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rooftopsolar1 · 5 years

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Going Solar: What You Should Know About Solar & Utilities

So you’re exploring solar. It’s good for the planet, it’s a renewable source of electricity, and it will save you money in the long run. The first step in going solar is understanding your current utility costs and understanding the extent that solar power systems will or may affect your electric bills. This is often a very important step in deciding to switch to solar. It is also essential to understand how solar photovoltaic systems (PV) work, and what factors can affect your production levels. So, let’s go over it!

First, let’s break down your utility bill and the fees you are currently paying. Your statement can be simple or complex, depending on your utility company and amount of energy you use, but either way, it might require a little explanation.

Service Charge:

Is mostly a flat monthly fee for doing business with the utility. It can be as small as $1 for residential and is a bit larger for commercial. Putting solar on your home or business will not remove this fee.

Generation Charge:

A generation charge is the actual cost of the generating electricity that you use each month. That electricity can come from multiple entities using various methods for generation including nuclear, coal, oil, clean energy, renewable energy, etc. The cost is charged in increments of kilowatt-hours (kWh) and can range from $0.06/kWh to $0.40/kWh. Going solar WILL change this usage and overall cost.

Delivery Charge:

Also known as Delivery Service Charge, this is the charge to transport the electricity to your home/business including lines, poles, transformers, and substations. This fee can vary greatly and is charged or stated in kWh increments. Solar WILL change the usage and overall cost.

Demand Charge:

The demand charge is a charge for when you use electricity the most, based on the billing dates detailed in your rate plan. This charge is often misunderstood; it is used to analyze the maximum amount of wattage that a home/business needs at any one time during the month. This ensures that the location would have enough energy at its peak demand. This charge varies significantly between areas and providers. Solar could affect this number, but it’s generally considered a fee that will not change with solar.

Arizona: APS just rolled out a new demand charge plan that would make it much more affordable for Arizonans to go solar. See how it works here

California SDG&E: SDGE has a commercial program for businesses to participate. You can find it here

On-Peak & Off-Peak Generation:

Also referred to as “Time-of-use billing,” these charges vary on the amount of electricity you used throughout the month during on-peak and off-peak hours. These on-peak/off-peak hours vary based on your utility and location, but primarily off-peak hours are 7pm-noon and on-peak hours are noon-7pm. In Arizona, On-peak hours can reach their most expensive rate usually 3-6pm weekdays during June-August. A solar array, especially with a battery backup system, can work well to alleviate these charges.

Critical Peak Pricing:

Critical Peak Pricing refers to a “Time of use- Plus” plans. It works similar to “on-peak and off-peak generation” and goes year round from 2 pm – 6 pm. Customers will incur higher charges for using electricity during this time. SDGE has given three options on how to reduce or avoid these charges.

1. Offset your energy use to another time.

2. Continue to use energy like normal, and incur substantially higher prices.

3. Protect a portion of your energy usage during event hours. This is known as “Capacity Reservation.”

You can read more about that program here: https://www.sdge.com/businesses/savings-center/energy-management-programs/demand-response/critical-peak-pricing

If you have more questions, most utility companies will have a page defining all the terms and charges you will see on your bill.

In Arizona:

APS

SRP

In San Diego Area:

SDG&E

When understanding Solar PV Systems, several variables can affect the system, but hardware-wise it primarily comes down to three parts: the solar panels, the inverters, and the racking.

Solar Panels or Solar Cells:

The panels are the primary component of any solar system, and also the most expensive. Solar panels actually produce the solar energy and are rated by the amount of DC (direct current) they produce under standard test conditions. Their rating is used to represent the panel’s predicted power production under ideal sunlight and weather conditions.

Using their rating, you can compare basic solar electricity production numbers between panels; for example, a 320-watt panel will produce more energy than a 280-watt panel. Most of the time, the higher the energy efficiency, the more expensive the panel. Higher cost in panels can affect a power purchase agreement (PPA), financing and overall return on investment so do your research or ask your Rooftop Solar representative for recommendations on panel sizes specific to your needs.

Solar Inverters:

Grid tie inverters convert the DC (direct current) power from your solar panels into AC (alternating current) power for the grid. The two types of inverters commonly used include central inverters and micro inverters. Central inverters are wired to multiple panels, while micro inverters are string inverters that are wired to individual panels and convert electricity at the panel. To learn more about the differences and pros/cons of each type of inverter, especially in hotter climates, read this blog post.

Racking:

Racking refers to the mounting that secures the panels – usually rails, although there are rail-less systems as well.

It is somewhat tricky to predict production estimates because many components can influence your power production. The three main factors taken into account when estimating your production levels include shading, azimuth, and pitch.

Shading:

Shading can come from trees, adjacent roofs, or other obstacles around your home. We use specialized shading tools, similar to Project Sunroof (where you can estimate your roof’s solar potential), and analyze the amount of shade your roof receives throughout the day/year. Shading varies throughout the year because of the angle of the sun changing with the seasons (The sun is lower in the winter, leading obstacles to create more shade than when it is shining high in the summer.)

If there are too many trees in the way, we may suggest cutting or trimming them before we start your solar installation. We will do the cutting for you, but never without discussing it first, and getting consent to do so.

Azimuth:

[az-uh-muh th]: Solar Azimuth determines the angle or angles to place the panels so that they are facing the direction that the sun is shining. Azimuth is just as crucial as shading because it dictates how much sun will be shining on the panel throughout the year. Solar panels are the most efficient when they are on the south-facing roofs.

Pitch:

Pitch, or tilt, refers to the actual angle of the solar panels. It is the least important of the three, but it does still affect production.

