b) The McConnell equation 596 (c) The origin of the hyperfine interaction 597 Checklist of concepts 598 Checklist of equations 598 Discussion questions, exercises, and problems 599 CHAPTER 15 Statistical thermodynamics 604 Topic 15A The Boltzmann distribution 605 15A.1 Configurations and weights 605 (a) Instantaneous configurations 605 (b) The most probable distribution 607 (c) The relative population of states 608 15A.2 The derivation of the Boltzmann distribution 608 (a) The role of constraints 609 (b) The values of the constants 610 Checklist of concepts 611 Checklist of equations 611 Topic 15B Molecular partition functions 612 15B.1 The significance of the partition function 612 15B.2 Contributions to the partition function 614 (a) The translational contribution 615 (b) The rotational contribution of 616 (c) The vibrational contribution 620 (d) The electronic contribution 621 Checklist of concepts 622 Checklist of equations 622 Topic 15C Molecular energies 624 15C.1 The basic equations 624 15C.2 Contributions of the fundamental modes of motion 625 (a) The translational contribution 625 (b) The rotational contribution of 625 (c) The vibrational contribution 626 (d) The electronic contribution 627 (e) The spin contribution 628 Checklist of concepts 628 Checklist of equations 628 Topic 15D The canonical ensemble 630 15D.1 The concept of ensemble 630 (a) Dominating configurations 631 (b) Fluctuations from the most probable distribution 631 15D.2 The mean energy of a system 632 15D.3 Independent molecules revisited 633 15D.4 The variation of energy with volume 633 Checklist of concepts 635 Checklist of equations 635 Topic 15E The internal energy and the entropy 636 15E.1 The internal energy 636 (a) The calculation of internal energy 636 (b) Heat capacity 637 15E.2 The entropy 638 (a) Entropy and the partition function 638 (b) The translational contribution 640 (c) The rotational contribution of 641 (d) The vibrational contribution 642 (e) Residual entropies 642 Checklist of concepts 643 Checklist of equations 644 Topic 15F Derived functions 645 15F.1 The derivations 645 15F.2 Equilibrium constants 647 (a) The relation between K and the partition function 647 (b) A dissociation equilibrium 648 (c) Contributions to the equilibrium constant 648 Checklist of concepts 650 Checklist of equations 650 Discussion questions, exercises, and problems 651 CHAPTER 16 Molecular interactions 659 Topic 16A Electric properties of molecules 660 16A.1 Electric dipole moments 660 16A.2 Polarizabilities 663 16A.3 Polarization 664 (a) The frequency dependence of the polarization 664 (b) Molar polarization 665 Checklist of concepts 667 Checklist of equations 667 Topic 16B Interactions between molecules 668 16B.1 Interactions between partial charges 668 16B.2 The interactions of dipoles 669 (a) Charge–dipole interactions 669 (b) Dipole–dipole interactions 670 (c) Dipole–induced dipole interactions 673 (d) Induced dipole–induced dipole interactions 673 16B.3 Hydrogen bonding 674 16B.4 The hydrophobic interaction 675 16B.5 The total interaction 676 Checklist of concepts 678 Checklist of equations 678 Topic 16C Liquids 680 16C.1 Molecular interactions in liquids 680 (a) The radial distribution function 680 (b) The calculation of g(r) 681 (c) The thermodynamic properties of liquids 682 16C.2 The liquid-vapor interface 683 (a) Surface tension 683 (b) Curved surfaces 684 (c) Capillary action 685 16C.3 Surface films 686 (a) Surface pressure 686 (b) The thermodynamics of surface layers 687 16C.4 Condensation 689 Checklist of concepts 689 Checklist of equations 690 Discussion questions, exercises, and problems 691 CHAPTER 17 Macromolecules and self-assembly 696 Topic 17A The structures of macromolecules 697 17A.1 The different levels of structure 697 17A.2 Random coils 698 (a) Measures of size 699 (b) Constrained chains 702 (c) Partly rigid coils 702 17A.3 Biological macromolecules 703 (a) Proteins 704 (b) Nucleic acids 705 Checklist of concepts 706 Checklist of equations 706 Topic 17B Properties of macromolecules 708 17B.1 Mechanical properties 708 (a) Conformational entropy 708 (b) Elastomers 709 17B.2 Thermal properties 710 17B.3 Electrical properties 712 Checklist of concepts 712 Checklist of equations 713 Topic 17C Self-assembly 714 17C.1 Colloids 714 (a) Classification and preparation 