#ap stu

[woograce15]

Hey everyone, I'm a junior taking the AP Research course, and my research project is on parasocial relationships within male K-pop fandoms, specifically focusing on Stray Kids. I would really appreciate it if you're a fan of Stray Kids or know somebody who is, if you could take my survey. The survey doesn't take more than 5 minutes. You would really be helping me greatly if you could spare me some time to take it. Thank you. 😁

[justinspoliticalcorner]

Devan Cole at CNN:

A federal judge on Friday indefinitely blocked the Trump administration from revoking Harvard University’s ability to host international students and scholars while legal challenges continue. The preliminary injunction issued by US District Judge Allison Burroughs extends a temporary block the judge had issued last month against the administration after it revoked the school’s certification in the Student and Exchange Visitor Program, which allows it to host foreign students and scholars. International students make up roughly a quarter of the school’s student body. Harvard’s legal battle against the administration took a turn in recent weeks after President Donald Trump issued a proclamation that suspends international visas for new students. The judge similarly stepped in on an emergency basis to halt that order in early June, and she heard arguments on Monday over whether she should also indefinitely block the edict. She has not yet issued a ruling on Trump’s proclamation.

Friday’s ruling represents a key win for the nation’s oldest and wealthiest university, which Trump targeted earlier this year over allegations that it hadn’t adequately addressed antisemitism on campus. Administration officials also demanded that the private school eliminate what it calls “racist ‘diversity, equity and inclusion’ practices.” The administration’s decision in May to yank the school out of the Department of Homeland Security’s SEVP program was immediately met with a lawsuit by the school, which argued that the government had flouted the procedures that govern the process of making such a move.

But shortly before Burroughs, an appointee of former President Barack Obama, held a hearing on the matter, the administration said it would give Harvard a month to provide evidence to challenge its attempt to strip the university of its ability to host international students.

Judge Allison Burroughs issues a ruling indefinitely blocking the Trump Regime from cutting off Harvard University’s ability to host foreign students.

See Also:

AP, via HuffPost: Judge Blocks Trump Effort To Keep Harvard From Hosting Foreign Students

[celiniii]

stu seshh . 🎧 @julien2true

(spoiler alert: ts song allll ab mila)

@elliottcarterr @sanaamuse @rcameronofficial @princesssarahcam @baileejones @thecoolermaybank @hannahcoleman @dyl2cool @jessiskindacoolig @demilicouis @emm1ejean @kaizenbanks @caycaymarie @theojoness @fletcherblanton @madisonb44r @jacethomass @auggiejones @sukkiibaby @kaiannajane @lithornton @finneasss @genevieveiscoolll @imaniissweet @vancepowll @katalinafox @littlewarren22 @landonorriss4 @jazzzy-johnson @officialnatejacobs @ellachristo76 @milocharnas @theawesomerreid @lizinlove @piinkmiink @emersoncameronn @zayydenn @elijahtorreno @aubreee1 @noellieeeee @jamezzzzzz @zoeymulls @zarriis @adlaww @scaroverkill @corrado-r @dahliamontoya @rowanmfazer @ccharliii @xoxocupidd @anacamofficial

[absolutefilthimsosorry]

Spoilers for DnP Incohearent!!!!

I’m having so much fun trying to solve these that I made a list to keep track! Message if you can help me fill in any I’m missing or if I’ve got any wrong!!!

Also lmk if you see any I’ve missed!! I’m going to keep updating this and have it unrebloggable but you can reblog this post to have a link to it!

These are all gathered from this post and this post so check the notes on those first to try to solve them then look here if you need answers!

Sow march cheer ray = so much cherry

Wee nay urn for uke oye yer tub = we’ve never fucked on youtube?

Ta fold in fig = the golden pig

Feed hay hid eho = vday video

Tat he won ape hit morse him he = daddy want a bit more simmy

Watt ken ice hay = what can I say

North key bus teabag king = naughty busty baking

Fool tie enter nit hobo / fall tie mint her nepo moe / fault aye mint earn are ohm owe/ foul thyme inch hermit hole mold = full time internet homo

Cumin mile aid deed or = come in my ladydoor

Hum hay zinc tan = amazingdan

Elven ower fug sedge own = eleven hour fuck session

An berry moth ribeye adam stir = and every month we buy a hamster

March rest array = Manchester eye

Cyst herding yell = sister daniel

Add a ding teps = editing tips

Cop dubai khaki luna = topped by kakuna

Late eat tore = ladydoor

Half tugger etch two eggs cyst = have the courage to exist

Perish she end wink = Parisian twink

Coal ten big/ goal then pick = golden pig

Cyst ordain yell = sister daniel

Train youth inks = try new things

Gay mean moss/ gain ink mass = gamingmas

Soften need = soft and neat

A wools lied = owl slide

Topper bought them hill = top or bottom Phil

Coat fit firenze = golf with friends???

Few ours pig meow fits = viewers pick my outfits

Read less tar = red lester

Eye eight soup igloo = I ate super glue

Insight youth era too walls = inside you there are two wolves

Mine amy stan = my name is Dan

Clap hella = glabella

Hiss teeth rent = hits different

Eel eyes apron kay kiss = Eliza pancakes

See pram haze ink bra jet = super amazing project

Feels lie yawn = phils lion

Fuel ease snot dawn fair = Phil is not on fire

Jaw shush ear son = josh hutcherson

Ball bull him tour food = bauble in your foot?

Sure eck = shrek

High ate dust = hiatus

Add a dink deps = editing tips

Ga hay shoom air age = gay shoe marriage

Pope eat plate aim = poppy playtime

Eat aches stu = it takes two

Goo gal few ed = google feud

Baze ick lee eye meg ay = basically I’m gay

Ko min yout ti ew = coming out to you

Ender knit subvert grew oop = internet support group

Phylis turn yar a sheen yes = PHIL LESTER YOU’RE A GENIUS

With Audi intern yet wean ed brr wood halve mat = without the internet we never would have met

Gum ban yins drool I’ve = companions through life

Reed sons wide answer flail = reasons why dans a fail

Ewan dam ah some are reed = you and Dan are so married

Denver sis fill/ Denver cis full = Dan vs Phil

Or lawn huffing = all or nothing

Dunk rye core raft = don’t cry craft

Mortal jester roam and thick/ Morph adjust row antic = more than just romantic

So wall how debris poll light = swallow to be polite???