#Going Solar: What You Should Know About Solar & Utilities

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grassroutes · 5 years

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Creative Super X-Fi AIR Review: Spatial Audio Done Right

Our verdict of the Creative Super X-Fi AIR: Get the Creative Super X-Fi AIR if you need a new pair of headphones to use at home or in the office and crave the spatial audio experience. Reconsider if you want to heavily use them on-the-go, need noise-cancellation, or value a long battery life.810

Immersive surround sound, packed into a pair of comfortable headphones; it’s the quiet audiophile’s dream. Creative’s Super X-Fi Headphone Holography technology promises to deliver just that. We received an impressive demo of the technology at CES 2020 and took home a pair of Creative SXFI AIR headphones, valued at $159.99, to put them through the test. Here’s what we found.

Creative SXFI AIR Specifications

Design: closed over-ear

Drivers: 50mm Neodymium magnet

Frequency Response: 20Hz-20,000Hz

Impedance: 32 ohms

Connectivity: Bluetooth 4.2, USB-C, Line-in

MicroSD Card Slot: supports MP3, WMA, WAV, and FLAC formats

Microphone: detachable NanoBoom microphone

Colors: white and black, plus 16.7 million colors for the RGB ear-cup rings

Weight: 338g (11.9oz)

Battery Life: up to 10 hours

Charging time: 2.5 hours

Price: RRP $159.99, on sale for $139.99 at the time of writing

First Impressions

The SXFI AIR wireless over-ear headphones are fairly lightweight for their size (11.9oz or 338g). Each side of the headband expands up to 1.5inches (4cm) and the ear cups swivel slightly to provide a perfect fit for any head size or shape. The foam-cushioned headband and ear cups complete a comfortable experience.

Creative placed all control options on the left ear cup and an RGB light strip graces the outer edge of both cups. The light comes on when you’re using the headphones and you can customize the colors via the SXFI AIR Control app. Unfortunately, this is a separate app from the one you’ll need to set up your Super X-Fi profile; more on that below.

Overall, the Creative SXFI AIR headphones appear bulky and the absence of a folding mechanism means they’ll take up lots of space in your bag. The lack of active noise-cancellation makes them work best in a quiet environment. That said, the build quality appears solid enough to tolerate an active lifestyle.

Size comparison: Creative Super X-Fi Air vs. Sony WH-1000XM2 vs. TaoTronics BH22

Headphone Ports and Controls

Along the rim of the left ear cup you’ll find (from front to back):

on/off button

detachable NanoBoom microphone

USB-C port

3.5mm AUX jack

source selection (Bluetooth, USB, or SD card)

microSD card slot

Super X-Fi toggle

The touchpad on the side of the left ear cup lets you control playback and volume or accept calls.

The NanoBoom microphone plugs into its own 3.5mm AUX jack and you can replace it with a better quality gaming microphone if you like. Alternatively, you can take it out and plug up the port.

Two things make these headphones special: the built-in Super X-Fi technology (see below) and the audio source options. The USB-C charging port doubles as audio input for your PC, Mac, PS4, or Nintendo Switch. In addition to Bluetooth and the standard 3.5mm AUX jack, the SXFI AIR also functions as its own audio player when you insert a microSD card; a rare feature in headphones.

How Does Super X-Fi Work?

Super X-Fi is an AI-based technology that uses acoustic modeling to create the impression of spatial audio inside a pair of headphones. The technology is backed up by decades of research.

The Theory

The perception of sound is incredibly subjective and depends, in no small part, on the shape of your outer ears. Scientists refer to this circumstance as head-related transfer function (HRTF).

“Humans have just two ears, but can locate sounds in three dimensions – in range (distance), in direction above and below (elevation), in front and to the rear, as well as to either side (azimuth). This is possible because the brain, inner ear and the external ears (pinna) work together to make inferences about location.” Source: Wikipedia

Creative’s Take

Software can simulate those spatial cues, if it knows enough of the listener’s personal HRTF. Creative uses either an in-ear acoustic measurement or a picture-based head map to feed its AI with that data, which then calculates a custom-fit audio profile for every user. Once you’ve connected your SXFI profile, the SXFI software can crunch incoming audio to sound like you were using a surround sound speaker setup.

SXFI Gen2

In early 2020, Creative launched Gen2 of its AI, which brought a range of improvements to Super X-Fi, including the preservation of more sound details, better audio fidelity, clearer sound signature, and higher positioning accuracy, which is key for movies and games.

“At the beginning, our user profile base was in the range of tens of thousands. Over the past year, riding on the successful launch of Super X-Fi, we have accumulated hundreds of thousands of user profiles. This significant jump in real-world data has provided us with the capacity for more research, and importantly, it has enabled us to train the Super X-Fi AI engine to be even more accurate in personalizing the audio experience for our users. This was key in our development of the Super X-Fi Gen2 profile.” —Lee Teck Chee, Vice-President of Technology at Creative and inventor of Super X-Fi

The Gen2 engine also features more efficient power consumption. As a result, the SXFI AIR headphones gained more than 10% battery life. This explains why our headphones, using Bluetooth, lasted for a little more than the advertised 10 hours; a pleasant surprise. I also should note that the headphones turn off rather quickly when not in use. And every single time that happens, I’m startled by the voice that seemingly pops up right next to me to announce “powering off”.

While the SXFI AIR are excellent all-around headphones, you shouldn’t use them for first-person-shooter (FPS) games. Instead, look into the the SXFI GAMER headset, which runs a Super X-Fi engine designed specifically for the FPS-specific sound environment.

How to Create Your Super X-Fi Profile

The spatial audio experience generated by the Super X-Fi AI incorporates your head shape into its calculations. To create your custom profile, you can use the SXFI App to take pictures of your face and ears. Download the SXFI App (Android, iOS), create an account, and log in. Under Personalize, click Start Head Mapping, and follow the on-screen instructions.

We found that the quality of the pictures had an impact on the resulting audio. So make sure you take the pictures with sufficiently good lighting. It’s also easier when you can get someone else to take your pictures for you.

Once you have created your profile, connect your SXFI AIR headphones to your phone via Bluetooth. Then return to Personalize and select your profile. The app will automatically sync your data to the connected headphones. Now you’re ready to enjoy 3D spatial audio.