714 (b) Structure and stability 715 (c) The electrical double layer 715 17C.2 Micelles and biological membranes 717 (a) Micelle formation 717 (b) Bilayers, vesicles, and membranes 719 (c) Self-assembled monolayers 720 Checklist of concepts 720 Checklist of equations 721 Topic 17D Determination of size and shape 722 17D.1 Mean molar masses 722 17D.2 The techniques 724 (a) Mass spectrometry 724 (b) Laser light scattering 725 (c) Sedimentation 726 (d) Viscosity 728 Checklist of concepts 730 Checklist of equations 730 Discussion questions, exercises, and problems 731 CHAPTER 18 Solids 736 Topic 18A Crystal structure 737 18A.1 Periodic crystal lattices 737 18A.2 The identification of lattice planes 740 (a) The Miller indices 740 (b) The separation of planes 741 18A.3 X-ray crystallography 742 (a) X-ray diffraction 742 (b) Bragg’s law 744 (c) Scattering factors 745 (d) The electron density 745 (e) Determination of the structure 748 18A.4 Neutron and electron diffraction 749 Checklist of concepts 750 Checklist of equations 751 Topic 18B Bonding in solids 752 18B.1 Metallic solids 752 (a) Close packing 752 (b) Electronic structure of metals 754 18B.2 Ionic solids 756 (a) Structure 756 (b) Energetics 757 18B.3 Covalent and molecular solids 760 Checklist of concepts 761 Checklist of equations 761 Topic 18C Mechanical, electrical, and magnetic properties of solids 762 18C.1 Mechanical properties 762 18C.2 Electrical properties 764 (a) Conductors 765 (b) Insulators and semiconductors 766 (c) Superconductivity 767 18C.3 Magnetic properties 768 (a) Magnetic susceptibility 768 (b) Permanent and induced magnetic moments 769 (c) Magnetic properties of superconductors 771 Checklist of concepts 771 Checklist of equations 772 Topic 18D The optical properties of solids 773 18D.1 Light absorption by excitons in molecular solids 773 18D.2 Light absorption by metals and semiconductors 775 18D.3 Light-emitting diodes and diode lasers 776 18D.4 Nonlinear optical phenomena 776 Checklist of concepts 776 Discussion questions, exercises, and problems 777 Mathematical background 7 Fourier series and Fourier transforms 783 PART 3 Change 787 CHAPTER 19 Molecules in motion 789 Topic 19A Transport in gases 790 19A.1 The phenomenological equations 790 19A.2 The transport parameters 792 (a) The diffusion coefficient 793 (b) Thermal conductivity 794 (c) Viscosity 795 (d) Effusion 796 Checklist of concepts 796 Checklist of equations 797 Topic 19B Motion in liquids 798 19B.1 Experimental results 798 (a) Liquid viscosity 798 (b) Electrolyte solutions 799 19B.2 The mobilities of ions 800 (a) The drift speed 800 (b) Mobility and conductivity 802 (c) The Einstein relations 803 Checklist of concepts 804 Checklist of equations 804 Topic 19C Diffusion 805 19C.1 The thermodynamic view 805 19C.2 The diffusion equation 807 (a) Simple diffusion 807 (b) Diffusion with convection 808 (c) Solutions of the diffusion equation 809 19C.3 The statistical view 810 Checklist of concepts 811 Checklist of equations 811 Discussion questions, exercises, and problems 813 CHAPTER 20 Chemical kinetics 818 Topic 20A The rates of chemical reactions 820 20A.1 Monitoring the progress of a reaction 820 (a) General considerations 820 (b) Special techniques 821 20A.2 The rates of reactions 822 (a) The definition of rate 822 (b) Rate laws and rate constants 823 (c) Reaction order 824 (d) The determination of the rate law 824 Checklist of concepts 826 Checklist of equations 826 Topic 20B Integrated rate laws 827 20B.1 First-order reactions 827 20B.2 Second-order reactions 829 Checklist of concepts 831 Checklist of equations 832 Topic 20C Reactions approaching equilibrium 833 20C.1 First-order reactions approaching equilibrium 833 20C.2 Relaxation methods 834 Checklist of concepts 836 Checklist of equations 836 Topic 20D The Arrhenius equation 837 20D.1 The temperature dependence of reaction rates 837 20D.2 The interpretation of the Arrhenius parameters 839 (a) A first look at the energy requirements of reactions 839 (b) The effect of a catalyst on the activation energy 840 Checklist of concepts 841 Checklist of equations 841 Topic 20E Reaction mechanisms 842 20E.1 Elementary reactions 842 20E.2 Consecutive elementary reactions 843 20E.3 The steady-state approximation 844 20E.4 The rate-determining step 845 20E.5 Pre-equilibria 846 20E.6 