Oar hinge art = orange heart

Foray virgo em = forever home

Chai reel loop/ share real oob = cherry lube

Cad boyd anne = cat boy dan

Far turf ill lip = father philip

Tess lit hen ink = the slittening

Forth house indie rolled or touches = four thousand year old tortoises

Hey moth swish roundup floating = a month without uploading

Jam march let pet tea an farms = Je mange les petit enfants

Day lion howl tour = Dalien Howlter

Ima let all kit = I’m a little kit

Feel pearl lays shell ter = Phil plays shelter

Fewer blue key app ending = viewer spooky happenings

Hell low iam tour reel = hello I am Toriel

Laugh tuh gey mile kuh = left to get milk

Villas eek wreck why vuh = Phil’s secret wife

Footy strain gin said dent = ___ strange incident????

Snow core play sum = snokoplasm

Nope puts cereal sleeping mage innit = no but seriously imagine it

Tear rip pulling flu hence = terrible influence

Jeff why eye aisle hike vague liner = fyi I like vagina

Eggs intense all cry cis = existential crisis

List of contributors

@fletthewreck @dandp @deadandphilgames @manchesterau @thephouseplants @awrfhi @jonsaremembers @rachosaurusrex @dapgolf @dan-whoell @dnphobe @dreamingalto @steveandscraggy @phanbeats @danandfuckingjonlmao @pepper-pastry @yonpote @un-interactive-introvert @spaniel-trowel @sisterdanieldyke @queerdnp @morganadelacour @amid-fandoms @spectral-kitkat @goingpheral @angelzonearth @wdapteo @2009phan @dansevilpianotea

[transmechanicus]

Stu Black commentating on the tournament meta by describing Admech players as "brave" is both painful and hilarious bc he's an Admech player himself but also BRO YOU HELPED WRITE THE RULES, would more AP on a couple units have been the end of the world??

[occasionaloneshots]

Absolutely no clue what the rest of the context would be but I’d like to see Wyatt Oleff and Joshua Colley play each other’s love interest in something. Both of their acting styles come with very organic line delivery that makes them feel so human. A Wyatt Oleff character has never felt like just a character to me, his characters always feel so real and human. And Colley is so good at changing his style to fit the character he’s currently playing (Monty is so organic and human while Hook is so theatrical- you could feel his theater background come back out with Descendants:ROR). I’d love to see their acting styles play off of each other and them being love interests just makes it where their characters would be interacting more often than not.

I don’t really care the context to be honest, they’re both actors I’d follow to any project (I say that but I could n o t finish “Senior Year” I hate Rebel Wilson movies, I was uncomfortable and had to cut it off). I’d love for it to be horror to get Oleff back in the scene. And I think Colley could make such a good scream king. Honestly I’d love to see the two of them thrown into a Deena/Sam dynamic or a Stu/Billy dynamic (I want them to play genuine villains at some point in their careers as well even in a separate context. No morally grey redemption arc , let them go ape shit. But that’s not the plot)

Anyway, I’d love to see them work together, that’s the post

[williamy3w]

Hey! So I have family out in Chicago who can get to your tape, Henry, but they'd have to send it to me in order to get thr actual audio (they dont have anything they can use to play it) would that be alright? Or should we keeo the tape in there and find a different solution? :[

h e y bud dy. so rr y if i hop on and of f re ally qu ick , i do n ' t want to attr act to much att en ti on. i don't kn o w if i h av e a ta p e in Ch ic ag o, but that s ounds ab out right for what and w here anything left of me out th ere w ould b e. as l on g as the music m ak es it fr om the re to somewh ere ever y on e can acc e s s it, i wouldn ' t thi n k keep ing it in the place it was f ound would be that im por tant. being abl e to see everyth ing would be rad eno u gh, i don' t think it ma tt er s. make su re you have some way to pl ay it, th ough. some of my other list ene rs said be fo re that casse tte playe rs aren't as common as they we re, and i'd hate to see it get br ick ed. if you get on e and need a list of sweet ta pe s to pl ay, i'd l ove t os h are. i'd get you a physical mixt ape, but that went with the r est of the phy sica l stu ff. good lu ck. and th ank you.

[doofus-spoofus]

Ahhh!!! I really like how you draw Stu and Billy!!!! Also that one with the teeth pulling? PEAK!!!!

hehe! thankyou dude 💖 I love drawing them sm, they fill my heart with joy (and a deep anger that I still can't pinpoint the reason of properly), but I still love them. and ALSO IM FREAKING GLADDD people are enjoying that little comic, its one of my favorite art pieces ive done recently. I was planning on adding more, but whenever I put my pen to the screen, my stomach does flips and I get nervous and sweaty and then i decide to go run around outside and punch trees like an angry ape

[mariacallous]

OKLAHOMA CITY (AP) — Police on Friday released video of the moments before and after a fight in an Oklahoma high school bathroom where the mother of a nonbinary student says the 16-year-old was knocked to the floor, and in a 911 call their mother made the next day she expressed concern about a head injury.

The teen died a short time later.

Sue Benedict, the mother of Nex Benedict, told a 911 operator that Nex had hit their head on the bathroom floor when the students who beat them up “knocked” them to the ground.

Benedict said during the Feb. 8 call made about 1 p.m. that the teen’s eyes were rolling back, their breathing was shallow and their hands were curled, according to the audio released by police in the Tulsa suburb of Owasso.

She said Nex had complained of a headache, and she had taken the teen to the hospital after the altercation the day before.

“I hope this ain’t from her head. They were supposed to have checked her out good,” said Benedict, who remained calm during the call and said she had been to nursing school. Sue Benedict said in a statement on a GoFundMe page set up to help cover funeral expenses that the family was still learning to use the teen’s preferred name and pronouns.

Paramedics responding to the family’s house performed CPR and rushed Nex to the hospital, where Nex later died.

