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[inhandnetworks-blog]

Curiosity Team Selects Second Drilling att certified   Location on Mars

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This map shows the location of “Cumberland,” the second rock-drilling target for NASA’s Mars rover Curiosity, in relation to the rover’s first drilling target, “John Klein,” within the southwestern lobe of a shallow depression called “Yellowknife Bay.” Cumberland, like John Klein, is a patch of flat-lying bedrock with pale veins and bumpy surface texture. The bumpiness is due to erosion-resistant nodules within the rock, which have been identified as concretions resulting from the action of mineral-laden water. North is to the top of the map. The scale bar is 50 meters (164 feet). Cumberland lies about nine feet (2.75 meters) west of John Klein. The base map is part of an image from the High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) camera on NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. The mapped area is within Gale Crater and north of the mountain called Mount Sharp in the middle of the crater. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/Univ. of Arizona

Scientists have chosen the second drilling site for the Curiosity rover on Mars.

Pasadena, California — The team operating NASA’s Curiosity Mars rover has selected a second target rock for drilling and sampling. The rover will set course to the drilling location in coming days.

This second drilling target, called “Cumberland,” lies about nine feet (2.75 meters) west of the rock where Curiosity’s drill first touched Martian stone in February. Curiosity took the first rock sample ever collected on Mars from that rock, called “John Klein.” The rover found evidence of an ancient environment favorable for microbial life. Both rocks are flat, with pale veins and a bumpy surface. They are embedded in a layer of rock on the floor of a shallow depression called “Yellowknife Bay.”

This second drilling is intended to confirm results from the first drilling, which indicated the chemistry of the first powdered sample from John Klein was much less oxidizing than that of a soil sample the rover scooped up before it began drilling.

“We know there is some cross-contamination from the previous sample each time,” said Dawn Sumner, a long-term planner for Curiosity’s science team at the University of California at Davis. “For the Cumberland sample, we expect to have most of that cross-contamination come from a similar rock, ra Vending Telemetry  ther than from very different soil.”

Although Cumberland and John Klein are very similar, Cumberland appears to have more of the erosion-resistant granules that cause the surface bumps. The bumps are concretions, or clumps of minerals, which formed when water soaked the rock long ago. Analysis of a sample containing m DIN-Rail router  ore material from these concretions could provide information about the variability within the rock layer that includes both John Klein and Cumberland.

Mission engineers at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California, recently finished upgrading Curiosity’s operating software following a four-week break. The rover continued monitoring the Martian atmosphere during the break, but the team did not send any new commands because Mars and the sun were positioned in such a way the sun could have blocked or corrupted commands sent from Earth.

Curiosity is about nine months into a two-year prime mission since landing inside Gale Crater on Mars in August 2012. After the second rock drilling in Yellowknife Bay and a few ot ethernet switch  her investigations nearby, the rover will drive toward the base of Mount Sharp, a 3-mile-tall (5-kilometers) layered mountain inside the crater.

JPL, a division of the California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, manages the Mars Science Laboratory Project, of which Curiosity is the centerpiece, for NASA’s Science Mission Directorate in Washington.

For more information about the mission, visit: msl , msl and msl . To follow the mission on Facebook and Twitter visit: marscuriosity and marscuriosity.

Image: NASA/JPL-Caltech/Univ. of Arizona

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Cassini S 3g shutdownpacecraft Makes First Ring-Grazing Plunge

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This graphic shows the closest approaches of Cassini’s final two orbital phases. Ring-grazing orbits are shown in gray (at left); Grand Finale orbits are shown in blue. The orange line shows the spacecraft’s September 2017 final plunge into Saturn.

NASA’s Cassini spacecraft made its first close dive past the outer edges of Saturn’s rings since beginning its penultimate mission phase on November 3o.

Cassini crossed through the plane of Saturn’s rings on December 4 at 5:09 a.m. PST (8:09 a.m. EST) at a distance of approximately 57,000 miles (91,000 kilometers) above Saturn’s cloud tops. T Overhead Line Monitoring  his is the approximate location of a faint, dusty ring produced by the planet’s small moons Janus and Epimetheus, and just 6,800 miles (11,000 kilometers) from the center of Saturn’s F ring.

About an hour prior to the ring-plane crossing, the spacecraft performed a short burn of its main engine that lasted about six seconds. About 30 minutes later, as it approached the ring plane, Cassini closed its canopy-like engine cover as a protect UMTS router  ive measure.

“With this small adjustment to t Remote Automation  he the spacecraft’s trajectory, we’re in excellent shape to make the most of this new phase of the mission,” said Earl Maize, Cassini project manager at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California.

A few hours after the ring-plane crossing, Cassini began a complete scan across the rings with its radio science experiment to study their structure in great detail.

“It’s taken years of planning, but now that we’re finally here, the whole Cassini team is excited to begin studying the data that come from these ring-grazing orbits,” said Linda Spilker, Cassini project scientist at JPL. “This is a remarkable time in what’s already been a thrilling journey.”

Cassini’s imaging cameras obtained views of Saturn about two days before crossing through the ring plane, but not near the time of closest approach. The focus of this first close pass was the engine maneuver and observations by Cassini’s other science instruments. Future dives past the rings will feature some of the mission’s best views of the outer regions of the rings and small, nearby moons.

Each of Cassini’s orbits for the remainder of the mission will last one week. The next pass by the rings’ outer edges is planned for December 11. The ring-grazing orbits — 20 in all — will continue until April 22, when the last close flyby of Saturn’s moon Titan will reshape Cassini’s flight path. With that encounter, Cassini will leap over the rings, making the first of 22 plunges through the 1,500-mile-wide (2,400-kilometer) gap between Saturn and its innermost ring on April 26.

On September 15, the mission will conclude with a final plunge into Saturn’s atmosphere. During the plunge, Cassini will transmit data on the atmosphere’s composition until its signal is lost.

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[inhandnetworks-blog]

Amazing Cassini Image of Saturn’s Translu inhand  cent Rings

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Saturn’s rings are perhaps the most recognized feature of any world in our solar system. Cassini spent more than a decade examining them more closely than any spacecraft before it.

The rings are made mostly of particles of water ice that range in size from smaller than a grain of sand to as large as mountains. The ring  applications  system extends up to 175,000 miles (282,000 kilometers) from the planet, but for all their immense width, the rings are razor-thin, about 30 feet (10 meters) thick in most places.

From the right angle you can see straight telemeter   through the rings, as in this natural-color view that looks from south to north. Cassini obtained the images that comprise this mosaic on April 25, 2007, at a distance of approximately 450,000 miles (725,000 kilometers) from Saturn. The Cassini spacecraft ended its mission on Sept. 15, 2017.

The Cassini mission is a cooperative project  light industrial  of NASA, ESA (the European Space Agency) and the Italian Space Agency. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a division of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, manages the mission for NASA’s Science Mission Directorate, Washington. The Cassini orbiter and its two onboard cameras were designed, developed and assembled at JPL. The imaging operations center is based at the Space Science Institute in Boulder, Colorado.

Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/Space Science Institute

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Amazing Chandra X-Ray Observatory I medium voltage smart grid sensor  mages From 2018

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Perseus Cluster A gigantic and resilient “cold front” is hurtling through the Perseus galaxy cluster according to data from Chandra & other X-ray observatories. This cosmic weather system spans about two million light years and has been traveling for over 5 billion years, longer than the existence of our Solar System. The image on the left shows the cold front in the Perseus cluster where X-ray data from Chandra – for regions close to the center of the cluster – have been combined with data from the XMM-Newton and ROSAT satellites for regions farther out. The Chandra data have been specially processed to brighten the contrast of edges to make subtle details more obvious. On the right, the image shows a close-up view of the cold front from Chandra. This image is a temperature map, where blue represents relatively cooler regions (30 million degrees) while the red is where th industrial IoT gateway e hotter regions (80 million degrees) are. More info (Credit: NASA/CXC/GSFC/S.Walker, ESA/XMM, ESA/ROSAT)

NGC 6231 By studying young clusters, astronomers hope to learn more about how stars – including our Sun – are born. NGC 6231 is an ideal testbed for studying a stellar cluster not long after star foverhead line sensorormation has stopped. The Chandra X-ray image shows the inner region of NGC 6231 where red, green, and blue represents the lower, medium, and high-energy X-rays. The brightest X-ray emission is white. More info (Credit: X-ray: NASA/CXC/Univ. of Valparaiso/M. Kuhn et al; IR: NASA/JPL/WISE)

Crab Nebula A composite image of the Crab Nebula features X-rays from Chandra, optical data from Hubble, and infrared data from Spitzer. Chandra has repeatedly observed the Crab since the telescope was launched into space in 1999. The Crab Nebula is powered by a quickly spinning, highly magnetized neutron star called a pulsar, which was formed when a massive star ran out of its nuclear fuel and collapsed. The combination of rapid rotation and a strong magnetic field in the Crab generates an intense electromagnetic field that creates jets of matter and anti-matter moving away from both the north and south poles of the pulsar, and an intense wind flowing out in the equatorial direction. (Credit: X-ray: NASA/CXC/SAO; Optical: NASA/STScI; Infrared: NASA-JPL-Caltech)

ULX in M51 Researchers using Chandra data have identified a fourth ultraluminous X-ray source (ULX), dubbed ULX8, as being a neutron star. These results provide clues about how these objects can shine so brightly in X-rays. The newly characterized ULX is located in the Whirlpool galaxy, also known as M51. This image of the Whirlpool shows X-rays from Chandra and optical data from the Hubble Space Telescope. The ULX is marked with a circle. (Credit: X-ray: NASA/CXC/Caltech/M. Brightman et al.; Optical: NASA/STScI )

Chandra Deep Field South The growth of the biggest black holes in the Universe is outrunning the rate of formation of stars in the galaxies they inhabit, according to two studies using data from Chandra and other telescopes. This image shows data from the Chandra Deep Field-South in optical and infrared light from the Hubble, and X-ray light from Chandra. Credit: NASA/CXC/Penn. State/G. Yang et al & NASA/CXC/ICE/M. Mezcua et al.; Optical: NASA/STScI

GW170817 The afterglow from the distant neutron-star merger detected last August has continued to brighten – much to the surprise of astrophysicists studying the aftermath of the massive collision that took place about 138 million light years away and sent gravitational waves rippling through the universe. Credit: NASA/CXC/McGill University/J. Ruan et al.

SDSS J1354+1327 Using data from several telescopes including Chandra, astronomers have caught a supermassive black hole snacking on gas and “burping” twice. This image shows the galaxy, called SDSS J1354+1327 (J1354 for short), in a wide-field image from Hubble. An additional image from the Chandra data is of the central region around the galaxy’s supermassive black hole. The combined X-ray and optical data (shown with labels) reveal that the supermassive black hole in J1354 consumed two clumps of stars and gas about 100,000 years apart. (Credit: X-ray NASA/CXC/University of Colorado/J. Comerford et al.; Optical: NASA/STScI)

Galactic Center The region of the Milky Way’s center about 26,000 light years from Earth. This still image is from a 360-degree movie that immerses view rugged  ers into a simulation of the center of our Galaxy. The visualization was enabled by data from Chandra and other telescopes and allows viewers to control their own exploration of this region. From the vantage point of the Milky Way’s supermassive black hole, Sgr A*, the viewer can see about 25 Wolf-Rayet stars (white objects) as they continuously eject stellar winds (black to red to yellow color scale). These winds collide with each other, and then some of this material (yellow blobs) spirals towards Sgr A*. Watch the movie. (Credit: NASA/CXC/Pontifical Catholic Univ. of Chile /C.Russell et al.)

A 360-degree movie immerses viewers into a simulation of the center of our Galaxy. This visualization was enabled by data from Chandra and other telescopes and allows viewers to control their own exploration of this region. From the vantage point of the Milky Way’s supermassive black hole, Sgr A*, the viewer can see about 25 Wolf-Rayet stars (white, twinkling objects) as they continuously eject stellar winds (black to red to yellow color scale). These winds collide with each other, and then some of this material (yellow blobs) spirals towards Sgr A*. The movie shows two simulations, each of which start around 350 years in the past and span 500 years. The first simulation shows Sgr A* in a calm state, while the second contains a more violent Sgr A* that is expelling its own material, thereby turning off the accretion of clumped material (yellow blobs) that is so prominent in the first portion.

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Yale Engineers Develop Micro Fuel Cells Made of Bulk Metall m2m communication  ic Glasses

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Yale engineers have demonstrated a micro fuel cell made of glass.

Made up of mostly bulk metallic glasses, a new type of micro fuel cell could serve as a low-cost, long-lasting, and eco-friendly power source for portable electronic devices.

Engineers at Yale University have developed a new breed of micro fuel cell that could serve as a long-lasting, industrial m2m   low-cost, and eco-friendly power source for portable electronic devices, such as tablet computers, smart phones, and remote sensors. The researchers describe the novel device in a paper published online in the journal Small.

An alternative to a battery, a fuel cell is an electrochemical device that combines hydrogen and oxygen to produce energy, giving off only water and heat as byproducts. But the materials and methods commonly used for making micro fuel cells are fragile, inefficient, and expensive.

Major components of the new device are made of bulk metallic glasses (BMGs) — extremely pliable metal alloys that nonetheless are more durable than the metals typically used in micro fuel cells. BMGs can be finely shaped and molded using a comparatively efficient and inexpensive fabrication process akin to processes used in shaping plastics.

“These amorphous metal alloys are amazing materials that can be easily shaped into both large and small nanostructures, yet retain suitable properties for a wide range of electrochemical applications,” said André D. Taylor, an assistant professor of chemical and environmental engineering at Yale School of Engineering & Applied Science and a principal investigator of the research. Ryan C. Sekol, a doctoral student in Taylor’s lab, is lead author.