There’s a second way to create your personal profile. When you’re lucky enough to receive a SXFI demo, as we did at CES 2020, they will measure your personal audio perception using an in-ear microphone. Creative said they might offer this acoustic measurement as a premium service in the future. Until then, you’ll have to use the app.

The SXFI Sound Experience

Creative’s Super X-Fi demo at CES 2020 blew us away. For the demo, we were using Creative’s SXFI AMP with a pair of generic headphones. At one point during the setup, I briefly thought I heard an audio cue from an external speaker. When I remembered I was already wearing headphones, I was sold on the technology and the remaining demonstration convinced me further.

Bluetooth vs. Wired Connection

The experience we had during the demo was outstanding. And at first, I couldn’t quite replicate it with the SXFI AIR headphones, although I used the higher quality audio profiles created during the demo. However, when I switched from Bluetooth to wired audio transmission via USB and from Spotify to a high quality audio source, the sound improved dramatically.

Note: If you have a Spotify subscription, you’ll be streaming at up to 320 kbps (vs. 160 kbps for free users). Make sure you set the streaming quality to “very high” in your Spotify settings.

Unfortunately, Creative opted for the low-quality SBC codec for wireless streaming. Its maximum transfer rate is 320 kbps, making it just good enough for Spotify, though you may experience data loss. SBC simply won’t let you enjoy the full audio quality provided by a non-lossy format like FLAC.

In-ear Measurement vs. Head Map Audio Profile

Personally, I could tell a difference in quality between the audio profile generated during CES and the app-based audio profile. It was more subtle when I took the head map pictures in great lighting. Creative says that the picture-based audio profile reaches about 90% of the accuracy of an in-ear measurement.

Music vs. Entertainment vs. Calls

I most enjoyed the SXFI AIR headphones when listening to music. With default settings, it gives rock and pop songs a club-like sound with good bass and a satisfying 3D effect. For classical music, the overall quality and spatial audio effect were even more convincing.

Audio calls were the least pleasant as the speaker on the other end sounded tinny. Movies and TV shows were somewhere in the middle. I couldn’t shake off the “sound in a can” impression, but the spatial effects were clearly audible.

If you’re not satisfied with the sound, be sure to download the SXFI AIR Control app (Android, iOS) and use the Equalizer to customize your audio experience. It comes with presets for movies, games, as well as classical and pop music. Within this app, you can also disable or customize your AIR’s RGB ring lights.

It’s regrettable that you need a separate app to create your audio profile, but once that’s done, you’ll only need the SXFI AIR Control app to switch between existing profiles and customize your headphone settings.

How Does the SXFI AIR Compare?

Creative isn’t the only company that has come out with a spatial audio product.

Sony 360 Reality Audio

At IFA 2019 in Berlin, we received a quick demo of Sony’s 360 Reality Audio, which also uses a head map to generate a custom audio profile. While Sony’s object-based spatial audio technology works with any headphones and commands no additional hardware, it doesn’t work with any old audio source. 360 Reality Audio is its own music format.

Presently, you’ll need a subscription to a premium music streaming service like Deezer or Tidal, before you can access Sony’s 3D audio format. You’ll also need to use its mobile app to create your custom audio profile. In other words, you’re limited to music available on a streaming service via your smartphone. On the bright side, you can opt for an affordable monthly subscription and see how you like the effect.

During our demo in Berlin, we were impressed with the clarity of the 3D effect, but we noticed a drop in bass compared to the unaltered track.

Dolby Headphone

This mobile surround solution is part of the audio decoders found in many surround sound gaming headsets, including the HyperX Cloud series. You can get a HyperX Cloud II surround sound headset for as little as $99.

The Dolby Headphone technology has been around for over twenty years. Like Creative’s Super X-Fi, it applies HRTFs, but it went with a one-size-fits-all model that lacks user-specific customization.

Our Super X-Fi AIR Verdict

The SXFI AIR are a great pair of headphones for audiophiles who desire an immersive listening experience for music, entertainment, and non-FPS gaming. These headphones will let you privately enjoy surround sound, without bothering your neighbors.

However, the audio quality suffers when using Bluetooth or low-quality audio files, which is why we can only recommend the SXFI AIR if you’re prepared to use a wired connection or can transfer your media to a microSD card. Moreover, given that the headphones don’t offer active noise-cancellation (ANC), the battery life is slightly disappointing. The lack of ANC also limits their use in public spaces.

Get the Creative Super X-Fi AIR if you crave the spatial audio experience in a quiet environment and don’t mind its limitations.

If you already have a great pair of headphones, but want to experience the Super X-Fi sound, try the SXFI AMP, priced at $149.99. It contains the same technology, but it’s completely wired, using USB input from your phone, computer, or gaming console, and a 3.5mm audio jack output to your headphones.

Enter the Competition!

Creative Super X-Fi AIR Headphones Giveaway

Read the full article: Creative Super X-Fi AIR Review: Spatial Audio Done Right

Creative Super X-Fi AIR Review: Spatial Audio Done Right posted first on grassroutespage.blogspot.com

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droneseco · 5 years

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Creative Super X-Fi AIR Review: Spatial Audio Done Right

Creative SXFI AIR Specifications

Design: closed over-ear

Drivers: 50mm Neodymium magnet

Frequency Response: 20Hz-20,000Hz

Impedance: 32 ohms

Connectivity: Bluetooth 4.2, USB-C, Line-in

MicroSD Card Slot: supports MP3, WMA, WAV, and FLAC formats

Microphone: detachable NanoBoom microphone

Colors: white and black, plus 16.7 million colors for the RGB ear-cup rings

Weight: 338g (11.9oz)

Battery Life: up to 10 hours

Charging time: 2.5 hours

Price: RRP $159.99, on sale for $139.99 at the time of writing

First Impressions

Size comparison: Creative Super X-Fi Air vs. Sony WH-1000XM2 vs. TaoTronics BH22

Headphone Ports and Controls

Along the rim of the left ear cup you’ll find (from front to back):

on/off button

detachable NanoBoom microphone

USB-C port

3.5mm AUX jack

source selection (Bluetooth, USB, or SD card)

microSD card slot

Super X-Fi toggle

The touchpad on the side of the left ear cup lets you control playback and volume or accept calls.