The video released by police from the high school on Feb. 7 shows students walking into and then out of a bathroom after stacking chairs on top of tables in a cafeteria. Six students are seen entering the bathroom before Nex, who stops at a water fountain and then enters the bathroom along with two other students. A faculty member is then seen going into the bathroom, and the students walk out.

There is no indication from the footage, which only shows the bathroom door and part of the cafeteria, of what occurred in the bathroom.

Another video shows Nex being walked out of the school by a security officer and being picked up by a guardian.

In audio of the call Benedict made to police on Feb. 7 at about 3:30 p.m. from the hospital, she says Nex was “jumped” in the bathroom, and she said she wanted an officer to come so she could file charges.

But according to a police search warrant that was signed the day after Benedict’s death, she told the responding officers that she didn’t want to file charges at that time. She instead asked police to speak to school officials about issues on campus among students.

Benedict told The Independent later that the teen had suffered bruises all over their face and eyes in the fight.

The school district has said the students were in the restroom for less than two minutes before the fight was broken up by other students and a staff member. Police and school officials have not said what provoked the fight.

The family, through their lawyer, declined to comment Friday on the search warrant. The attorney did not immediately offer any comment on behalf of the family on the video and audio released. Earlier this week, they said they have launched their own independent investigation into what happened.

Vigils are planned over the weekend in Oklahoma for the teen.

The search warrant, which was signed the day after Benedict’s death, also shows investigators took 137 pictures at the school, including inside the girl’s bathroom where the fight occurred. They additionally collected two swabs of stains from the bathroom and retrieved records and documents of the students involved in the altercation.

While the two-week-old warrant states that police were seeking evidence in a felony murder, the department has since said Benedict’s death was not a result of injuries suffered in the fight, based on the preliminary results of the autopsy.

The police department, which didn’t respond to multiple messages sent Friday, has said it won’t comment further on the teen’s cause of death until toxicology and other autopsy results are completed.

Owasso school officials, meanwhile, said Friday that they requested police obtain the court order to search the school because of state and federal privacy laws regarding the release of confidential student records.

“We are continuing to cooperate with the Owasso Police Department’s ongoing investigation,” Jordan Korphage, a school district spokesperson, wrote in an email.

Tulsa County District Attorney Steve Kunzweiler, whose office isn’t currently involved in the police investigation, called the death a tragedy but cautioned people against being “swayed by sentiments fueled by the passion of emotions which may be misinformed.”

“A family in our community is grieving and we empathize with their sorrow during this difficult time,” he wrote in an email Friday. “While much has been speculated about this child’s death in social media, we will maintain the integrity of law enforcement’s investigation, and allow them to do their job.”

[coreofmyfruits]

Master List !

★ 2024

Scream (1996)

Oneshots:

★ Man's Best Friend is a Dog

→ If Billy Loomis told Stu Macher to gut his own parents Stu Macher would, because Stu Macher loves Billy Loomis like a dog.

Head cannons:

→ Billy Loomis + Stu Macher

The Batman (2022)

One shots:

★ nothing here partner....

Head cannons:

→ nothing here partner...

Hannibal NBC

Oneshots:

★ nothing here partner...

Head cannons:

→ nothing here partner...

There Will Be Blood

Oneshots:

★ nothing here partner...

Head cannons:

→ nothing here partner...

Reanimator (1985)

Oneshots:

★ Horidiculture

→ Dan likes pruning his plants, Herbert likes pruning people's skin and limbs. Will Dan get to up keep his plants or will Herbert hack his way into the only thing Dan enjoys doing anymore.

★ Comatose

→ Hebert isn't too fond of cuddling but getting to hear Dan's heart beat pounding under his ear is captivating, a constant reminder that Dan is alive. This is enough to make Hebert cling to him like an ape.

Head cannons:

→ nothing here partner...

More to be added...!

[influencegetem]

Our song #interstellar (67) being included in this legendary podcasts #bestof2023 playlist was the best thing to happen all year. Thanks again #DJAbsurd. (Darren Shabat) You're greatly appreciated. I've got something else cookin, too.

https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/ear2thestreetsradio/episodes/2023-12-24T18_07_50-08_00

EAR 2 THE STREETS RADIO BEST OF 2023 (4 Hours)

#KingOfThePlaylist

EAR 2 THE STREETS RADIO BEST OF 2023 (4 Hours)