Silicon and stainless steel are the materials typically used in micro fuel cells. But silicon is brittle and a poor electricity conductor, and stainless steel is prone to corrosion. This means they require special coatings, which drives up production costs. Fabricating metal components on the nanoscale is complex and time-consuming also.

Using bulk metallic glasses solves these problems, the researchers said.

BMGs are metal alloys with randomly arranged atoms rather than the orderly, crystalline makeup of ordinary metals. The random atomic arrangement results in a tough but elastic substance — as strong as steel, yet malleable and Dual SIM M2M router   good at conducting electricity, and thus superior to silicon and steel for micro fuel cells.

“Using thermoplastic processing, a process we invented at Yale, we can form metallic glasses like plastics, dramatical IoT PLC accessly reducing fabrication costs,” said Jan Schroers, a professor of mechanical engineering and materials science at Yale and also a principal investigator of the project. He has pioneered the technique and used it to create complex shapes, including seamless metallic bottles, watchcases, miniature resonators, and biomedical implants.

The BMG components of the Yale team’s micro fuel cell (the entirety of which measures three cubic centimeters) are based on zirconium and platinum compounds. The team demonstrated that its fuel cell generates power and is now working to increase it.

The paper is titled “Bulk Metallic Glass Micro Fuel Cell.”

Other authors are Forrest Gittleson, Nathan Hardesty-Dyck, and Sundeep Mukherjee of Yale; Golden Kumar of Texas Tech University; and Marcelo Carmo of the Institute of Energy and Climate Research (Germany). Yale’s Center for Research on Interface Structures and Phenomena and the National Science Foundation provided support for the research.

Image: Yale News

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Physicists Discover Way to “Switch” Between the Different States of Industrial Wireless M2M products   Matter

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Credit: popmech.ru

An international team of physicists has managed for the first time to experimentally observe a transition between two different states of matter: a propagating polariton-soliton and a Bose-Einstein condensate. Furthermore, the researchers developed a theoretical model to explain such transitions and found a way to “switch” betwe 2 sim  en the different states by changing the laser pumping power in the polariton formation process. The results are published in Physical Review Letters.

Nonlinear systems are extensively studied in a wide range of physical systems, notably in photonics. In such systems, interactions between particles lead to a whole range of novel effects such as nonlinear transitions between different basic states of matter including polaritons, solitons and Bose-Einstein condensates.

“Polaritons are quasiparticles formed due to the hybridization of matter and light. Once they are supplied with additional energy and densities, they form collective excitations, solitons. A soliton has an ability to propagate in space while preserving its shape. In other words, despite being a m2m connectivity   collective state consisting of many particles, a soliton behaves like a single particle. At the same time, a Bose-Einstein condensate is a quantum state of matter where all particles, in our case polaritons, populate the ground state of the system with minimal energy. Usually, the ground state is extended through the entire area of the system under study. The soliton and Bose-Einstein condensate are two widely different regimes, and we managed to observe the transition between them,” explains Ivan Shelykh, head of the International Laboratory of Photoprocesses in Mesoscopic Systems at ITMO University in St Petersburg.

The group, which included Professor Maurice Skolnick, Dr. Dmitry Krizhanovskii and Dr. Maksym Sich from the University of Sheffield, obtained the experimental data, while the theoretical group, led by Ivan Shelykh, developed a theoretical model for quantitative description of the experiment.

“First we had to create polaritons,” says Maurice Skolnick. “This required a fabrication of initial semiconductor structures with precisely defined features. Next, we shone a laser on the structure at temperatures as low as 4 degrees Kelvin, creating polaritons and then detecting the light that they emit.”

The researchers observed that an increase in the laser pumping power triggered nonlinear effects in the system.

“By increasing the laser strength, we create more and more particles, which begin to interact with each other. Therefore, the whole system goes into a nonlinear regime. Separate polaritons form solitons, which then transition into a Bose-Einstein condensate. Although it was clear we had obtained some interesting results, without a good theory we would have never understood what they actually meant,” Skolnick continues.

The theoretical model explaining the experimental data was developed by Ivan Shelykh’s group. This collaborative research project was carried out under a grant of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation on the study of hybrid light states.

“The ‘megagrant’ gave us the ability to initiate a productive collaboration with leading experimental scientists from Sheffield. During a year of our collaborative work we published two major papers that combined experimental and theoretical science,” Shelykh notes.

Further research plans include decreasing the size of nonlinear transitions systems to the subwavelength scale Remote Maintenance  . Maurice Skolnick described the project’s perspectives:

“As of now, this study has a mainly fundamental significance, as we have described a completely new aspect of physics. Yet once we produce miniature devices, it will be possible to use nonlinear transitions between different states of matter for telecommunications or, for example, for the creation of new lasers.”

Publication: M. Sich, et al., “Transition from Propagating Polariton Solitons to a Standing Wave Condensate Induced by Interactions,” Physical Review Letters, 2018; doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.120.167402

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New System Filters Light  fault location  Waves Based on Direction

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In this photo of the angular-selective sample (the rectangular region), a beam of white light passes through as if the sample was transparent glass. The red beam, coming in at a different angle, is reflected away, as if the sample was a mirror. The other lines are reflections of the beams. (This setup is immersed in liquid filled with light-scattering ­parti ce certified-  cles to make the rays visible). Photo: Weishun Xu and Yuhao Zhang

Researchers from MIT have produced a system that allows light of any color to pass through only if it is coming from one specific angle.

Light waves can be defined by three fundamental characteristics: their color (or wavelength), polarization, and direction. While it has long been possible to selectively filter light according to its color or polarization, selectivity based on the direction of propagation has remained elusive.

But now, for the first time, MIT researchers have produced a system that allows light of any color to pass through only if it is coming from one specific angle; the technique reflects all light coming from other directions. This new approach could ultimately lead to advances in solar photovoltaics, detectors for telescopes and microscopes, and privacy filters for display screens.

The work is described in a paper appearing this week in the journal Science, written by MIT graduate student Yichen Shen, professor of physics Marin Soljačić, and four others. “We are excited about this,” Soljačić says, “because it is a very fundamental building block in our ability to control light.”

This video shows the full process of the experimental setup, with the sample rotating 90 degrees.

The new structure consists of a stack of ultrathin layers of two alternating materials where the  ipsec-vpn  thickness of each layer is precisely controlled. “When you have two materials, then generally at the interface between them you will have some reflections,” Soljačić explains. But at these interfaces, “there is this magical angle called the Brewster angle, and when you come in at exactly that angle and the appropriate polarization, there is no reflection at all.”

While the amount of light reflected at each of these interfaces is small, by combining many layers with the same properties, most of the light can be reflected away — except for that coming in at precisely the right angle and polarization.

Using a stack of about 80 alternating layers of precise thickness, Shen says, “We are able to reflect light at most of the angles, over a very broad band [of colors]: the entire visible range of frequencies.”