Kinetic and thermodynamic control of reactions 847 Checklist of concepts 848 Checklist of equations 848 Topic 20F Examples of reaction mechanisms 849 20F.1 Unimolecular reactions 849 20F.2 Polymerization kinetics 850 (a) Stepwise polymerization 851 (b) Chain polymerization 852 Checklist of concepts 854 Checklist of equations 854 Topic 20G Photochemistry 855 20G.1 Photochemical processes 855 20G.2 The primary quantum yield 856 20G.3 Mechanism of decay of excited singlet states 857 20G.4 Quenching 858 20G.5 Resonance energy transfer 860 Checklist of concepts 861 Checklist of equations 862 Topic 20H Enzymes 863 20H.1 Features of enzymes 863 20H.2 The Michaelis–Menten mechanism 864 20H.3 The catalytic efficiency of enzymes 866 20H.4 Mechanisms of enzyme inhibition 866 Checklist of concepts 869 Checklist of equations 869 Discussion questions, exercises, and problems 870 CHAPTER 21 Reaction dynamics 879 Topic 21A Collision theory 881 21A.1 Reactive encounters 881 (a) Collision rates in gases 882 (b) The energy requirement 883 (c) The steric requirement 885 21A.2 The RRK model 886 Checklist of concepts 888 Checklist of equations 888 Topic 21B diffusion-controlled reactions 889 21B.1 Reactions in solution 889 (a) Classes of reaction 889 (b) Diffusion and reaction 890 21B.2 The material-balance equation 891 (a) The formulation of equation 891 (b) Solutions of equation 892 Checklist of concepts 892 Checklist of equations 893 Topic 21C Transition-state theory 894 21C.1 The Eyring equation 894 (a) The formulation of equation 894 (b) The rate of decay of the activated complex 895 (c) The concentration of the activated complex 896 (d) The rate constant 896 (e) Observation and manipulation of the activated complex 897 21C.2 Thermodynamic aspects 899 (a) Activation parameters 899 (b) Reactions between ions 900 21C.3 The kinetic isotope effect 901 Checklist of concepts 903 Checklist of equations 903 Topic 21D The dynamics of molecular collisions 904 21D.1 Molecular beams 904 (a) Techniques 904 (b) Experimental results 905 21D.2 Reactive collisions 907 (a) Probes of reactive collisions 907 (b) State-to-state reaction dynamics 907 21D.3 Potential energy surfaces 908 21D.4 Some results from experiments and calculations 910 (a) The direction of attack and separation 910 (b) Attractive and repulsive surfaces 911 (c) Classical trajectories 912 (d) Quantum mechanical scattering theory 912 Checklist of concepts 913 Checklist of equations 913 Topic 21E Electron transfer in homogeneous systems 914 21E.1 The electron transfer rate law 914 21E.2 The rate constant 915 (a) The role of electron tunneling 916 (b) The reorganization energy 917 Checklist of concepts 919 Checklist of equations 919 Topic 21F Processes at electrodes 920 21F.1 The electrode–solution interface 920 21F.2 The rate of electron transfer 921 (a) The Butler–Volmer equation 921 (b) Tafel plots 924 21F.3 Voltammetry 925 21F.4 Electrolysis 927 21F.5 Working galvanic cells 927 Checklist of concepts 928 Checklist of equations 929 Discussion questions, exercises, and problems 930 CHAPTER 22 Processes on solid surfaces 937 Topic 22A An introduction to solid surfaces 938 22A.1 Surface growth 938 22A.2 Physisorption and chemisorption 939 22A.3 Experimental techniques 940 (a) Microscopy 940 (b) Ionization techniques 942 (c) Diffraction techniques 942 (d) Determination of the extent and rates of adsorption and desorption 944 Checklist of concepts 945 Checklist of equations 945 Topic 22B Adsorption and desorption 946 22B.1 Adsorption isotherms 946 (a) The Langmuir isotherm 946 (b) The isosteric enthalpy of adsorption 948 (c) The BET isotherm 949 (d) The Temkin and Freundlich isotherms 951 22B.2 The rates of adsorption and desorption 951 (a) The precursor state 951 (b) Adsorption and desorption at the molecular level 952 (c) Mobility on surfaces 953 Checklist of concepts 954 Checklist of equations 954 Topic 22C Heterogeneous catalysis 955 22C.1 Mechanisms of heterogeneous catalysis 955 (a) Unimolecular reactions 956 (b) The Langmuir–Hinshelwood mechanism 956 (c) The Eley–Rideal mechanism 956 22C.2 Catalytic activity at surfaces 957 Checklist of concepts 958 Checklist of equations 958 Discussion questions, exercises, and problems 959 Resource section 963 1 Common integrals 964 2 Units 965 3 Data 966 4 Character tables 996 Index 999