#KingOfThePlaylist

1. Intro (Prod. by DJ Absurd) (Scratches by DJ Absurd)

2. Runaway - Swizz Beatz, Nas (Prod. by Swizz Beatz)

3. Heroes - Macklemore (Scratches by DJ Premier)

4. Soda Club - Marlon Craft, Skyzoo

5. Runway - Westside Gunn, Rome Streetz (Prod. by DJ Premier)

6. Unpredictable - Statik Selektah, Inspectah Deck, Ghostface, Raekwon, Method Man

7. The Return - Torae (Prod. by Marco Polo)

8. Prophets Of Doom - Ill Bill, Sick Jacken, Immortal Technique

9. Survival Mode - Halfcut, Reks, DJ Deadeye

10. Life Music - Masta Ace, Stricklin, Speech, E Smitty (Prod. by Marco Polo)

11. Am I Dreaming - A$AP Rocky, Roisee (Prod. by Metro Boomin)

12. The Weather - Black Thought, El Michels Affair

13. In Moe (Speculation) - Common (Prod. by DJ Premier)

14. Sounds That Never Left My Soul - Ty Farris

15. Bad Apples - Che Noir, Ransom, 38 Spesh (Prod. by Big Ghost Ltd)

16. Pissy In The Palazzo - Crimeapple (Prod. by DJ Skizz)

17. Knock - Tech N9ne, Conway The Machine, X-Raided, Joyner Lucas

18. Evolution - Meyhem Lauren (Prod. by Madlib & DJ Muggs)

19. Keep On - Nems (Prod. by Scram Jones)

20. Exit 9 - Killer Mike, Blxst

21. Slap Boxing - Tone Liv, Ren Thomas, L.I.F.E. Long Liggy Long (Prod. by Alessandro A Sharp Agostino)

22. No Love - Royce Da 5’9, 100 Kufis

23. Without You - Brady Watt, Conway The Machine, Talib Kweli

24. Coming Soon To A Theater Near You - Slaine

25. All That For A Drop Of Blood - Czarface

26. Sicilian Gold - DJ Muggs, Ghostface, Westside Gunn

27. Hustle, Repeat - Jadakiss, Swizz Beatz

28. Decide - John Sci Robinson & Figub Brazlevic

29. Invincibl Rap Mislz - Napoleon Da Legend, D-Styles

30. Catch A Vibe - TrillStatik (Bun B & Statik Selektah), Haile Supreme

31. Fast - Shabaam Sahdeeq & John Jigg$(Prod. by Tone Spliff)

32. Inhuman - Stu Bangas, Apathy

33. The Pressure - Cymarshall Law (Prod. by Slimline Mutha)

34. The Tale Of 2 Cities - KXNG Crooked, Joell Ortiz

35. Paradise II - Logic, Norah Jones

36. Choices - Oddisee, Phonte, Bemyfiasco, Kay Young

37. Feelings Don’t Feel - Black Milk, Mick Jenkins (Prod. by Black Milk)

38. The Golden Rule - Blu, Real Bad Man, C.L. Smooth

39. Loyalty V. Royalty - Belly, Gil Scott-Heron (Prod. by Hit-Boy)

40. Impaler - Vinnie Paz

41. Don’t Speak - Jarren Benton

42. Devil’s Work 2 - Joyner Lucas

43. Too Much! (Melly Mel) - Reason

44. Good Ol’ Days - Nyck Caution, Joey Bada$$

45. Free - Q-Unique (Prod. by Q-Unique)

46. Black Lemonade - Mayday

47. Point Blank - Ric Chavez, Bizzy Bone, J57

48. Dark & Grim - 38 Spesh (Prod. by 38 spesh)

49. American Made - Ransom (Prod. by Nicholas Craven)

50. Drug Trade - Smoke Dza, Black Thought (Prod. by Flying Lotus)

51. Remind You - Chino XL (Prod. by Stu Bangas)

52. Gadzooks (Em Eff Yoom) - Eff Yoo (Prod. by Level 13)

53. Venom - RJ Payne

54. Wells - Pizzo Paul Richard

55. Mental Health Check - Ea$y Money & Chilla Jones

56. Earners - Rasheed Chappell, Flee Lord, Che Noir

57. Bragadoccio Rap - Bo Faat, Hus Kingpin, Eddie Kaine, DJ Erex

58. Watch Your Mouth - Locksmith, Snak The Ripper (Prod. by C-Lance)

59. Don’t Go Astray - AZ (Prod. by Buckwild)

60. Nice Weather - Termanology

61. All About (Remix) - A-F-R-O, Alias Molombo

62. Sideline Saga - Jae Skeese

63. Porsche Lights - Styles P (Prod. by Vinny Idol)

64. Clubbin & Chaos - Lloyd Banks

65. Enough - Russ (Prod. by Russ)

66. Wotcha Call Strength - Boot Camp Clik

67. Interstellar - Influence Getem Daniel IG Stewart (Prod. by nAvi the NORTH & Die Empty Production)

68. Elevator - Kota The Friend (Prod. by Statik Selektah)

69. Wish Me Well - Little Brother

70. This Thing Of Ours - Nick Grant

71. Smoke - JoJo Pellegrino, Method Man

72. Nuclear Fission - Jus Daze (Prod. by C.G. The Producer)

73. In A Box - DJ Hoppa, Wax, Demrick

74. Bodies! - Skyzoo, The Other Guys

75. Came A Long Way (Keep Ridin 2023) - Brian B. Dvine Daly, The One Lavic

76. The Return - Cuban Pete Pete Allen (Prod. by BoFaat) (Scratches by JabbaThaKut)

77. Jodeci Member - Nas (Prod. by Hit-Boy)

78. Asteroids - Rapsody (Prod. by Hit-Boy)

79. 50 More Years Of Hip Hop - KRS-One

[a-z0-9-i-n-gram-completionist]

1:    0 1 2 4 8 9 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z    32/36    (26/26)    (6/10)

2:    08 11 18 19 41 42 84 90 ab ac ad ag ai aj ak al am an ap ar as at av aw ay ba bd be bi bl bo br bs bu by ca cc ce ch ci ck cl co cr cs ct cu cy da dd de df di dl dn do dr ds du dy ea eb ec ed ee ef eg eh ei el em en eo ep eq er es et ev ew ex ey fa fe fi fo fr ft fu ga ge gh gi gl go gr gs gt gy ha he hi hn ho hr ht hu hy ia ib ic id ie if ig il im in io ip ir is it iu iv iz jo ju ke ki kn ks ky la ld le lf li lk ll lm lo ls lu lv ly ma me mh mi mo mp ms mu my na nb nc nd ne nf ng nh ni nk nl nn no ns nt nu nv ny oa ob oc od oe of og oi ol om on oo op or os ot ou ow ox oy pa pe ph pi pl pm po pp pr ps pt pu qu ra rd re rg ri rk rl rm rn ro rp rr rs rt ru ry rz sa sc se sh si sk sm sn so sp sq ss st su sw sy ta te th ti tl to tr ts tt tu tw ty ua ub uc ud ue ug ui ul um un uo up ur us ut ve vi wa we wh wi wo wr xc xe xi xt xu yb yg yl ym yn yo yp ys yx ze zo    290/1296    (282/676)    (8/100)