Previous work had demonstrated ways of selectively reflecting light except for one precise angle, but those approaches were limited to a narrow range of colors of light. The new system’s breadth could open up many potential applications, the team says.

Shen says, “This could have great applications in energy, and especially in solar thermophotovoltaics” — harnessing solar energy by using it to heat a material, which in turn radiates light of a particular color. That light emission can then be harnessed using a photovoltaic cell tuned to make maximum use of that color of light. But for this approach to work, it is essential to limit the heat and light lost to reflections, and re-emission, so the ability to selectively control those reflections could improve efficiency.

The findings could also prove useful in optical systems, such as microscopes and telescopes, for viewing faint objects that are close to brighter objects — for example, a faint planet next to a bright star. By using a system that receives light only from a certain angle, such devices could have an improved ability to detect faint targets. The filtering could also be applied to display screens on phones or computers, so only those viewing from directly in front could see them.

In principle, the angular selectivity can be made narrower simply by adding more layers to the stack, the researchers say. For the experiments performed so far, the angle of selectivity was about 10 degrees; roughly 90 percent of the light coming in within that angle was allowed to pass through.

While these experiments were done using layers of glass and tantalum oxide, Shen says that in principle any two materials with different refractive indices could be used.

John Pendry, a professor at Imperial College London who was not connected to this research, calls this an “ingenious application.”

“On a macroscopic scale this is equivalent to observing the world through a set of lo computer  uvers … that allow light to enter from one direction only,” Pendry says. “However, the new device is infinitely more refined, operating as it does on the length scale of a wavelength.”

The team also included MIT research scientist Ivan Celanovic; associate professor of mathematics Steven Johnson; John Joannopoulos, the Francis Wright Davis Professor of Physics; and Dexin Ye of Zhejiang University in China. The work was supported in part by the Army Research Office, through MIT’s Institute for Soldier Nanotechnologies, and the U.S. Department of Energy, through the MIT S3TEC Energy Research Frontier Center.

Publication: Yichen Shen, et al., “Optical Broadband Angular Selectivity,” Science 28 March 2014: Vol. 343 no. 6178 pp. 1499-1501; DOI: 10.1126/science.1249799

Image: Weishun Xu and Yuhao Zhang

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New Battery Tech Could Tr wired  iple the Range of Electric Vehicles

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New research at the University of Waterloo could lead to the development of batteries industrial wireless   that triple the range of electric vehicles.

The breakthrough involves the use of negative electrodes made of lithium metal, a material with the potential to dramatically increase battery storage capacity.

“This will mean cheap, safe, long-lasting batteries that give people much more range in their electric vehicles,” said Quanquan Pang, who led the research while he was a PhD candidate at Waterloo.

The increased storage capacity, or energy density, could boost the distance electric vehicles are able to travel on a single charge, from about 200 kilometres to 600 kilometres.

In creating the technology, Pang and fellow researchers, including supervisor Linda Nazar, a professor of chemistry and chemical engineering at Waterloo, had to overcome two challenges.

The first challenge involved a risk of fires and explosions caused by microscopic structural changes to the lithium metal during repeated charge-discharge cycles.

The second involved a reaction that creates corrosion and limits both how well the electrodes work and how long they last.

Researchers solved both problems by adding a chemical compound made of phosphorus and sulfur elements to the electrolyte liquid that carries electrical charge within batteries.

The compou Industrial router nd reacts with the lithium metal electrode in an already assembled battery to spontaneously coat it with an extremely thin protectiv grid LTE router  e layer.

“We wanted a simple, scalable way to protect the lithium metal,” said Pang, now a post-doctoral fellow at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. “With this solution, we just add the compound and it works by itself.”

The novel approach paves the way for electric vehicle batteries that enjoy the benefits of lithium metal electrodes – greater storage capacity and therefore greater driving range – without comprising safety or reducing lifespan.

Publication: Quan Pang, et al., “An In Vivo Formed Solid Electrolyte Surface Layer Enables Stable Plating of Li Metal,” Joule, 2017; doi:10.1016/j.joule.2017.11.009

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Nanotechnology Dramatically Improves Electronic software   Device Performance

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Redox active ferrocene‐alkanethiol molecules pack together and assemble into monolayer thin films on silver electrodes. Molecules that stand tall instead of crouching form tighter assemblies, which dramatically improves the device properties.

A new study from researchers at Tyndall National Institute and the National University of Singapore shows that subtle changes in the intermolecular van der Waals interactions in the active component of a molecular diode can improve the device performance by more than a factor of ten.

A team of scientists from Tyndall National Institute at University College Cork and the National University of Singapore have designed and fabricated ultra-small devices for energy-efficient electronics. By finding out how molecules behave in these devices, a ten-fold increase in switching efficiency was obtained by changing just one carbon atom. These devices could provide new ways to combat overheating in mobile phones and laptops, and could also aid in electrical stimulation of tissue repair for wound healing. The breakthrough creation of molecular devices with highly controllable electrical properties will appear in the February issue of Nature Nanotechnology (Advance Online Publication doi:10.1038/nnano.2012.238). Dr. Damien Thompson at the Tyndall National Institute, UCC and a team of researchers at the National University of Singapore led by Prof. Chris Nijhuis designed and created the devices, which are based on molecules acting as electrical valves, or diode rectifiers.

Dr. Thompson explains “These molecules are very useful because they allow current to flow through them when switched ON and block current flow when switched OFF. The results of the study show that simply adding one extra carbon is sufficient to improve the device performance by more than a factor of ten. We are following up lots of new ideas based on these  Vending Telemeter  results, and we hope ultimately to create a range of new components for electronic devices.” Dr. Thompson’s atom-level computer simulations showed how molecules with an odd number of carbon atoms stand straighter than molecules with an even number of carbon atoms. This allows them to pack together more closely. Tightly-packed assemblies of these molecules were formed on metal electrode surfaces by the Nijhuis group in Singapore and were found to be remarkably free of defects. These high quality devices can suppress leakage currents and so operate efficiently and reliably. The device can be cleanly switched on and off purely on the basis of the charge and shape of the molecules, just like in the biological nanomachines that regulate photosynthesis, cell division and tissue growth.

Tyndall Electronic Theory Group leader Prof. Jim Greer explains: “Modern electronic devices such as telephones and tablets in manufacture today rely on tiny switches approaching molecular sizes. This provides new challenges for electronics but opens up exciting opportunities for blending molecular properties to be used to advantage. Dr. Thompson’s work is an exciting new avenue to exploit molecular design to achieve new ways to perform information processing.” A key enabling feature for nanoscale electronics will be the ability to use molecules as rectifiers and switches. By demonstrating the rational design of molecules that rectify current with a large and highly-reproducible ON/OFF ratio, the study provides a key advance towards the creation of technologically viable ultra-small device components. Fifty thousand of the rectifier molecules strung end to end would fit across the diameter of a human hair. Advances in computing, synthesis and characterization means scientists can now understand and control material at the scale of atoms and molecules.