The NanoBoom microphone plugs into its own 3.5mm AUX jack and you can replace it with a better quality gaming microphone if you like. Alternatively, you can take it out and plug up the port.

How Does Super X-Fi Work?

Super X-Fi is an AI-based technology that uses acoustic modeling to create the impression of spatial audio inside a pair of headphones. The technology is backed up by decades of research.

The Theory

The perception of sound is incredibly subjective and depends, in no small part, on the shape of your outer ears. Scientists refer to this circumstance as head-related transfer function (HRTF).

Creative’s Take

SXFI Gen2

How to Create Your Super X-Fi Profile

The SXFI Sound Experience

Bluetooth vs. Wired Connection

Note: If you have a Spotify subscription, you’ll be streaming at up to 320 kbps (vs. 160 kbps for free users). Make sure you set the streaming quality to “very high” in your Spotify settings.

In-ear Measurement vs. Head Map Audio Profile

Music vs. Entertainment vs. Calls

How Does the SXFI AIR Compare?

Creative isn’t the only company that has come out with a spatial audio product.

Sony 360 Reality Audio

During our demo in Berlin, we were impressed with the clarity of the 3D effect, but we noticed a drop in bass compared to the unaltered track.

Dolby Headphone

Our Super X-Fi AIR Verdict

Get the Creative Super X-Fi AIR if you crave the spatial audio experience in a quiet environment and don’t mind its limitations.

Enter the Competition!

Creative Super X-Fi AIR Headphones Giveaway

Read the full article: Creative Super X-Fi AIR Review: Spatial Audio Done Right

Creative Super X-Fi AIR Review: Spatial Audio Done Right published first on http://droneseco.tumblr.com/

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awesomelegendaryllamabouque-blog · 7 years

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Solution Manual for Elementary Surveying An Introduction to Geomatics 13th Edition by Ghilani Wolf

This is Full Solution Manual for Elementary Surveying: An Introduction to Geomatics, 13th Edition Charles D. Ghilani and Wolf

Click link bellow to view sample:

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Origin Book information:

ISBN-10: 0132554348

ISBN-13: 978-0132554343 9780132554343

Full download link: Solution Manual for Elementary Surveying An Introduction to Geomatics 13th Edition by Ghilani Wolf

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You will be guided to the product download page immediately once you complete the payment.If you have any questions, or would like a receive a sample chapter before your purchase, please contact us via email :

[email protected]

Table of Contents

1 • INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Definition of Surveying 1 1.2 Geomatics 3 1.3 History of Surveying 4 1.4 Geodetic and Plane Surveys 9 1.5 Importance of Surveying 10 1.6 Specialized Types of Surveys 11 1.7 Surveying Safety 13 1.8 Land and Geographic Information Systems 14 1.9 Federal Surveying and Mapping Agencies 15 1.10 The Surveying Profession 16 1.11 Professional Surveying Organizations 17 1.12 Surveying on the Internet 18 1.13 Future Challenges in Surveying 19 Problems 20 Bibliography 21

2 • UNITS, SIGNIFICANT FIGURES, AND FIELD NOTES 23 PART I UNITS AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES 23 2.1 Introduction 23 2.2 Units of Measurement 23 2.3 International System of Units (SI) 25 2.4 Significant Figures 27 2.5 Rounding Off Numbers 29 PART II FIELD NOTES 30 2.6 Field Notes 30 2.7 General Requirements of Handwritten Field Notes 31 2.8 Types of Field Books 32 2.9 Kinds of Notes 33 2.10 Arrangements of Notes 33 2.11 Suggestions for Recording Notes 35 2.12 Introduction to Data Collectors 36 2.13 Transfer of Files from Data Collectors 39 2.14 Digital Data File Management 41 2.15 Advantages and Disadvantages of Data Collectors 42 Problems 43 Bibliography 44

3 • THEORY OF ERRORS IN OBSERVATIONS 45 3.1 Introduction 45 3.2 Direct and Indirect Observations 45 3.3 Errors in Measurements 46 3.4 Mistakes 46 3.5 Sources of Errors in Making Observations 47 3.6 Types of Errors 47 3.7 Precision and Accuracy 48 3.8 Eliminating Mistakes and Systematic Errors 49 3.9 Probability 49 3.10 Most Probable Value 50 3.11 Residuals 51 3.12 Occurrence of Random Errors 51 3.13 General Laws of Probability 55 3.14 Measures of Precision 55 3.15 Interpretation of Standard Deviation 58 3.16 The 50, 90, and 95 Percent Errors 58 3.17 Error Propagation 60 3.18 Applications 65 3.19 Conditional Adjustment of Observations 65 3.20 Weights of Observations 66 3.21 Least-Squares Adjustment 67 3.22 Using Software 68 Problems 69 Bibliography 71

4 • LEVELING–THEORY, METHODS, AND EQUIPMENT 73 PART I LEVELING–THEORY AND METHODS 73 4.1 Introduction 73 4.2 Definitions 73 4.3 North American Vertical Datum 75 4.4 Curvature and Refraction 76 4.5 Methods for Determining Differences in Elevation 78 PART II EQUIPMENT FOR DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING 85 4.6 Categories of Levels 85 4.7 Telescopes 86 4.8 Level Vials 87 4.9 Tilting Levels 89 4.10 Automatic Levels 90 4.11 Digital Levels 91 4.12 Tripods 93 4.13 Hand Level 93 4.14 Level Rods 94 4.15 Testing and Adjusting Levels 96 Problems 100 Bibliography 102