3:    184 190 842 908 abd abl aca acc aci ack acr acs act ade ads age ain ajo ake aki ale ali alk all alm alo als ame ami amp ana anc and ane ang ani ans ant anu any ape app ard are arg ark arl arm aro arr ars art ase ask ass ata ate ath ati ato att atu ave avi awa awr ayb bab bac bal bas bdo bea bed beh bel bet bey bio bis bit ble blo bly bod bon bou bow boy bra bre bst bul bur but cal can cav cce ccy cee cen cep che chi cia cie cin cks cky cle clo clu coc com con cos cre cri cru cti ctu cul cut cyx dar dda dea dee den deo dep der des dfi did die din dis dle dne doe dom don dor dul dur ead eak eal ear eat ebr eci ecr ect edd edi eed eei eem een efe egi egs ehi ein eir eit ela ele elf ell elo elv ely ema eme emo emp ems emu enb enc end eng enh eno ent env eos eou epo eps ept equ era ere eri erl erm ern err ers ert eru ery erz esc ese esn esp ess est eta ete eto etw ety eve evi ewh exc exe ext exu eyo fam far fat fem fer fes fib fie fif fin fir fis for fos fra fro fth fur fus gap gel gem ges ght gic gif gio gir gla glu gol gon gou gre gro gth gys han hap hat hav hea hei hem hen her hes hey hic hig him hin hip hir his hit hiu hna hol hot hou hro hum hus hym ial iar ibe ibi ibu ica ice ich ick icu ide idf ied ien ier ies iet ife ifi ift igh ila ili ill ima imi ims ina inc ind ine inf ing ink ins int inu iny iof ion ior iou ips ird irs isc ise ish iso isp iss ist ite ith iti its itt ity ium ive ize joi jor jus jut ked kel kes kin kiv kne kno ksc lan lar lat lde leg len les let lex lia lie lif lis lit lli llo lls lly lmo loa log lon loo lop lou low lso lue lun lus lvi lym lyp mag maj mak mal man mar mas mat may mel men mer met mew mil min mit moo mor mos mou mph mpl mpr mse mur mus myg nac nad nal nat nbo nce ncl nde ndi ndn ndo nds ndu nec nee nei neo nes nex nfr nge ngs ngt ngy nhn nim nky nly nne nop nor nos not now nox nse nsi nst nsw nta nte nti ntl nto ntr nts ntu nuo nus nve oac oat oba occ oce oci odi ody oes ofi oft ogi ogo ogs oin old ole olo oma ome omi omp omy ona ond one onl onn ons ont ool oos oot ope ops opt ora org ori orm ors ose osi oss ost osu ota ote oth oti oto oug oun oup ous out owe owi oxi oyl par pat pea pec ped pel per pho pic pin ple pli pmh poi pos ppa ppe ppo pre pri pro pte pti pub qua que qui rac rai ral ran rap rat raw rdl rea rec red ref reg rel rem ren res ret rev rge ria rib rig rin rio ris rit rki rks rly rma rmi rmo rms rns roa rob roc rog rom rop ros rou row rpr rra rro rru rsa rse rsi rst rte rth rti rto rts ruc rum rus sac sal sam sav say sch sci scl scr scu sec sed see sel seq ses sha she sid sim sio sis sit siv siz ske ski sma smo soc sof som sop sor spe spi spo squ sso ssu sta ste sti stl sto sts stu sty sua sub suc sue sup sur sus swe syn tai tak tal tan tar tat tea teb ted ten ter tes tha the thi tho thr thu thy tib tic tid tin tio tip tis tiv tle tly tom ton too tot tre tri tsi tte ttl tty tua tud tur tus twe two tyl typ ual uar uat ubi ubs uch uco udi uea uen ues ugh uit ula ume und ung unt unu uou upp ups ure uri urn uro urp urr urs urt usc use usi ust usu uta ute uts vel ver vic vid vil vit war wee wel wer wha whe whi who why win wit xcl xem xio xte xtr xus ybe ygo yle ylo yme ymp ymu yno yon you ypi ypm yst zoo    802/46656    (798/17576)    (4/1000)

4:    1842 1908 abdo able ably acce acin acru acti actu adep ages ainf ajor akes akin alis allo alls ally almo alog also amil ampl anal anat ance ands andu aneo ange anim answ ants anus aped appa appe area aren arge arki arks arly arms arou arra arsa arte arti arts ased aske atar ated ater athe atid atio ativ atom atte atty atur avit awar aybe babl back ball base bdom bear bedd behi belo betw beyo biof bitt blog bodi body bone boun boyl brat brev bsta bula burr bute call cavi ccen ccyx ceed cent ceps cept cher chiu cial cien ciet cing cles cloa clus cocc comp conn cons cont cosu cret crib crum ctio ctua ctus cula cuta dard ddar deal deed denb denc deos depo dept desc dfis died dies diet ding disp dnes does dome domi dors dula duri eaki eall ears eart ebra ecia ecre ecti ectu edda edin edis eedi eein eems efer egio ehin eing eith elat elet elop elow elvi emal emel emen emor empl emur enbo ence endi ends engt engy enhn enop enor enti entl entu enve eous epos epti eque eral eran ered eres erio erly ermi erru erse ersi erte erti erto erus escr espe esti esty etal etat eton etwe ever evic evid ewha excl exem exte extr exus eyon fami fatt fema femo femu fest fibu fied fift find firs fish form foss frac frog from furt fuse gely geme gest gica gion gird glan glue gold gona gous grea grou gyst hape have head hear heir here hert herz hese hich high hims hind hing hips hird hite hium hnac hole hoto houg hroa hume hyme hymu iall ibed ibio ibul ibut ical icep icks icky icul idea iden ideo ides idfi ienc iety ifes ifie ifth ight ilar ilia illi imag imal imil imse inal incl inde infr ings inky inse insi inst inte into ints inuo iofi ions ious irdl irst isch ishe isop ispo issu ists ites ithe itio ittl itty ivel join jori just juts kele king kink kive knee know ksch land larg larl late lati latu lden legs leng leta leto lexu liar lier life lifi litt llie llow lmos loac logi logo lond loos lope lops lowe lowi lung lusi lvic lymp lypm mage majo make male mall many mark mass mati mayb mely meno ment meru meta mewh mila mili mina mite moot mora most moun mous mple mpli mpri msel murs musc must mygo naci nads nali nalo nato nboy nclu ndee nder ndin ndne ndon ndul nect neit neou ness next nfro ngem ngth ngys nhna nima nnec nopt norm nost note noxi nsec nseq nsid nsis nste nswe ntai nter ntin ntio ntly ntri ntua nuou nusu nvel oaca obab occy ocee ocie odie oesn ofib ogic ogou oint olde olog omat omen omew omin ompr onad ondo only onne onse onsi onta onti ontr oolo oose ooth oped oper opte oral oria orit orma ormo orsa oses osit osso oste osto osty osus otal oted othe otic ough ound ount oups outs ower owin oxio oylo pare part patt pear peci pelv perl phot pica pine plex plif poin pose posi post ppar ppea ppos pred pris prob proc prop pter ptid pubi quar quea quen ques quit ract rain rang rans rapp rate rath rawr rdle real reat rect redi refe regi rela reme rent rest rete reve revi rgel rges rial ribe ribu righ ring rior rise rity rkiv rksc rmat rmit rmou roat roba roce rogs rope rost roun roup rowe rpri rran rrou rrow rruc rsal rsed rsio rstl rteb rter rthe rtic rton ruco sacr sacs sals same save sche schi scie scle scri scul secr sect seei seem self sequ shap shes side sidf simi sion sist siti sits sive size sked skel skin smal smoo soci soft some sopt sori spec spin spos sque ssor ssue stan stea ster stic stin stio stly stom stot stud styl sual subs such supp surp surr swer syno tain take talk tanc tane tars tata tead tebr tend tera tere teri term tern than that thei them ther thes they thig thin thir this thou thro thus thym tibi tica tick ticu ting tinu tiny tion tips tiss tive toma tomy tons tota toti trem trib tsid tter ttle tual tuat tudi ture turn twee tyle typi uall uart uate ubis ubst ucos udie ueak uenc uest uite ular ulat umer unde undi undn ungs unus uous uppo urin urns uros urpr urro urth uscl uscu used usio usiv usua utan utsi velo vely verr vers vert very vice vide vill vity ware ween well were wers what when whic whit whol wing with xclu xemp xiou xten xtre ygol ylou ymen ymph ymus ynos