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[alphaomegaenergy]

PHYSICS FACTS:

- The Third Law is Wrong. The AlphaOmegaEnergy law is correct. For every action there is NOT an equal & opposite reaction. It only appears in a very limited perspective of physics that there is a uniform action-reaction construct. I wonder how long it will take establishment scicom to finally figure this out.

- The second law of Thermodynamics is wrong. That’s because it’s simply not how the universe works. Please show me this physical example where it is proven that all physics works in such manner. You can not.

- E=mc2 is Wrong. The universe IS NOT a 2D chalkboard physics picture but very much a dynamic 3D realm.

- The Kardashev scale is absolutely Wrong. No one will ever build “a Dyson sphere,” and certainly never would an intelligent species ever build one.

The Future, is the AlphaOmegaEnergy Era.

[kathleenseiber]

2D and 3D combo could keep Moore’s Law going

Ultra-compact, yet high-performing electronic chips could overcome the challenges that face conventional integrated circuits and maintain Moore’s Law indefinitely, researchers say.

To create the chips, researchers would take advantage of relatively new and promising two-dimensional (2D) materials and combining them with monolithic 3D (M3D) integration practices.

Moore’s Law says that the number of transistors on a microchip will double roughly every two years. And, thanks to advances in miniaturization and performance, this axiom has held true since 1965, when Intel cofounder Gordon Moore first made that statement based on emerging trends in chip manufacturing at Intel.

However, integrated circuits (IC) are hitting hard physical limits that are rendering Moore’s Law obsolete—elements on a dense integrated circuit can get only so small and so tightly packed together before they begin to interfere with each other and otherwise lose their functionality.

“Apart from fundamental physical limits to the scaling of transistor feature sizes below a few nanometers, there are significant challenges in terms of reducing power dissipation, as well as justifying the incurred cost of IC fabrication,” says Kaustav Banerjee, a professor of electrical and computer engineering at the University of California, Santa Barbara. As a result, the very devices that we rely on for their steadily improving performance and versatility—computers, smartphones, internet-enabled gadgets—would also hit a limit, he says.

While Banerjee first disclosed the idea to combine 2D materials and 3D integration practices in a article back in 2014, more detailed research evaluating this technology from his Nanoelectronics Research Lab now appears in the IEEE Journal of the Electron Devices Society.

“Two-dimensional materials can be stable in their monolayer form with atomic scale thickness—0.5 nanometer or 5 Angstroms for graphene (a conductor) and hexagonal-boron-nitride (an insulator), and ~6.5 Angstroms for 2D transition metal dichalcogenides (semiconductors) such as molybdenum-disulphide (MoS2) or tungsten-disulphide/diselenide (WS2/WSe2),” Banerjee says.

“In addition, due to their layered nature, they offer pristine surfaces relatively free of defects and are excellent conductors of heat in the in-plane direction. All these properties, along with the possibility to directly synthesize these materials on top of prefabricated devices, offer unprecedented advantages over conventional 3D ICs that are already in the market or M3D integration with conventional electronic materials.”

Extending Moore’s Law

According to the Banerjee Group’s study, there’s a limit to how thin conventional semiconductor materials can get before their desirable electronic properties begin to fade.

“Thickness scaling of common semiconductor materials, such as Si, becomes challenging below a few nanometers due to rapid degradation of their mobility caused by the increase in electron scatterings from surface roughness,” Banerjee says. “In fact, below ~1 nm, conventional materials like Si or Ge may not be thermodynamically stable.”

On the other hand, atomically thin and stable 2D materials, such as graphene, hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN), and transitional metal dichalcogenides (MoS2, WS2, WSe2, etc) are highly space-efficient, thickness-wise. Moreover, due to their layered nature and pristine interfaces, the 2D semiconductors exhibit reasonably high mobilities and immunity against surface defects, according to the paper.

In addition, 2D materials tend to be a lot more flexible than their conventional counterparts, which make them ideal for state-of-the-art electronics applications, such as flexible displays. Stacked 2D materials, in contrast to their stacked 3D counterparts, meanwhile, can also minimize the inter-tier signal delays, thermal resistance, and reduce potential overheating.

By selecting certain 2D materials and stacking them, according to the researchers, not only does the monolithic 3D conserve precious space on the chip, but also allows for configuration based on the combined electronic properties of the materials.

“For example, owing to the atomically-thin vertical dimensions of 2D materials, and carefully-designed inter-tier electrostatics with graphene shielding layer that also benefits from enhanced heat dissipation, aggressive scaling of tier thickness down to sub-μm can be achieved,” Banerjee says. “Such scaling allows over 10-folds higher integration density with respect to conventional 3D integration, and over 150% greater integration density with respect to conventional M3D integration, with plenty of room for further improvements.

“Thus, 2D materials can help realize the ultimate density scaling of integrated electronics—both laterally and vertically—which can usher an unprecedented era of innovation and economic growth for the worldwide semiconductor industry,” he adds.

The ‘chip cities’ of the future

As with many innovations with potential to become mainstream technologies, there are challenges to consider to pave the way toward their mass manufacturing. For monolithic 3D devices, the challenges are to be able to fabricate these components at relatively low temperatures (lower than 500 degrees Celsius) to avoid degradations and damages to prefabricated devices located in the lower tiers, electromagnetic interference, and heat dissipation.

Last year, Banerjee’s group demonstrated a CMOS compatible graphene synthesis method that essentially addressed the low-temperature and transfer-free synthesis challenge for graphene. Similar efforts are underway in his laboratory to synthesize other 2D materials directly on wafers at low temperatures.