The study was funded on the Irish side by a Science Foundation Ireland Starting Investigator award to Dr. Thompson. The computer simulations were performed on Science Foundation Ireland-supported computing clusters at Tyndall and at the Irish Center for High End Computing. The combined experiments and simulations show for the first time that minute improvements in molecule orientation and packing trigger changes in van der Waals forces that are sufficiently large to dramatically improve the performance of electronic devices. Dr. Thompson explains: “These van der Waals forces are the weakest of all intermol Vending Telemetry  ecular forces and only become significant when summed over large areas. Hence, up until now, the majority of research into ultra-small devices has used stronger “pi-pi” interactions to stick molecules together, and has ignored the much weaker, but ubiquitous, van der Waals interactions. The present study shows how van der Waals effects, which are present in every conceivable molecular scale device, can be tuned to optimize the performance of the device.”

The devices are based on molecules that act as diodes by allowing current to pass through them when operated at forward bias and blocking current when the bias is reversed. Molecular rectifiers were first proposed back in 1974, and advances in scientific computing have allowed molecular‐level design to be used over the past decade to develop new organic materials that provide better electrical responses. However, the relative importance of the interactions between the molecules, the nature of the molecule-metal contact and the influence of environmental effects have been questioned. This new research demonstrates that dramatic improvements in device performance may be achieved by controlling the van der Waals forces that pack the molecules together. Simply changing the number of carbon atoms by one provides significantly more stable and more reproducible devices that exhibi Industrial LTE Router  t an order of magnitude improvement in ON/OFF ratio. The research findings demonstrate the feasibility of boosting device performances by creating tighter seals between molecules.

“The development of molecular scale electronics is heavily reliant on simulation and high performance computing”, commented Prof. Greer. “The continued support for research infrastructure in Ireland allows for the scientific advances that lead to enhanced interaction with global industry leaders, and positions Ireland to be a key provider of research with impact.”

Image: Tyndall National Institute

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ELFIN CubeSats to  Entry level Industrial Router  Study How Electrons Escape the Van Allen Belts

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An artist’s depiction of the Van Allen Belts, showing Earth’s magnetic field lines and the trajectories of charged particles trapped by them. The twin ELFIN spacecraft are shown following their inclined polar orbit, traced in yellow. Credits: UCLA EPSS/NASA SVS

Three hundred and ten miles above our planet’s surface, near-Earth space is abuzz with action. Here begin the Van Allen Belts, a pair of concentric rings of fast-moving particles and intense radiation that extends more than 30,000 miles farther into space. For the most part these particles are confined to this special region, spiraling along Earth’s magnetic field lines. But sometimes they come too close and crash into our atmosphere — creating the eye-catching diffuse red aurora, but also potentially interfering with critical communications and GPS satellites that we depend on every day.

A new CubeSat mission called The Electron Losses and Fields Investigation, or ELFIN, will study one of the processes that allows energetic electrons to escape the Van Allen Belts and fall into Earth. ELFIN is set to launch from the Vandenburg Air Force Base in California on Sept. 15, 2018.

During the last five years nearly 250 students have spent thousands of hours designing and building ELFIN, more formally the Electron Losses and Fields Investigation CubeSat. Credits: UCLA

When magnetic storms form in near-Earth space, they create waves that jiggle Earth’s magnetic field lines, kicking electrons out of the Van Allen Belts  Vending PC  and down into our atmosphere. ELFIN aims to be the first to simultaneously observe this electron precipitation while also verifying the causal mechanism, measuring the magnetic waves and the resulting “lost” electrons.

Funded by NASA, The National Science Foundation, and industry partners, ELFIN is a CubeSat mission. CubeSats are small and lightweight satellites, measured in standardized 10-by-10-by-10 cubic centimeter units, that are comparatively quick to develop and come with a price tag at a fraction of larger satellite missions. ELFIN uses two identical 3U, or 3 cubic unit, CubeSats — both about the size of a loaf of bread. By using two satellites instead of one, ELFIN will be able to m LTE router easure how the precipitated electrons vary across space and time. Designed, built and tested by a team of 250 UCLA students over five years, ELFIN will be the first satellite developed, managed and operated entirely by UCLA. A key advantage of CubeSats is that they allow an inexpensive means to engage students in all phases of satellite development, operation and exploitation through real-world, hands-on research and development experience.

The twin ELFIN CubeSats. Credits: UCLA EPSS

Small satellites, including CubeSats, are playing an increasingly larger role in exploration, technology demonstration, scientific research and educational investigations at NASA. These miniature satellites provide a low-cost platform for NASA missions, including planetary space exploration; Earth observations; fundamental Earth and space science; and developing precursor science instruments like cutting-edge laser communications, satellite-to- WiFi M2M Router satellite communications and autonomous movement capabilities.

On launch day, ELFIN will hitch a ride as a secondary payload on a Delta II rocket with NASA’s Ice, Cloud and land Elevation Satellite-2, or ICESat-2 mission. ICESat-2 will measure the thickness of ice sheets, glaciers, sea ice and more to document how Earth’s cryosphere — the frozen water part of the Earth system — is changing over time.

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Elephant’s Sixth IoT gateway   Toe Re-Discovered

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It was always thought that elephants had only 5 toes, but London’s Royal Veterinary College has recently corrected this oversight. According to a study published in the journal of Science, elephants have a sixth toe that is critical in helping the enormous mammals move about with their gargantuan weight.

If Scottish physician Patrick Blair were here today, he would say “I told you so.” When he made the first detailed study of an elephant cadaver over 300 years ago, he wrote in his notes that it had s4g LTE router with SIM cardix toes. The studies that came next ‘corrected’ his observations, citing that the ‘sixth toe’ was actually a prepollex, or a cartilaginous rod, not a bone. Now we know for sure.

That pr industrial VPN gatewayepollex is, in fac M2M IoT gateway  t, an elongated bone just like the ones used to secure tendons in other mammals. These ‘predigits’ are almost as large as their actual toes. It’s the strange development of the structure that confused everyone. These sixth digits begin developing as cartilaginous rods, but they eventually transform into bone later in adult-hood. It is similar to the giant panda, which has an extra thumb to help it grab bamboo, for instance. In elephants this digit is crucial in helping the large mammals balance their weight.

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“Enabling Technolo rugged  gy” Helps Transform Carbon Dioxide into Acrylate

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In the presence of nickel and other metal catalysts, CO2 and ethylene gas form an acrylate precursor configured in a five-membered ring. The challenge has been to crack that ring open, allowing a carbon-carbon double bond to form, creating acrylate. Lewis acids do the trick. Credit: Berkskoetter lab/Brown University

In a newly published study, researchers have demonstrated a new “enabling technology” that uses a class of chemicals called Lewis acids to help transform carbon dioxide into acrylate, a valuab Vending Telemeter  le commodity chemical used to make many everyday items.

Providence, Rhode Island (Brown University) — A key advance, newly reported by chemists from Brown and Yale Universities, could lead to a cheaper and more sustainable way to make acrylate, an important commodity chemical used to make materials from polyester fabrics to diapers.