yond ypic ypmh ysto zool    815/1679616    (813/456976)    (2/10000)

5:    abdom accen acing acrum actio actua adept ainfr ajori aking allow almos alogo amili ample analo anato andul aneou angem anima answe appar appea arent argel arges arkiv arksc aroun arran arsal arter artic asked atars atera ather ation ative atomy atter ature avity aware bably balls based bdome bdomi bedda behin below betwe beyon biofi bitty bodie bound boylo brate brevi bstan burro cally cavit ccent ceedi centu cepti cherz chium ciall cienc ciety cloac clusi coccy compr conne conse consi conta conti contr cosus crete cribe ction ctual cular culat cutan ddard denbo dence depos descr dfish dings dispo dness doesn domen domin dorsa dular durin eakin eally earts ebrat ecial ecret ectio ectus eddar eding edisp eedin eeing egion ehind eithe elati eleta eleto elope elops elvic emale emely ement emora empli emurs enboy endin ength engys enhna enopt enorm entio ently entua envel eposi eptid equen erans erest erior ermit erruc ersed ersio erteb ertic erton escri espec estin estio estyl etata etons etwee evers evice evide ewhat exclu exemp exten extre eyond famil fatty femal femor femur festy fibul fifth first fishe forma fosso fract frogs furth fused gemen gical girdl gland golde gonad great group gysto haped heart herto himse hnaci hough hroat humer hymen hymus ially ibiof ibula ibute icall iceps icept icula ideal idenc ideos idfis ience ifest ified ilarl iliar illie image imila imsel inali inclu indee infro insec insid inste inter inuou iofib irdle irstl ischi ishes isopt ispos issue ither ition ittle ively joint jorit kelet kinky ksche lands landu large larly later lativ latur ldenb lengt letal leton lexus lifes lifie littl llier llowi lmost loaca logic logou londo loose loped lower lowin lungs lusio lusiv lymph lypmh mages major makes marks matid matio maybe menop menti merus metat mewha milar milia minal mites mooth moral mount mplex mplif mpris mself muscl muscu mygol nacin nalis nalog natom nboyl nclus ndeed nding ndnes ndula necti neith neous nfrog ngeme ngyst nhnac nimal nnect nopte normo nosto noted noxio nsect nsequ nside nsist nstea nswer ntain ntere ntinu ntion ntrib ntuat nuous nusua nvelo obabl occyx oceed ociet odies ofibu ogica ogous oints olden ologi omati omewh omina ompri onads ondon onnec onseq onsis ontai ontin ontri oolog operl opter orial ority ormat ormou orsal ositi osits ossor oster ostot ostyl other otica ounde oundi oundn outsi owers owing oxiou oylou paren parti patte pears pecia pelvi perly photo pical plexu plifi point poses posit poste ppare ppear ppose predi prise proba proce prope ptera pubis quart queak quenc quest quite racti rainf range rathe reall rectu redis refer regio relat remel rentl resti rever revic rgely rgest ribed ribut right rkive rksch rmati rmite rmous robab rocee roper rosty round roups rower rpris rrang rroun rrowe rruco rsals rsion rstly rtebr rther rtica rticu rucos sacru scher schiu scien scles scrib scula secre seein seems seque shape sides sidfi simil sists sitio sivel skele small smoot socie somew sopte soria speci spine spose squea ssori stanc stead steri stick sting stion stoma stoti studi style suall subst suppo surpr surro swere synos tance taneo tarsa tatar tebra tendi tends teral teran teres terio termi their there thert these thigh thing third thoug throa thymu tibio tical ticks ticky ticul tinuo tions tissu tomat total totic treme tribu tside ttern tuall tuate tudie turns tween typic ually uarte uated ubsta ucosu udied ueaki uence uesti ularl ulatu umeru under undin undne unusu uppos uring urost urpri urrou urrow urthe uscle uscul usion usive usual utane utsid velop verru verse versi verte verti vicep viden video villi wered which white whole xclus xempl xious xtend xtrem ygold ymeno ynost ypica ystom zoolo    622/60466176    (622/11881376)