“Additionally, careful design is needed to electrically shield the generated electromagnetic waves from affecting the operations of devices on adjacent or nearby tiers,” says lead author Junkai Jiang, recent recipient of a doctoral degree in electrical and computer engineering from Banerjee’s laboratory. The researchers note that by using a thin graphene shielding layer between tiers (preferably doped to enhance electromagnetic screening effect), interference can be prevented even as the vertical layers are scaled down.

In terms of heat dissipation, the thinness of the material itself is conducive to allowing the heat from densely packed stacked components to dissipate efficiently. Coauthor Kamyar Parto, a member of Banerjee’s lab, remarked that “the 2D materials have much higher in-plane thermal conductivity compared to thinned-down conventional materials like silicon, which helps fast lateral heat transport, thereby reducing the risks of any hot-spot formation.”

“Ultimately, we envision heterogeneously integrated devices and technologies enabled by 2D materials to realize the world’s tallest and densest ‘chip-cities’ with unprecedented performance, storage capacity, and energy-efficiency,” he adds.

Source: UC Santa Barbara

The post 2D and 3D combo could keep Moore’s Law going appeared first on Futurity.

2D and 3D combo could keep Moore’s Law going published first on https://triviaqaweb.weebly.com/

[marymosley]

Logo Placement Relevant for Infringement in Design Patent Cases

Columbia Sportswear v. Seirus Innovative Accessories (Fed. Cir. 2019)

It is a bit chilly here in Missouri and so I wore my Seirus gloves that I purchased after the last-time I wrote about this case.

Note here that my gloves are the cheap liners, the lawsuit focuses more on the expensive gloves and clothing that have the heat-reflective material on the inner liner. My gloves also show a different pattern than the original accused HeatWave product.

In the case, Columbia asserted both a design patent (US.D657093) and a utility patent (US.8453270) and the case resulted in a partial victory for Columbia — Jury award of $3 million in damages for design patent infringement but a determined that the asserted utility patent were invalid.

The ‘093 design patent is directed to a “heat reflective material” as shown in the drawing above.  Columbia won its design patent case on summary judgment and then a jury awarded $3 million in damages.  On appeal, the Federal Circuit has vacated the summary judgment — holding that the district court improperly decided disputed issues of material fact reserved for a jury.

Design patent infringement is a question of fact. . . . The “ordinary observer” test is the sole test for determining whether a design patent has been infringed. Egyptian Goddess (Fed. Cir. 2008) (en banc). The test originates from the Supreme Court’s Gorham decision, which provides that “if, in the eye of an ordinary observer, giving such attention as a purchaser usually gives, two designs are substantially the same, if the resemblance is such as to deceive such an observer, inducing him to purchase one supposing it to be the other, the first one patented is infringed by the other.” Gorham Co. v. White, 81 U.S. 511, 528 (1871)). . . . The ordinary observer is considered to be familiar with prior art designs, and “[w]hen the differences between the claimed and accused designs are viewed in light of the prior art, the attention of the hypothetical ordinary observer may be drawn to those aspects of the claimed design that differ from the prior art.” Crocs (Fed. Cir. 2010).

Seirus’ key argument here is that the location of its logo, coupled with differences in line thicknesses and uniformity raise questions of fact sufficient to get the case to the jury — so that a reasonable juror could find no infringement.  The district court disagreed with that argument — finding that  “even the most discerning customer would be hard pressed to notice the differences between Seirus’s HeatWave design and Columbia’s patented design.”

On appeal, the Federal Circuit has sided with the adjudged infringer holding that the logo should be considered as part of the non-infringement analysis. In L.A. Gear, Inc. v. Thom McAn Shoe Co., 988 F.2d 1117, 1125 (Fed.Cir.1993), the Federal Circuit wrote that “[d]esign patent infringement … does not … allow of avoidance of infringement by labelling.” That decision led the district court here to come to the conclusion that it is “well-settled that a defendant cannot avoid infringement by merely affixing its logo to an otherwise infringing design.”

On appeal, the Federal Circuit instead distinguished L.A. Gear.

In evaluating infringement there, we explained [In L.A. Gear] that design infringement is not avoided “by labelling.” A would-be infringer should not escape liability for design patent infringement if a design is copied but labeled with its name. But L.A. Gear does not prohibit the fact finder from considering an ornamental logo, its placement, and its appearance as one among other potential differences between a patented design and an accused one. Indeed, the fact finder is tasked with determining whether an ordinary observer would find the “effect of the whole design substantially the same.”

Slip Op.

Regarding wave thickness, the district court held that thickness was not claimed in the patent. Obviously wrong because everything in the drawing is claimed.

[T]he claim of the ’093 patent is drawn to the “ornamental design of a heat reflective material as shown and described,” and Columbia’s design has uniform line thickness in every figure in the patent.

Slip Op. Note here that the district court cited to several decisions holding finding that design patents were not limited to “any particular size” and thus, for instance could simultaneously cover both a motorcycle for humans and one for Ralph the Mouse. 