5 • LEVELING–FIELD PROCEDURES AND COMPUTATIONS 103 5.1 Introduction 103 5.2 Carrying and Setting Up a Level 103 5.3 Duties of a Rodperson 105 5.4 Differential Leveling 106 5.5 Precision 112 5.6 Adjustments of Simple Level Circuits 113 5.7 Reciprocal Leveling 114 5.8 Three-Wire Leveling 115 5.9 Profile Leveling 117 5.10 Grid, Cross-Section, or Borrow-Pit Leveling 121 5.11 Use of the Hand Level 122 5.12 Sources of Error in Leveling 122 5.13 Mistakes 124 5.14 Reducing Errors and Eliminating Mistakes 125 5.15 Using Software 125 Problems 127 Bibliography 129

6 • DISTANCE MEASUREMENT 131 PART I METHODS FOR MEASURING DISTANCES 131 6.1 Introduction 131 6.2 Summary of Methods for Making Linear Measurements 131 6.3 Pacing 132 6.4 Odometer Readings 132 6.5 Optical Rangefinders 133 6.6 Tacheometry 133 6.7 Subtense Bar 133 PART II DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS BY TAPING 133 6.8 Introduction to Taping 133 6.9 Taping Equipment and Accessories 134 6.10 Care of Taping Equipment 135 6.11 Taping on Level Ground 136 6.12 Horizontal Measurements on Sloping Ground 138 6.13 Slope Measurements 140 6.14 Sources of Error in Taping 141 6.15 Tape Problems 145 6.16 Combined Corrections in a Taping Problem 147 PART III ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT 148 6.17 Introduction 148 6.18 Propagation of Electromagnetic Energy 149 6.19 Principles of Electronic Distance Measurement 152 6.20 Electro-Optical Instruments 153 6.21 Total Station Instruments 156 6.22 EDM Instruments Without Reflectors 157 6.23 Computing Horizontal Lengths from Slope Distances 158 6.24 Errors in Electronic Distance Measurement 160 6.25 Using Software 165 Problems 165 Bibliography 168

7 • ANGLES, AZIMUTHS, AND BEARINGS 169 7.1 Introduction 169 7.2 Units of Angle Measurement 169 7.3 Kinds of Horizontal Angles 170 7.4 Direction of a Line 171 7.5 Azimuths 172 7.6 Bearings 173 7.7 Comparison of Azimuths and Bearings 174 7.8 Computing Azimuths 175 7.9 Computing Bearings 177 7.10 The Compass and the Earth’s Magnetic Field 179 7.11 Magnetic Declination 180 7.12 Variations in Magnetic Declination 181 7.13 Software for Determining Magnetic Declination 183 7.14 Local Attraction 184 7.15 Typical Magnetic Declination Problems 185 7.16 Mistakes 187 Problems 187 Bibliography 189

8 • TOTAL STATION INSTRUMENTS; ANGLE OBSERVATIONS 191 PART I TOTAL STATION INSTRUMENTS 191 8.1 Introduction 191 8.2 Characteristics of Total Station Instruments 191 8.3 Functions Performed by Total Station Instruments 194 8.4 Parts of a Total Station Instrument 195 8.5 Handling and Setting Up a Total Station Instrument 199 8.6 Servo-Driven and Remotely Operated Total Station Instruments 201 PART II ANGLE OBSERVATIONS 203 8.7 Relationship of Angles and Distances 203 8.8 Observing Horizontal Angles with Total Station Instruments 204 8.9 Observing Horizontal Angles by the Direction Method 206 8.10 Closing the Horizon 207 8.11 Observing Deflection Angles 209 8.12 Observing Azimuths 211 8.13 Observing Vertical Angles 211 8.14 Sights and Marks 213 8.15 Prolonging a Straight Line 214 8.16 Balancing-In 216 8.17 Random Traverse 217 8.18 Total Stations for Determining Elevation Differences 218 8.19 Adjustment of Total Station Instruments and Their Accessories 219 8.20 Sources of Error in Total Station Work 222 8.21 Propagation of Random Errors in Angle Observations 228 8.22 Mistakes 228 Problems 229 Bibliography 230

9 • TRAVERSING 231 9.1 Introduction 231 9.2 Observation of Traverse Angles or Directions 233 9.3 Observation of Traverse Lengths 234 9.4 Selection of Traverse Stations 235 9.5 Referencing Traverse Stations 235 9.6 Traverse Field Notes 237 9.7 Angle Misclosure 238 9.8 Traversing with Total Station Instruments 239 9.9 Radial Traversing 240 9.10 Sources of Error in Traversing 241 9.11 Mistakes in Traversing 242 Problems 242

10 • TRAVERSE COMPUTATIONS 245 10.1 Introduction 245 10.2 Balancing Angles 246 10.3 Computation of Preliminary Azimuths or Bearings 248 10.4 Departures and Latitudes 249 10.5 Departure and Latitude Closure Conditions 251 10.6 Traverse Linear Misclosure and Relative Precision 251 10.7 Traverse Adjustment 252 10.8 Rectangular Coordinates 255 10.9 Alternative Methods for Making Traverse Computations 256 10.10 Inversing 260 10.11 Computing Final Adjusted Traverse Lengths and Directions 261 10.12 Coordinate Computations in Boundary Surveys 263 10.13 Use of Open Traverses 265 10.14 State Plane Coordinate Systems 268 10.15 Traverse Computations Using Computers 269 10.16 Locating Blunders in Traverse Observations 269 10.17 Mistakes in Traverse Computations 272 Problems 272 Bibliography 275

11 • COORDINATE GEOMETRY IN SURVEYING CALCULATIONS 277 11.1 Introduction 277 11.2 Coordinate Forms of Equations for Lines and Circles 278 11.3 Perpendicular Distance from a Point to a Line 280 11.4 Intersection of Two Lines, Both Having Known Directions 282 11.5 Intersection of a Line with a Circle 284 11.6 Intersection of Two Circles 287 11.7 Three-Point Resection 289 11.8 Two-Dimensional Conformal Coordinate Transformation 292 11.9 Inaccessible Point Problem 297 11.10 Three-Dimensional Two-Point Resection 299 11.11 Software 302 Problems 303 Bibliography 307