Chemical companies churn out billions of tons of acrylate each year, usually by heating propylene, a compound derived from crude oil. “What we’re interested in is enhancing both the economics and the sustainability of how acrylate is made,” said Wesley Bernskoetter, assistant professor of chemistry at Brown, who led the research. “Right now, everything that goes into making it is from relatively expensive, nonrenewable carbon sources.”

Since the 1980s researchers have been looking into the possibility of making acrylate by combining carbon dioxide with a gas called ethylene in the presence of nickel and other metal catalysts. CO2 is essentially free and something the planet currently has in overabundance. Ethylene is cheaper than propylene and can be made from plant biomass.

There has been a persistent obstacle to the approach, however. Instead of forming the acrylate molecule, CO2 and ethylene tend to form a precursor molecule with a five-membered ring made of oxygen, nickel, and three carbon atoms. In order to finish the conversion to acrylate, that ring needs to be cracked open to allow the formation of a carbon-carbon double bond, a process called elimination.

That step had proved elusive. But the research by Bernskoetter and his colleagues, publis cost effective  hed in the journal Organometallics, shows that a class of chemicals called Lewis acids can easily break open that five-membered ring, allowing the molecule to eliminate and form acrylate.

Lewis acids are basically electron acceptors. In this case, the acid steals away electrons that make up the bond between nickel and oxygen in the ring. That weakens the bond and opens the ring.

“We thought that if we could find a way to cut the ring chemically, then we would be able to eliminate very quickly and form acrylate,” Bernskoetter said. “And that turns out to be true.”

He calls the finding an “enabling technology” that could eventually be incorporated in a full catalytic process for making acrylate on a mass scale. “We can now basically do all the steps required,” he said.

From here, the team needs to tweak the strength of the Lewis acid used. To prove the concept, they used the strongest acid that was easily available, one derived from boron. But that acid is too strong to use in a repeatable catalytic pro 4g  cess because it bonds too strongly to the acrylate product to allow additional reactions with the nickel catalyst.

“In developing and testing the idea, we hit it with the biggest hammer we could,” Bernskoetter said. “So what we have to do now is dial back and find one that makes it more practical.”

There’s quite a spectrum of Lewis acid strengths, so Bernskoetter is confident that there’s one that will work. “We think it’s possible,” he said. “Organic chemists do this kind of reaction with Lewis acids all the time.”

The ongoing research is part of a collaboration between Brown and Yale supported by the National Science Foundation’s Centers for Chemical Innovation program. The work is aimed at activating CO2 for use in making all kinds of commodity chemicals, and acrylate is a good place to start.

“It’s around a $2 billion-a-year industry,” Bernskoetter said. “If we can find a way to make acrylate more cheaply, we think the industry will be interested.”

Other authors on the paper were Dong Jin and Paul Willard of Brown and Nilay Hazari and Timothy Schmeier of Yale.

Publication: Dong Jin, et al., “Lewis Acid Induced β-Elimination from a Nickelalactone: Efforts toward Acrylate Production from CO2 and Ethylene,” Organometallics, (2013); DOI: 10.1021/om400025h

Image: Berkskoetter lab/Brown University

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New Method Generates Terahertz Signals from CMOS Chip joomla web design   Technology

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Electron microscope image of a prototype chip using a ring of coupled oscillators to generate terahertz radiation. Silicon cannot oscillate in the terahertz range, but the design focuses most of the energy in a high harmonic. The signal radiates on the axis of the ring and can be aimed. Provided/Ehsan Afshari

A recently published paper describes how scientists at Cornell University developed a new method of generating terahertz signals using the familiar and inexpensive CMOS chip technology, generating power levels high enough for some medical applications.

Cornell researchers have developed a new method of generating terahertz signals on an inexpensive silicon chip, offering possible applications in medical imaging, security scanning and wireless data transfer.

Terahertz radiation, the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum between microwaves and infrared light, penetrates cloth and leather and just a few millimeters into the skin, but without the potentially damaging effects of X-rays. Terahertz scanning can identify skin cance industrial IoT Gateway  rs too small to see with the naked eye. Many of the complex organic chemicals used in explosives absorb terahertz radiation at particular frequencies, creating a “signature” that detectors can read. And because higher frequencies can carry more bandwidth, terahertz signals could make a sort of super-Bluetooth that could transfer an entire high-definition movie wirelessly in a few seconds.

Current methods of generating terahertz radiation involve lasers, vacuum tubes and special circuits cooled near absolute zero, often in room-sized apparatus costing thousands of dollars. Ehsan AfshGrid Fault Detectionari, assistant professor of electrical and computer engineering, has developed a new method using the familiar and inexpensive CMOS chip technology, generating power levels high enough for some medical applications. With further research, higher power will be possible, Afshari said, enabling such devices as handheld scanners for law enforcement.

Afshari and graduate students Y industrial IoT router  ahya Tousi and Vahnood Pourahma describe the new approach in the June 8 issue of the journal Physical Review Letters.

Schematic of a ring of oscillators (gray circles) coupled to generate terahertz frequencies. Coupling circuits (blue triangles) shift the phase of the oscillations to reinforce the fourth harmonic. Provided/Ehsan Afshari

The ability of solid-state devices to generate high frequencies is limited by the characteristics of the material — basically, how fast electrons can move back and forth in a transistor. So circuit designers make use of harmonics — signals that naturally appear at multiples of the fundamental frequency of an oscillator. That fundamental frequency is usually set by a circuit that uses a variable capacitor called a varactor, but at terahertz frequencies varactors don’t tune sharply. Afshari has come up with a new way of tuning by coupling several oscillators in a ring, producing what engineers call a high-quality signal, where all the power goes into a very narrow frequency band.

Connect two springs and set one vibrating, and the other will begin to vibrate as well, and eventually they will settle to an equilibrium. A ring of electronic oscillators does the same, and the circuits coupling the oscillators can set the frequency at which they will lock in. In Afshari’s device the couplers also shift the phase of the signals, that is, how the peaks and valleys of the waves line up. With the right adjustment, the peaks and valleys cancel each other out at several harmonics but reinforce each other at one — in this case the fourth — channeling most of the power there.

In early experiments, the researchers fabricated chips that generated signals with about 10,000 times the power level previously obtained at terahertz frequencies on a silicon chip. The signal emerges along the axis of the ring, and what the researchers called an intriguing possibility is that by adjusting the couplers separately they could aim the output, making it possible to scan large areas with a narrow, high-powered beam.

The power could be increased by adding more oscillators to the ring or using multiple rings, and Afshari is working with Cornell experts on gallium nitride, a chip material that can handle both higher frequencies and higher power. But Afshari said he wants to focus on less-expensive silicon. “The goal is to make a complete device on one CMOS chip,” he said. “I can envision a tiny thing you could put in a cell phone.”

The research is funded by the National Science Foundation, the U.S. Office of Naval Research and the Semiconductor Research Corp., a consortium supported by private industry and the Defense Advanced Projects Research Administration.