Those precedents didn’t fit here because we’re not talking about the overall sizing but rather relative sizing and uniformity.

Finally, the district court also noted several other differences between the patent and the accused product, but found them each minor. On appeal, the Federal Circuit found the approach improperly piecemeal and did not properly consider overall visual impression.

[T]he district court’s piecemeal approach, considering only if design elements independently affect the overall visual impression that the designs are similar, is at odds with our case law requiring the factfinder to analyze the design as a whole. See Amini Innovation Corp. v. Anthony Cal., Inc., 439 F.3d 1365, 1372 (Fed. Cir. 2006). An ordinary observer is deceived by an infringing design as a result of “similarities in the overall design, not of similarities in ornamental features considered in isolation.” Id.

Slip Op.  Thus, the case is remanded and will now likely go to a jury trial.

In the appeal, the defendant also argued that profit disgorgement under 25 U.S.C. § 289 should be determined by a judge rather than a jury.  The Federal Circuit noted that to be an important question, but did not reach it on appeal after having already vacated the infringement findings.

Note here that the ornamental design is directed to a heat reflective material -getting close to a design in the abstract. See Curver Luxembourg, SARL v. Home Expressions Inc. (Fed. Cir. 2019).

Federal Circuit Rejects Patenting Designs “in the Abstract”

Utility patent — the jury found asserted utility patent claims invalid as both anticipated and obvious. On appeal, Columbia argued that the obviousness evidence lacked “competent expert testimony” that the Federal Circuit has previously required in complex cases to explain the prior art to a jury. On appeal, the court ruled that the invention here was simple enough so that expert explanations were not required:

[W]e are not persuaded that the legal determination of obviousness in this case requires such evidence. The technology here—coated materials for cold weather and outdoor products—is “easily understandable without the need for expert explanatory testimony.”  Quoting Perfect Web Techs., Inc. v. InfoUSA, Inc., 587 F.3d 1324 (Fed. Cir. 2009) and Centricut, LLC v. Esab Grp., Inc., 390 F.3d 1361 (Fed. Cir. 2004)). . . . There is no discussion of thermodynamics or the mechanism that yields the claimed material’s heat retentive properties in the patent. Thus, given the patent and references’ general, easily understood language, this is not a case that requires expert explanation.

Slip Op.

Venue: The venue setup for this case was interesting.  It was originally filed in Oregon and then was transferred to California following T.C. Heartland.  Since the case was already far-along in the litigation process (post summary judgment), Judge Hernandez who handled the case in Oregon also got himself temporarily assigned to the case in California and ran the trial from there.  On appeal, Columbia argued that the transfer was improper because Seirus had waived its venue argument. However, the Federal Circuit found no problem — holding that the district court did not abuse its discretion in excusing Seirus’s waiver of its venue defense.

First Post-Samsung Design Patent Damages Verdict

Logo Placement Relevant for Infringement in Design Patent Cases published first on https://immigrationlawyerto.tumblr.com/

[arxt1]

Jackiw-Teitelboim Model Coupled to Conformal Matter in the Semi-Classical Limit. (arXiv:1908.08523v1 [hep-th])

We analyse the Jackiw-Teitelboim model of 2D gravity coupled to $N$ massless free scalar fields in the semi-classical limit. Two systems are studied which essentially differ in the boundary conditions that are imposed. We find that the thermodynamics has interesting differences. We also analyse the response to additional infalling matter which satisfies the null energy condition. The second law is shown to be valid in both systems for the generalised entropy which takes into account the entanglement across the event horizon due to the matter fields. Similarly we find that the generalised entropy increases along future Q-screens in both systems.

from gr-qc updates on arXiv.org https://ift.tt/2KR9IDH

[a-lil-spaceodyssey]

The Holographic Principle

The world, in a sense, may be a hologram. The idea comes from black hole physics. In the 1970s researchers knew that when an object becomes part of a black hole, two things happen. One, all the detailed information about that object is lost. And two, the surface area of the black hole's event horizon (the point of no return for infalling matter and energy) grows. The first fact seemed to violate the second law of thermodynamics, because one of the lost details was the object's entropy, or the information describing its microscopic parts. But the second fact offered a way out: if entropy must always grow, and a black hole's surface area must too, perhaps for the black hole they are one and the same, and information is somehow stored on the horizon.

Fast forward to 1993. Two particle physicists working separately conclude that the universe itself must store information in a similar way. Quantum mechanics starts with the assumption that information is stored in every volume of space. But any patch of space can become a black hole, nature's densest file cabinet, which stores information in bits of area. Perhaps, then, all that's needed to describe a patch of space, black hole or no, is that area's worth of information. The idea is called the holographic principle, after the way that a hologram encodes 3D information on a 2D surface.