6:    abdome abdomi accent action actual ainfro ajorit allowi almost alogou amilia amplex analog anatom andula aneous angeme animal answer appare appear arentl argely argest arkive arksch around arrang arsals articu atarsa ateral athert ations attern bdomen bdomin beddar behind betwee beyond biofib bodies boylou brevic bstanc burrow cavity ccentu ceedin centua ceptid cially cience cloaca clusio clusiv coccyx compri connec conseq consis contai contin contri cribed ctions ctuall cularl culatu cutane denboy deposi descri dfishe dispos domina dorsal during eaking ebrate eciall ecrete ection eddard edings edispo eeding either elativ eletal eleton eloped emoral emplif enboyl ending engyst enhnac enopte enormo ention entuat envelo eposit equenc eresti ermite erruco ersion ertebr ertica escrib especi esting estion estyle etatar etween everse evicep eviden exclus exempl extend extrem famili female femora femurs festyl fibula firstl fishes format fossor fracti furthe gement girdle glands glandu golden gonads groups gystom hearts herton himsel hnacin humeru hymeno ibiofi ically icepti icular idence idfish ifesty ilarly illier images imilar imself inalis inclus indeed infrog insect inside instea intere inuous iofibu irstly ischiu isopte ispose jority keleta keleto kscher landul largel larges latera lative lature ldenbo length letons lifest lified little llowin logica logous london lowing lusion lusive majori marksc mation menopt mentio metata mewhat milarl miliar minali mplexu mplifi mprise muscle muscul mygold nacing nalogo natomy nboylo nclusi ndness ndular nectio neithe nfrogs ngemen ngysto nhnaci nnecti nopter normou nostot noxiou nseque nsists nstead nswere nteres ntinuo ntribu ntuate nusual nvelop obably oceedi ociety ofibul ogical oldenb ologic omatid omewha ominal ompris onnect onsequ onsist ontain ontinu ontrib oologi operly optera ormati ormous ositio ossori osteri ostoti ostyle otical ounder oundin oundne outsid oxious parent partic patter pecial pelvic plexus plifie points positi posits poster pparen ppears predis probab procee proper pteran quarte queaki quence questi ractio rainfr rangem rather really rectus redisp region relati remely rently restin revers revice ribute rksche rmatio rmites robabl roceed roperl rostyl rounde roundi roundn rowers rprise rrange rround rrower rrucos rtebra rtical rticul rucosu sacrum scherz schium scienc scribe scular sculat secret seeing sequen shaped sidfis simila sition sively skelet smooth societ somewh sopter sorial specia sposes squeak ssoria stance sterio sticks sticky stomat stotic studie sually substa suppos surpri surrou swered synost taneou tarsal tatars tebrat tendin terans terest terior termit therto though throat thymus tibiof ticall ticula tinuou tissue tomati totica tremel tribut tually tuated tudied typica uarter ubstan ucosus ueakin uestio ularly ulatur umerus unding undnes unusua uppose urosty urpris urroun urrowe urther uscles uscula usivel usuall utaneo utside velope velops verruc versed versio verteb vertic viceps vicept videnc videos villie xclusi xempli xtendi xtends xtreme ygolde ymenop ynosto ypical ystoma zoolog    446/2176782336    (446/308915776)

7:    abdomen abdomin accentu actuall ainfrog ajority allowin alogous amiliar amplexu analogo anatomy andular angemen answere apparen appears arently arksche arrange articul atarsal atherto bdomina beddard between biofibu brevice bstance burrowe ccentua ceeding centuat clusion clusive compris connect consequ consist contain continu contrib ctually cularly culatur cutaneo denboyl deposit describ dfishes dispose dominal ecially ections edispos eedings elative eletons emplifi enboylo engysto enhnaci enopter enormou entuate envelop eposits equence erestin ermites errucos ertebra ertical escribe especia etatars eversed eviceps evicept evidenc exclusi exempli extendi extends extreme familia femoral festyle firstly formati fossori fractio further glandul goldenb gystoma himself hnacing humerus hymenop ibiofib iceptid icularl idfishe ifestyl imilarl inclusi infrogs instead interes iofibul ischium isopter isposes keletal keleton kscherz landula largely largest lateral ldenboy lifesty llowing logical lusivel majorit marksch mations menopte mention metatar milarly minalis mplexus mplifie muscles muscula mygolde nalogou nboylou nclusio nection neither ngement ngystom nhnacin nnectio noptera normous nostoti noxious nsequen nswered nterest ntinuou ntribut ntuated nusuall nvelope nvelops oceedin ofibula oldenbo ologica omewhat ominali omprise onnecti onseque onsists ontinuo ontribu oologic opteran ormatio osition ossoria osterio ostotic oticall ounding oundnes outside parentl particu pattern peciall plified positio posteri pparent predisp probabl proceed properl pterans quarter queakin questio raction rainfro rangeme redispo relativ resting reverse revicep rkscher rmation robably roceedi roperly rostyle rounder roundin roundne rrangem rroundi rrowers rrucosu rtebrat rticula rucosus science scribed sculatu secrete sequenc sidfish similar skeleta skeleto society somewha soptera special squeaki ssorial sterior stomati stotica studied substan suppose surpris surroun synosto taneous tarsals tatarsa tebrate tending teresti termite therton tibiofi tically ticular tinuous tomatid totical tremely tribute typical ubstanc ueaking uestion ulature undness unusual urostyl urprise urround urrower uscular usculat usively usually utaneou veloped verruco version vertebr vertica vicepti vidence villier xclusiv xemplif xtendin xtremel ygolden ymenopt ynostot ystomat zoologi    297/78364164096    (297/8031810176)