12 • AREA 309 12.1 Introduction 309 12.2 Methods of Measuring Area 309 12.3 Area by Division Into Simple Figures 310 12.4 Area by Offsets from Straight Lines 311 12.5 Area by Coordinates 313 12.6 Area by Double-Meridian Distance Method 317 12.7 Area of Parcels with Circular Boundaries 320 12.8 Partitioning of Lands 321 12.9 Area by Measurements from Maps 325 12.10 Software 327 12.11 Sources of Error in Determining Areas 328 12.12 Mistakes in Determining Areas 328 Problems 328 Bibliography 330

13 • GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS—INTRODUCTION AND PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION 331 13.1 Introduction 331 13.2 Overview of GPS 332 13.3 The GPS Signal 335 13.4 Reference Coordinate Systems 337 13.5 Fundamentals of Satellite Positioning 345 13.6 Errors in Observations 348 13.7 Differential Positioning 356 13.8 Kinematic Methods 358 13.9 Relative Positioning 359 13.10 Other Satellite Navigation Systems 362 13.11 The Future 364 Problems 365 Bibliography 366

14 • GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS—STATIC SURVEYS 367 14.1 Introduction 367 14.2 Field Procedures in Satellite Surveys 369 14.3 Planning Satellite Surveys 372 14.4 Performing Static Surveys 384 14.5 Data Processing and Analysis 386 14.6 Sources of Errors in Satellite Surveys 393 14.7 Mistakes in Satellite Surveys 395 Problems 395 Bibliography 397

15 • GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS—KINEMATIC SURVEYS 399 15.1 Introduction 399 15.2 Planning of Kinematic Surveys 400 15.3 Initialization 402 15.4 Equipment Used in Kinematic Surveys 403 15.5 Methods Used in Kinematic Surveys 405 15.6 Performing Post-Processed Kinematic Surveys 408 15.7 Communication in Real-Time Kinematic Surveys 411 15.8 Real-Time Networks 412 15.9 Performing Real-Time Kinematic Surveys 413 15.10 Machine Control 414 15.11 Errors in Kinematic Surveys 418 15.12 Mistakes in Kinematic Surveys 418 Problems 418 Bibliography 419

16 • ADJUSTMENTS BY LEAST SQUARES 421 16.1 Introduction 421 16.2 Fundamental Condition of Least Squares 423 16.3 Least-Squares Adjustment by the Observation Equation Method 424 16.4 Matrix Methods in Least-Squares Adjustment 428 16.5 Matrix Equations for Precisions of Adjusted Quantities 430 16.6 Least-Squares Adjustment of Leveling Circuits 432 16.7 Propagation of Errors 436 16.8 Least-Squares Adjustment of GNSS Baseline Vectors 437 16.9 Least-Squares Adjustment of Conventional Horizontal Plane Surveys 443 16.10 The Error Ellipse 452 16.11 Adjustment Procedures 457 16.12 Other Measures of Precision for Horizontal Stations 458 16.13 Software 460 16.14 Conclusions 460 Problems 461 Bibliography 466

17 • MAPPING SURVEYS 467 17.1 Introduction 467 17.2 Basic Methods for Performing Mapping Surveys 468 17.3 Map Scale 468 17.4 Control for Mapping Surveys 470 17.5 Contours 471 17.6 Characteristics of Contours 474 17.7 Direct and Indirect Methods of Locating Contours 474 17.8 Digital Elevation Models and Automated Contouring Systems 477 17.9 Basic Field Methods for Locating Topographic Details 479 17.10 Three-Dimensional Conformal Coordinate Transformation 488 17.11 Selection of Field Method 489 17.12 Working with Data Collectors and Field-to-Finish Software 490 17.13 Hydrographic Surveys 493 17.14 Sources of Error in Mapping Surveys 497 17.15 Mistakes in Mapping Surveys 498 Problems 498 Bibliography 500

18 • MAPPING 503 18.1 Introduction 503 18.2 Availability of Maps and Related Information 504 18.3 National Mapping Program 505 18.4 Accuracy Standards for Mapping 505 18.5 Manual and Computer-Aided Drafting Procedures 507 18.6 Map Design 508 18.7 Map Layout 510 18.8 Basic Map Plotting Procedures 512 18.9 Contour Interval 514 18.10 Plotting Contours 514 18.11 Lettering 515 18.12 Cartographic Map Elements 516 18.13 Drafting Materials 519 18.14 Automated Mapping and Computer-Aided Drafting Systems 519 18.15 Impacts of Modern Land and Geographic Information Systems on Mapping 525 18.16 Sources of Error in Mapping 526 18.17 Mistakes in Mapping 526 Problems 526 Bibliography 528

19 • CONTROL SURVEYS AND GEODETIC REDUCTIONS 529 19.1 Introduction 529 19.2 The Ellipsoid and Geoid 530 19.3 The Conventional Terrestrial Pole 532 19.4 Geodetic Position and Ellipsoidal Radii of Curvature 534 19.5 Geoid Undulation and Deflection of the Vertical 536 19.6 U.S. Reference Frames 538 19.7 Accuracy Standards and Specifications for Control Surveys 547 19.8 The National Spatial Reference System 550 19.9 Hierarchy of the National Horizontal Control Network 550 19.10 Hierarchy of the National Vertical Control Network 551 19.11 Control Point Descriptions 551 19.12 Field Procedures for Traditional Horizontal Control Surveys 554 19.13 Field Procedures for Vertical Control Surveys 559 19.14 Reduction of Field Observations to Their Geodetic Values 564 19.15 Geodetic Position Computations 577 19.16 The Local Geodetic Coordinate System 580 19.17 Three-Dimensional Coordinate Computations 581 19.18 Software 584 Problems 584 Bibliography 587