Recently, Raphael Bousso, while at Stanford University, helped formulate a more precise and more broadly applicable statement of the principle that involves light rays. "The world doesn't appear to us like a hologram, but in terms of the information needed to describe it, it is one," Bousso says. "The amazing thing is that the holographic principle works for all areas in all space times. We have this amazing pattern there, which is far more general than the black hole picture we started from. And we have no idea why this works. What this is telling us is, there is a description of the world we should be looking for which will be more economical than the one that we have right now, and will presumably have to do with quantum gravity." --JR Minkel

[jaredgilreath02-blog]

info - Is it a Fraud?

The Fundamental Truths Of details.

We've all had some direct exposure to official education and learning and we understand a point or more regarding particular subjects. Smart use of language will never make plain info interesting; nevertheless, you could arrange the info making it fascinating. Please do not send any kind of information to the Service at any type of time or in any type of way if You are under 18 years of age. The Prepublication Evaluation Office (PRO) is responsible for examining ask for prepublication, submitted by people that presently or have previously offered positions supported under the FBI, in order to guard any sensitive or classified information from unauthorized disclosure. Therefore it is very vital that you take notice of where you accumulate your details. Job Counseling concentrates on people where the details is maintained personal. We may share your Directly Recognizable Details with third parties exclusively for the function of supplying the Service to you. Information asymmetry normally works in favour of the seller, since in numerous situations the customer can be considereded as a total amateur, purchasing products on a Special Single Deal (UST) basis. It has actually transformed how we think of enterprise information and IT - and transformed exactly how we consider the kinds of abilities had to adapt to these changes. The following info is to assist customers and experience project alternative, vidaginasio.top, also site visitors (collectively Users" or You") understand just how we gather, utilize, distribute and also secure the details You supply to us while accessing as well as utilizing our HubPages software, solutions, the internet site at hubpages (the Internet site"), and other web sites as well as services as might be added every so often (collectively, the Service"). This program covers innovative facets of data source administration systems including innovative normalization as well as denormalization, inquiry optimization, object-relational and object-oriented databases, information warehousing, information mining, dispersed databases, XML, XSL, as well as databases for web applications. Then, as opposed to uniquely reading the info that appeared, if anything is of also the furthest of interest you review it or merely strike print. When signalling as well as screening are done on an industrial range, greater info symmetry is accomplished within the marketplace.

7 Ways to Defend against info.

It is absolutely provident to have sufficient details concerning orchids to satisfy all the questions of orchid lovers worldwide. Does not intentionally collect or solicit Personally Identifiable Info from or regarding kids under 13 other than as permitted by legislation.

details - A Comprehensive Anaylsis on Just what Works and What Doesn't.

This component additionally covers clinical local area network as well as systems as well as data protection and protection. For additional information on these places of rate of interest you can go to Perpignan France Tourism Office on line. But Google has to find a means to transfer its info at no charge to its users. The MSDS is a thorough details bulletin prepared by the producer or importer of a chemical that describes the chemical as well as physical homes, physical and health hazards, courses of direct exposure, safety measures for safe handling as well as first-aid, usage and emergency situation procedures, as well as control actions. It remains in by doing this that an extremely competent and fully qualified firm that concentrates on the field of modern technology public relationships could help their clients accomplish their goals in science and also company. Understand as well as use fundamental concepts and arguments of information law, policy, as well as values. Data solutions for manipulating SQL-databases making use of Video Provider (GDI+) for 2D-vector graphics, imaging, as well as message making, including the new attributes of gradients, anti-aliasing, dual buffering strategies, zooming, off-screen picture processing and also rendering. Despite the gains achieved in details circulation in the socioeconomic ball in Africa, the accessibility to reliable info has long lived to be a need as well as now seriously has to be progressed to allow as well as encourage key choice manufacturers in the reliable appropriation of sources. In Thermodynamics, details is any kind of sort of occasion that impacts the state of a vibrant system that could interpret the info. An essay publication is continual as well as to get details regarding the topic, one needs to review the book completely. Due to the fact that nearly all research is a direct result of a concern that have to be addressed, evaluation the inquiries produced prior to the info was collected.

[antoinettesisco-blog]

Why Everybody Is Dead Incorrect About details As well as Why You Must Read This Report