Images: Provided/Ehsan Afshari; Cornell Chronicle

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How Bombardier Beetles Produce an Explosive Ch IoT Remote Monitoring  emical Jet

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Bombardier beetles eject a liquid called benzoquinone, which they superheat and expel in an intense, pulsating jet. The explosive mechanism used by the beetle generates a spray that’s much hotter than that of other insects that use the liquid, and propels the jet five times faster.

An newly published study form MIT reveals how bombardier beetles superheat liquid and expel it in an intense, pulsating jet as a defensive mechanism.

Bombardier beetles, which exist on every continent except Antarctica, have a pretty easy life. Virtually no other animals prey on them, because of one particularly effective defense mechanism: When disturbed or attacked, the beetles produce an internal chemical explosion in their abdomen and then expel a jet of boiling, irritating liquid toward their attackers.

Researchers had been baffled by the half-inch beetles’ ability to produce this noxious spray while avoiding any physical damage. But now that conundrum has been solved, thanks to research by a team at MIT, the University of Arizona, and Brookhaven National Laboratory. The findings are published this week in the journal Science by MIT graduate student Eric Arndt, professor of materials science and engineering Christine Ortiz, Wah-Keat Lee of Brookhaven National Laboratory, and Wendy Moore of the University of Arizona.

“Their defe Industrial LTE Router  nsive mechanism is highly effective,” Arndt says, making bombardier beetles “invulnerable to most vertebrates, and invertebrates” — except for a few very specialized predators that have developed countermeasures against the noxious spray.

The liquid these beetles eject is called benzoquinone, and is actually a fairly common defensive agent among insects, Arndt says. But bombardier beetles are unique in their ability to superheat the liquid and expel it in an intense, pulsating jet.

The key is that they synthesize the chemical at the instant of use, mixing two chemical precursors in a protective chamber in their hindquarters. As the materials combine to form the irritant, they also give off intense heat that brings the liquid almost to the boiling point — and, in the process, generates the pressure needed to expel it in a jet.

Learn how bombardier beetles detonate small explosions in their bodies to produce a scalding defensive spray. Video: Melanie Gonick/MIT

Seeing inside a living beetle

“For decades, the complex mechanism of how the bombardier beetle achieves spray pulsation as a chemical defense has not been understood, because only external observations were used previously,” Ortiz says. In the current study, the researchers used high-speed synchrotron X-ray imaging to “see” inside the abdomens of living bombardier beetles during explosions. They used a facility at Argonne National Laboratory to carry out the experiments and produce detailed images that revealed, for the first time, how the process works, with a camera recording the action at a rate of 2,000 frames per second.

The X-ray images of the explosion reveal the dynamics of vapor inside the beetles’ abdomens. They show that spray pulsation is controlled by the passageway between two internal chambers; two structures control this process: a flexible membrane and a valve.

The opening and closing of this passageway between a chamber holding the precursor liquid and an explosion chamber seems to take place passively; an increase in pressure during the explosion expands the membrane, closing the valve. Then, after the pressure is released when the liquid is smart grid sensorejected, the membrane relaxes back to its original state and the passage reopens, allowing the next pulse to form. This all takes place so rapidly — not to mention inside the insect — that the process had never been directly observed.

The explosive mechanism used by the bombardier beetle generates a spray that is not only much hotter than that emitted by other insects that use the same chemical irritant, but also propels the jet five times faster. Both the speed and the heat serve to make the spray even more effective against potential predators, Arndt says.

The pulsing nature of the spray may help protect the structure of the beetle’s reaction chamber, Arndt says, allowing time for the chamber walls to cool a bit before the next pulse.

Understanding the beetles’ ability to survive these intense internal explosions may help in designing blast-protection systems; this study shows how the sophisticated and specialized biological design of the system works to simultaneously achieve defensive and protective functions, Ortiz says. The reaction chamber, for example, possesses a rigid, reinforcing structure to minimize stretching and sustain temperature increases during an explosion, while other components allow for controlled, reversible stretching and movement to control the jet of fluid. The dynamics of the spray generation might also provide informatioPredictive Grid Analyticsn useful in the design of propulsion systems, the researchers say.

R. Jeffrey Dean, a professor of biology at Cleveland State University who studies the defense mechanisms of the bombardier beetle, says the new work is a “wonderful confirmation of the qualitative passive ‘pulse jet’ model” first proposed by his team. “Although the findings are not unexpected, I’m amazed at the progressive advances in techniques,” he adds.

This research was supported by the Department of Energy, the Department of Defense through the U.S. Army Research Office and the National Security Science and Engineering Faculty Fellowship, and the National Science Foundation.

Publication: Eric M. Arndt, et al., “Mechanistic origins of bombardier beetle (Brachinini) explosion-induced defensive spray pulsation,” Science 1 May 2015: Vol. 348 no. 6234 pp. 563-567; DOI: 10.1126/science.1261166

PDF Copy of the Study: Mechanistic origins of bombardier beetle (Brachinini) explosion-induced defensive spray pulsation

Image: Charles Hedgcock

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New Research Identifies Enzyme 4g router   Crucial to the Shaping and Division of Brain Cells

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A normal brain and one with microcephaly.

A newly published study identifies a “cutting” enzyme crucial to the shaping and division of brain cells as well as the replenishment of neural stem cells.

The study, appearing online December 17 in the journal Neuron, helps explain the molecular basis of complex brain abnormalities, including small brain size (microcephaly) observed in children who were suffering from a wide variety of clinical problems, ranging from severe cognitive deficits to autism spectrum disorders.

The Yale team was led by Ketu Mishra-Gorur and Ahmet Caglayan in the lab of Murat Gunel, the Nixdorff-German Professor and chair in the Department of Neurosurgery, and professor of genetics and neurobiology at Yale School of Medicine. The team sequenced all protein-coding genes (exome) of children with inherited cerebral cortex malformations at wireless communication   the Yale Center for Mendelian Genetics. In collaboration with Joseph Gleeson’s group at University of California-San Diego, they identified five harmful mutations in the KATNB1 gene, which encodes for a portion of the Katanin protein. Katanin, named after the Japanese sword, or katana, is an enzyme that severs microtubules that support the structure of cells and are crucial to t industrial LTE router  heir division.

The Gunel group showed that in diverse organisms ranging from zebrafish to fruit flies, silencing KATNB1 resulted in dramatically reduced brain size. The mutations severely impact asymmetric, rather than symmetric, cell division. Asymmetric cell division replenishes the neural stem cell population by producing both a “progenitor” and a “daughter” cell in each division. This allows for an exponential increase in cell numbers during early brain development, which is lost in brains with mutant KATNB1.

“It was generally understood that asymmetric cell division plays a vital role in cerebral cortical development,” Gunel said. “The discovery of KATNB1 mutations now reveals a beautiful example of the fundamental importance of this mechanism and how the loss of asymmetric cell division results in a small brain size.”