20 • STATE PLANE COORDINATES AND OTHER MAP PROJECTIONS 589 20.1 Introduction 589 20.2 Projections Used in State Plane Coordinate Systems 590 20.3 Lambert Conformal Conic Projection 593 20.4 Transverse Mercator Projection 594 20.5 State Plane Coordinates in NAD27 and NAD83 595 20.6 Computing SPCS83 Coordinates in the Lambert Conformal Conic System 596 20.7 Computing SPCS83 Coordinates in the Transverse Mercator System 601 20.8 Reduction of Distances and Angles to State Plane Coordinate Grids 608 20.9 Computing State Plane Coordinates of Traverse Stations 617 20.10 Surveys Extending from One Zone to Another 620 20.11 Conversions Between SPCS27 and SPCS83 621 20.12 The Universal Transverse Mercator Projection 622 20.13 Other Map Projections 623 20.14 Map Projection Software 627 Problems 628 Bibliography 631

21 • BOUNDARY SURVEYS 633 21.1 Introduction 633 21.2 Categories of Land Surveys 634 21.3 Historical Perspectives 635 21.4 Property Description by Metes and Bounds 636 21.5 Property Description by Block-and-Lot System 639 21.6 Property Description by Coordinates 641 21.7 Retracement Surveys 641 21.8 Subdivision Surveys 644 21.9 Partitioning Land 646 21.10 Registration of Title 647 21.11 Adverse Possession and Easements 648 21.12 Condominium Surveys 648 21.13 Geographic and Land Information Systems 655 21.14 Sources of Error in Boundary Surveys 655 21.15 Mistakes 655 Problems 656 Bibliography 658

22 • SURVEYS OF THE PUBLIC LANDS 659 22.1 Introduction 659 22.2 Instructions for Surveys of the Public Lands 660 22.3 Initial Point 663 22.4 Principal Meridian 664 22.5 Baseline 665 22.6 Standard Parallels (Correction Lines) 666 22.7 Guide Meridians 666 22.8 Township Exteriors, Meridional (Range) Lines, and Latitudinal (Township) Lines 667 22.9 Designation of Townships 668 22.10 Subdivision of a Quadrangle into Townships 668 22.11 Subdivision of a Township into Sections 670 22.12 Subdivision of Sections 671 22.13 Fractional Sections 672 22.14 Notes 672 22.15 Outline of Subdivision Steps 672 22.16 Marking Corners 674 22.17 Witness Corners 674 22.18 Meander Corners 675 22.19 Lost and Obliterated Corners 675 22.20 Accuracy of Public Lands Surveys 678 22.21 Descriptions by Township Section and Smaller Subdivision 678 22.22 BLM Land Information System 679 22.23 Sources of Error 680 22.24 Mistakes 680 Problems 681 Bibliography 683

23 • CONSTRUCTION SURVEYS 685 23.1 Introduction 685 23.2 Specialized Equipment for Construction Surveys 686 23.3 Horizontal and Vertical Control 689 23.4 Staking Out a Pipeline 691 23.5 Staking Pipeline Grades 692 23.6 Staking Out a Building 694 23.7 Staking Out Highways 698 23.8 Other Construction Surveys 703 23.9 Construction Surveys Using Total Station Instruments 704 23.10 Construction Surveys Using GNSS Equipment 706 23.11 Machine Guidance and Control 709 23.12 As-Built Surveys with Laser Scanning 710 23.13 Sources of Error in Construction Surveys 711 23.14 Mistakes 712 Problems 712 Bibliography 714

24 • HORIZONTAL CURVES 715 24.1 Introduction 715 24.2 Degree of Circular Curve 716 24.3 Definitions and Derivation of Circular Curve Formulas 718 24.4 Circular Curve Stationing 720 24.5 General Procedure of Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles 721 24.6 Computing Deflection Angles and Chords 723 24.7 Notes for Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords 725 24.8 Detailed Procedures for Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords 726 24.9 Setups on Curve 727 24.10 Metric Circular Curves by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords 728 24.11 Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Total Chords 730 24.12 Computation of Coordinates on a Circular Curve 731 24.13 Circular Curve Layout by Coordinates 733 24.14 Curve Stakeout Using GNSS Receivers and Robotic Total Stations 738 24.15 Circular Curve Layout by Offsets 739 24.16 Special Circular Curve Problems 742 24.17 Compound and Reverse Curves 743 24.18 Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves 743 24.19 Spirals 744 24.20 Computation of “As-Built” Circular Alignments 749 24.21 Sources of Error in Laying Out Circular Curves 752 24.22 Mistakes 752 Problems 753 Bibliography 755

25 • VERTICAL CURVES 757 25.1 Introduction 757 25.2 General Equation of a Vertical Parabolic Curve 758 25.3 Equation of an Equal Tangent Vertical Parabolic Curve 759 25.4 High or Low Point on a Vertical Curve 761 25.5 Vertical Curve Computations Using the Tangent Offset Equation 761 25.6 Equal Tangent Property of a Parabola 765 25.7 Curve Computations by Proportion 766 25.8 Staking a Vertical Parabolic Curve 766 25.9 Machine Control in Grading Operations 767 25.10 Computations for an Unequal Tangent Vertical Curve 767 25.11 Designing a Curve to Pass Through a Fixed Point 770 25.12 Sight Distance 771 25.13 Sources of Error in Laying Out Vertical Curves 773 25.14 Mistakes 774 Problems 774 Bibliography 776

26 • VOLUMES 777 26.1 Introduction 777 26.2 Methods of Volume Measurement 777 26.3 The Cross-Section Method 778 26.4 Types of Cross Sections 779 26.5 Average-End-Area Formula 780 26.6 Determining End Areas 781 26.7 Computing Slope Intercepts 784 26.8 Prismoidal Formula 786 26.9 Volume Computations 788 26.10 Unit-Area, or Borrow-Pit, Method 790 26.11 Contour-Area Method 791 26.12 Measuring Volumes of Water Discharge 793 26.13 Software 794 26.14 Sources of Error in Determining Volumes 795 26.15 Mistakes 795 Problems 795 Bibliography 798