Reported Buzz on details Exposed

Modern technology has taken advertising to a whole brand-new level as competition warms up out there. The text mining module covers the analysis of text consisting of material extraction, string matching, clustering, recommendation, and classification systems. Gathered details might be Directly Recognizable Information or Non-Personally Identifiable Details. For instance, you could be asked to offer information when you sign up for accessibility to specific parts of our site or demand certain functions, such as e-newsletters or when you buy. This training course covers advanced facets of database monitoring systems including innovative normalization and also denormalization, question optimization, object-relational as well as object-oriented data sources, information warehousing, information mining, distributed data sources, XML, XSL, and databases for web applications. Common papers may focus on the backgrounds of info institutions, academic domain names, professions, work, and societies among other subjects. With any luck there's details here that's brand-new to some people who are life-long racing followers, yet additionally enough to sharpen the hunger of those taking a rate of interest in the sport. Conference coordinators are invited to speak to the Editor-in-Chief kais @ for further info. For example a publication on microbiology would consist of the background and full info relating to all the major facets of the subject. Since without this outstanding technology the possibilities of their survival would certainly virtually definitely be nil, infants that are birthed by cesarean section are incredibly unique. Through a thorough peer testimonial process, the restructured Worldwide Discussion forum keeps an eye on that its members fully apply the criterion of transparency and exchange of details they have actually dedicated to execute. Technical personnel include development and procedures managers, organisation analysts, systems analysts as well as designers, data source administrators, developers, computer safety specialists, as well as computer operators. Stewart (2001) suggests that the makeover of information now madison county (why not check here) into understanding is an important one, lying at the core of worth creation as well as affordable benefit for the modern-day business. Discover more about the Institution of information's new significant in Information Scientific research and also eSociety! These inventions caused a profound revolution in the ability to document, process, distribute, as well as reach for info and expertise. The business's discretion agreement should cover all info that are possibly destructive to the business. The polygraph publications are the books which contain a collection of write-ups as well as details concerning numerous topics. Information technologies have developed benefits and also performances for lots of emerging economies altering the method markets, civic advocacy, justice, liability as well as financial participation are regarded in many nations across the globe.

7 Shocking Facts Regarding details Told By An Expert

You may want to produce a regularly asked questions page to respond to those inquiries for your site visitors if you frequently get specific inquiries from your consumers and customers. We see the information as important to our businesses and our lives and simply could not let that info go. This Privacy Plan does not apply to details we collect by various other methods (consisting of offline) or from various other resources. The site I utilize to collect telephone number info has produced continually dependable outcomes for over 2 years currently. You will certainly be stunned at just how this can sustain you right into the filtering of info to prevent such an overload. Data services for manipulating SQL-databases utilizing Graphics Services (GDI+) for 2D-vector graphics, imaging, and text making, including the new features of gradients, anti-aliasing, double buffering methods, zooming, off-screen image processing as well as making. As a concept it dithers in between information without significance and information with meaning. Fortunately is it does not have to take you months of hard work writing in your extra time to produce a quality information item. In the meantime, if you have any type of separation or family law related inquiries please contact me at your ease.

The Number One Article on information.

Atlases contain the info relating to various countries and cities in addition to their maps and also other geographical information. All requests or questions associated with Identity Background Recap Checks need to be guided to the FBI's Wrongdoer Justice Information Provider (CJIS) Department in Clarksburg, West Virginia at -LRB-304-RRB- 625-2000. In Thermodynamics, information is any type of occasion that affects the state of a dynamic system that could interpret the information. An essay book is continuous and also to get info concerning the subject, one needs to check out the book totally. Because nearly all research study is a straight outcome of a question that should be answered, testimonial the questions produced before the information was gathered. It is for that reason vital that you take such actions. as necessary to protect your Net search background as well as to remove search information. Mutual privacy contracts, on the various other hand, involve at the very least two parties where both will be filling out that they desire to be kept secret.

[rowanstree-blog]

Day #131

Today i started with a Math lesson on 2D v. 3D object as well as different ways to cross section different 3D objects, resulting in a 2D object, relating to the angle and shift of its bisector. Next, I took an Algebra class on extending geometric sequences with whole negative and positive numbers as well as fractions. After that, I did some Math SAT-prep followed by a French lesson on Duolingo. I then did some environmental science on industrial agriculture dominating today. Industrial agriculture followed the Industrial Revolution due to the gain and development of labor-replacing mechanisms that helped farmers get work done faster. Although, this brought rise to the use of pesticides and the increased usage of irrigation systems. The Green Revolution also contributed to increase in agricultural development. It started in the 1950s and brought new crop varieties and farming practices to the developing world. Industrial agriculture at first had many great attributes but is currently creating new problems and making old ones worse. In my opinion, there should be some limited amount of technology in agriculture but the majority should be taken up with nature itself. After that, I took a chemistry class on an introduction to the First Law of Thermodynamics which is “energy cannot be created or destroyed and can only be converted from one form to another. In this lesson, I learned about  different examples of the first law of thermodynamics having to do with Kinetic and Potential energy, Chemical energy, Thermal energy and Radiant energy. The examples included a light build experiencing electrostatic potential with the outlet, encouraging the flow of electrons and resulting in its radiant and thermal energy. The electrons are experiencing kinetic energy and are the cause of many forms of energy taking place in this scenario. Others included divers or runners which add chemical energy to the process. It also talked about sports and lighting, many thing that include various types of energy. I then took a microeconomics class on perfect inelasticity and elasticity followed by a women’s history class on the National Federatoin on Business and Professional Women’s club which was founded in 1919 by Lena Madeson Phillips who's various goals mostly included women in business. After that, I took a grammar class on Perfect Verb Aspect followed by reading chapter 8 of “Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban.”