In an accompanying paper in Neuron, a team lead by Christopher Walsh of Harvard University also independently found that the lack of the same gene causes severe brain deformities in humans, mice, and zebrafish.

The work was funded by the Yale Program on Neurogenetics, the National Institutes of Health, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, and the Gregory M. Kiez and Mehmet Kutman Foundation.

Publication: Ketu Mishra-Gorur, et al., “Mutations in KATNB1 Cause Complex Cerebral Malformations by Disrupting Asymmetrically Dividing Neural Progenitors,” Neuron, Volume 84, Issue 6, p1226–1239, 17 December 2014; doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2014.1 remote communication  2.014

Image: Yale University

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New Chip Design Meth remote monitoring  od May Result in Miniature Smart Drones

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Engineers at MIT have taken a first step in designing a computer chip that uses a fraction of the power of larger drone computers and is tailored for a drone as small as a bottlecap.

A team of engineers at MIT has developed a method for designing efficient computer chips may get miniature smart drones off the ground.

In recent years, engineers have worked to shrink drone technology, building flying prototypes that are the size of a bumblebee and loaded with even tinier sensors and cameras. Thus far, they have managed to miniaturize almost every part of a drone, except for the brains of the entire operation — the computer chip.

Standard computer chips for quadcoptors and other similarly sized drones process an enormous amount of streaming data from cameras and sensors, and interpret that data on the fly to autonomously direct a drone&rs remote connectivity  quo;s pitch, speed, and trajectory. To do so, these computers use between 10 and 30 watts of power, supplied by batteries that would weigh down a much smaller, bee-sized drone.

Now, engineers at MIT have taken a first step in designing a computer chip that uses a fraction of the power of larger drone computers and is tailored for a drone as small as a bottlecap. They will present a new methodology and design, which they call “Navion,” at the Robotics: Science and Systems conference, held this week at MIT.

The team, led by Sertac Karaman, the Class of 1948 Career Development Associate Professor of Aeronautics and Astronautics at MIT, and Vivienne Sze, an associate professor in MIT’s Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, developed a low-power algorithm, in tandem with pared-down hardware, to create a specialized computer chip.

The key contribution of their work is a new approach for designing the chip hardware and the algorithms that run on the chip. “Traditionally, an algorithm is designed, and you throw it over to a hardware person to figure out how to map the algorithm to hardware,” Sze says. “But we found by designing the hardware and algorithms together, we can achieve more substantial power savings.”

“We are finding that this new approach to programming robots, which involves thinking about hardware and algorithms jointly, is key to scaling them down,” Karaman says.

The new chip processes streaming images at 20 frames per second and automatically carries out commands to adjust a drone’s orientation in space. The streamlined chip performs all these computations while using just below 2 watts of power — making it an order of magnitude more efficient than current drone-embedded chips.

Karaman, says the team’s design is the first step toward engineering “the smallest intelligent drone that can fly on its own.” He ultimately envisions disaster-response and search-and-rescue missions in which insect-sized drones flit in and out of tight spaces to examine a collapsed structure or look for trapped individuals. Karaman also foresees novel uses in consumer electronics.

“Imagine buying a bottlecap-sized drone that can integrate with your phone, and you can take it out and fit it in your palm,” he says. “If you lift your hand up a little, it would sense that, and start to fly around and film you. Then you open your hand again and it would land on your palm, and you could upload that video to your phone and share it with others.”

Karaman and Sze’s co-authors are graduate students Zhengdong Zhang and Amr Suleiman, and research scientist Luca Carlone.

From the ground up

Current minidrone prototypes are small enough to fit on a person’s fingertip and are extremely light, requiring only 1 watt of power to lift off from the ground. Their accompanying cameras and sensors use up an additional half a watt to operate.

“The missing piece is the computers — we can’t fit them in terms of size and power,” Karaman says. “We need to miniaturize the computers and make them low power.”

The group quickly realized that conventional chip design techniques would likely not produce a chip that was small enough and provided the required processing power to intelligently fly a small autonomous drone.

“As transistors have gotten smaller, there have been improvements in efficiency and speed, but that’s slowing down, and now we have to come up with specialized hardware to get improvements in efficiency,” Sze says.

The researchers decided to build a specialized chip from the ground up, developing algorithms to process data, and hardware to carry out that data-processing, in tandem.

Tweaking a formula

Specifically, the researchers made slight changes to an existing algorithm commonly used to determine a drone’s “ego-motion,” or awareness of its position in space. They then implemented various versions of the algorithm on a field-programmable gate array (FPGA), a very simple programmable chip. To formalize this process, they developed a method called iterative splitting co-design that could strike the right balance of achieving accuracy while reducing the power consumption and the number of gates.

A typical FPGA consists of hundreds of thousands of disconnected gates, which researchers can connect in desired patterns to create specialized computing elements. Reducing the number gates with co-design allowed the team to chose an FPGA chip with fewer gates, leading to substantial power savings.

“If we don’t need a certain logic or memory process, we don’t use them, and that saves a lot of power,” Karaman explains.

Each time the researchers tweaked the ego-motion algorithm, they mapped the version onto the FPGA’s gates and connected the chip to a circuit board. They then fed the chip data from a standard drone dataset — an accumulation of streaming images and accelerometer measurements from previous drone-flying experiments that had been carried out by others and made available to the robotics community.

“These experiments are also done in a motion-capture room, so you know exactly where the drone is, and we use all this information after the fact,” Karaman says.

Memory savings

For each version of the algorithm that was implemented on the FPGA chip, the researchers observed the amount of power that the chip consumed as it processed the incoming data and estimated its resulting position in space.

The team’s most efficient design processed images at 20 frames per second and accurately estimated the drone’s orientation in space, while consuming less than 2 watts of power.

The power savings came partly from modifications to the amount of memory stored in the chip. Sze and her colleagues found that they were able to shrink the amount of data that the algorithm needed to process, while still achieving the same outcome. As a result, the chip itself was able to store less data and consume less power.

“Memory is really expensive in terms of power,” Sze says. “Since we do on-the-fly computing, as soon as we receive any data on the chip, we try to do as much processing as possible so we can throw it out right away, which enables us to keep a very small amount of memory on the chip without accessing off-chip memory, which is much more expensive.”

In this way, the team was able to reduce the chip’s memory storage to 2 megabytes without using off-chip memory, compared to a typical embedded computer chip for drones, which uses off-chip memory on the order of a few gigabytes.

“Any which way you can reduce the power so you can reduce battery size or extend battery life, the better,” Sze says.

This summer, the team will mount the FPGA chip onto a drone to test its performance in flight. Ultimately, the team plansindustrial 3g m2m to implement the optimized algorithm on an application-specific integrated circuit, or ASIC, a more specialized hardware platform that allows engineers to design specific types of gates, directly onto the chip.

“We think we can get this down to just a few hundred milliwatts,” Karaman says. “With this platform, we can do all kinds of optimizations, which all m2m communication  ows tremendous power savings.”

This research was supported, in part, by Air Force Office of Scientific Research and the National Science Foundation.

Publication:

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