27 • PHOTOGRAMMETRY 799 27.1 Introduction 799 27.2 Uses of Photogrammetry 800 27.3 Aerial Cameras 801 27.4 Types of Aerial Photographs 803 27.5 Vertical Aerial Photographs 804 27.6 Scale of a Vertical Photograph 806 27.7 Ground Coordinates from a Single Vertical Photograph 810 27.8 Relief Displacement on a Vertical Photograph 811 27.9 Flying Height of a Vertical Photograph 813 27.10 Stereoscopic Parallax 814 27.11 Stereoscopic Viewing 817 27.12 Stereoscopic Measurement of Parallax 819 27.13 Analytical Photogrammetry 820 27.14 Stereoscopic Plotting Instruments 821 27.15 Orthophotos 826 27.16 Ground Control for Photogrammetry 827 27.17 Flight Planning 828 27.18 Airborne Laser-Mapping Systems 830 27.19 Remote Sensing 831 27.20 Software 837 27.21 Sources of Error in Photogrammetry 838 27.22 Mistakes 838 Problems 839 Bibliography 842

28 • INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS 843 28.1 Introduction 843 28.2 Land Information Systems 846 28.3 GIS Data Sources and Classifications 846 28.4 Spatial Data 846 28.5 Nonspatial Data 852 28.6 Data Format Conversions 853 28.7 Creating GIS Databases 856 28.8 Metadata 862 28.9 GIS Analytical Functions 862 28.10 GIS Applications 867 28.11 Data Sources 867 Problems 869 Bibliography 871

APPENDIX A • DUMPY LEVELS, TRANSITS, AND THEODOLITES 873 APPENDIX B • EXAMPLE NOTEFORMS 888 APPENDIX C • ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS 895 APPENDIX D • USING THE WORKSHEETS FROM THE COMPANION WEBSITE 911 APPENDIX E • INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES 917 APPENDIX F • U.S. STATE PLANE COORDINATE SYSTEM DEFINING PARAMETERS 923 APPENDIX G • ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS 927 INDEX 933

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natskies1 · 7 years

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Geminid Meteor Shower 2017 What are meteors and meteoroids? Rocks and dust particles from space that are about to collide with Earth's atmosphere are called meteoroids. Those that enter and streak through the atmosphere are called meteors. What causes a meteor shower? Usually when comets, which are chunks of ice with lot of dust, come close to the sun, the ice melts and the dust and rocks are left behind along the orbit of the comet. If Earth, in its yearly motion around the Sun happens to pass through such a debris trail, they enter the Earth’s atmosphere with considerable speed and due to friction in the atmosphere, burns up and give rise to not only a single bright streak in the sky but numerous meteors, called meteor shower. Named After Gemini The Geminid meteor shower can be annually observed between December 4 and December 16, with its peak activity being around December 14. The shower owes its name to the constellation Gemini from where the meteors seem to emerge from in the sky. Where do they come from? The Geminids are associated with the near-Earth object 3200 Phaethon, an asteroid that may have undergone a collision with another object in the distant past to produce the stream of particles that Earth runs into — creating the meteor shower. The asteroid orbits the sun every 1.4 years. It occasionally comes close to Earth (at a safe distance) and also passes very close to the sun, inside of Mercury's orbit and only 0.15 astronomical units from the sun. (An astronomical unit is the distance between the sun and the Earth: about 93 million miles or 150 million kilometers.) Rocks in space that are about to collide with Earth's atmosphere are called meteoroids. Those that streak through the atmosphere are called meteors, and if they reach the ground (which won't happen with the Geminids, as the particles are too small to survive the trip) the rocks are called meteorites The Geminids are considered one of the best meteor showers every year because the individual meteors are bright, and the peak can see meteors stream across the sky at rates as high as 120 meteors an hour. Under light-polluted skies, fewer meteors will be visible. Geminids meteor shower for Pune (Night between 12 December and 13 December) Time Azimuth/Direction Altitude Tue 20:30 58° 10.3° Tue 21:30 61° 22.5° Tue 22:30 62° 35.1° Tue 23:30 61° 47.6° Wed 00:30 55° 59.7° Wed 01:30 39° 70.4° Wed 02:30 359° 75.5° Wed 03:30 320° 70.0° Wed 04:30 304° 59.3° Wed 05:30 299° 47.1° Wed 06:30 298° 34.6°

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richcramp81132-blog · 7 years

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Hanwha Q CELLS Co., Ltd.'s (HQCL) Management On Q3 2017 Results.

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One of the most crucial good elements to look for in a lasting connection and also synastry compatibility are the Sun and Moon parts, Venus to Mars/Sun/Ascendant, and Chiron to Venus/Sun/Moon/ Jupiter, as well as Neptune. The sunlight's height and also azimuth, the eclipse enormity (portion from the sun's dimension occulted by the Moon), and obscuration (fraction from the sun's place occulted by Moon) are actually all provided for the instant from optimum eclipse.

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thorsenmark · 11 months

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A Mount Crandell Backdrop for the Prince of Wales Hotel (Waterton Lakes National Park) by Mark Stevens Via Flickr: While visiting the Prince of Wales Hotel with a look to the northwest to the main building and structure and a backdrop with Mount Crandell. This is in Waterton Lakes National Park.

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livesets-dj-mixes-edm-podcasts · 3 years

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edmlivesets4u-blog · 3 years

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Solution Manual for Elementary Surveying An Introduction to Geomatics 13th Edition by Ghilani

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Charles D. Ghilani

Hardcover: 984 pages

Publisher: Prentice Hall; 13 edition (January 8, 2011)

Language: English

ISBN-10: 0132554348

ISBN-13: 978-0132554343

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