8:    abdomina accentua actually ainfrogs allowing amplexus analogou angement answered apparent arkscher arrangem articula atarsals atherton bdominal biofibul brevicep burrower ccentuat ceedings centuate clusivel comprise connecti conseque consists continuo contribu culature cutaneou denboylo deposits describe disposes dominali edispose emplifie enboylou engystom enhnacin enoptera enormous entuated envelope envelops eresting errucosu ertebrat escribed especial etatarsa evicepti evidence exclusiv exemplif extendin extremel familiar formatio fossoria fraction glandula goldenbo gystomat hymenopt ibiofibu icularly idfishes ifestyle imilarly inclusio interest iofibula isoptera keletons landular ldenboyl lifestyl lusively majority marksche menopter metatars mplified muscular musculat mygolden nalogous nclusion nections ngystoma nhnacing nnection nopteran nostotic nsequenc nteresti ntinuous ntribute nusually nveloped oceeding oldenboy ological ominalis onnectio onsequen ontinuou ontribut oologica opterans ormation ossorial osterior ostotica otically oundness parently particul pecially position posterio pparentl predispo probably proceedi properly queaking question rainfrog rangemen redispos relative reversed reviceps revicept rkscherz rmations roceedin rounding roundnes rrangeme rroundin rrucosus rtebrate rticular sculatur sequence sidfishe similarl skeletal skeleton somewhat sopteran speciall squeakin stomatid stotical substanc surprise surround synostot tatarsal terestin termites tibiofib ticularl toticall ubstance unusuall urostyle urroundi urrowers usculatu utaneous verrucos vertebra vertical viceptid xclusive xemplifi xtending xtremely ygoldenb ymenopte ynostoti ystomati zoologic    189/2821109907456    (189/208827064576)

9:    abdominal accentuat analogous apparentl arkscherz arrangeme articular bdominali biofibula breviceps brevicept burrowers ccentuate centuated clusively connectio consequen continuou contribut cutaneous denboylou described dominalis edisposes emplified engystoma enhnacing enopteran enveloped errucosus ertebrate especiall etatarsal eviceptid exclusive exemplifi extending extremely formation fossorial glandular goldenboy gystomati hymenopte ibiofibul inclusion interesti isopteran ldenboylo lifestyle markscher menoptera metatarsa musculatu mygoldenb ngystomat nnections nopterans nostotica nsequence nterestin oceedings oldenboyl onnection onsequenc ontinuous ontribute oological ormations ostotical particula posterior pparently predispos proceedin rainfrogs rangement redispose revicepti roceeding roundness rrangemen rrounding rticularl sculature sidfishes similarly skeletons sopterans specially squeaking stoticall substance surroundi synostoti tatarsals teresting tibiofibu ticularly totically unusually urroundin usculatur verrucosu vertebrat xclusivel xemplifie ygoldenbo ymenopter ynostotic ystomatid zoologica    112/101559956668416    (112/5429503678976)

10:    abdominali accentuate apparently arrangemen articularl bdominalis brevicepti ccentuated connection consequenc continuous contribute engystomat enopterans especially etatarsals exclusivel exemplifie formations goldenboyl gystomatid hymenopter ibiofibula interestin isopterans ldenboylou markscherz menopteran metatarsal musculatur mygoldenbo ngystomati nostotical nteresting oldenboylo onnections onsequence ostoticall particular predispose proceeding redisposes reviceptid roceedings rrangement rticularly stotically surroundin synostotic tibiofibul urrounding usculature verrucosus vertebrate xclusively xemplified ygoldenboy ymenoptera ynostotica zoological    60/3656158440062976    (60/141167095653376)

11:    abdominalis accentuated arrangement articularly breviceptid connections consequence engystomati exclusively exemplified goldenboylo hymenoptera interesting menopterans metatarsals musculature mygoldenboy ngystomatid nostoticall oldenboylou ostotically particularl predisposes proceedings surrounding synostotica tibiofibula ygoldenboyl ymenopteran ynostotical    30/131621703842267136    (30/3670344486987776)

12:    engystomatid goldenboylou hymenopteran mygoldenboyl nostotically particularly synostotical ygoldenboylo ymenopterans ynostoticall    10/4738381338321616896    (10/95428956661682176)

13:    hymenopterans mygoldenboylo synostoticall ygoldenboylou ynostotically    5/170581728179578208256    (5/2481152873203736576)

14:    mygoldenboylou synostotically    2/6140942214464815497216    (2/64509974703297150976)

Why are rain frogs so round? What's /inside/ of them around such an itty bitty skeleton?

So it turns out this is a really interesting question.

The first thing we must be aware of is that rainfrogs as we see them in videos of them squeaking are not quite the same shape as they are when at rest:

[x]

But you are quite right, they are very round. This is exemplified by the skeletal photo you refer to:

[X]

So what are we seeing?

Well, firstly, note that the body cavity in these frogs actually envelops the femurs, such that only the tibiofibula (fused in frogs) and the tarsals and metatarsals are outside the body. The arms are quite similarly enveloped, but a bit of the humerus does extend outside the body cavity too. This predisposes them to a rounder body shape.

Next, note the ilia - the U-shaped bone in the pelvic region. These in some breviceptid frogs are synostotically fused with the sacrum - that is to say, they are bound by bone-based connections to the bow-shaped vertebra at their tips. This whole joint seems to be quite smooth, and as a consequence, the back of the frog is quite smooth. The other thing we can see here is that the urostyle (i.e. the frog version of a coccyx) juts quite far beyond the ischium and pubis. This extends the body cavity beyond the hips. Note also that the pelvic girdle seems to be largely below the spine, rather than the typical position for frogs behind it and continuous with it. This makes the legs sit below the spine, rather than at its end, enhnacing the vertical roundness of the animal.

Next, let’s talk some soft tissue. Now, I’m not as familiar with soft-tissue in frogs as I am their skeletons, so you’ll have to bear with me a bit (rawr). Beddard (1908!!) studied the soft tissue of Breviceps verrucosus Rapp 1842. It seems that the majority of the body of these frogs is actually muscle. Beddard noted that muscles join the leg at the knee that extend into the body cavity, such that the inclusion of the thigh in the body cavity is further accentuated by musculature. The rectus abdominalis muscle is unusually large, extending from the lower abdomen up and around the sides of the body. Indeed, this large size appears to be the pattern with all of the major muscles, though in the throat the typical arrangement of large and small muscles is somewhat reversed. On the lateral side of the head, there is a substance that is not muscle, but appears to be loose tissue in which sits what is apparently the thymus gland.

There is a very large gap between the end of the urostyle and the anus (one fifth of the total length of the frog), in which there are almost no muscles, save for the one surrounding the lower cloaca. On either side of this area, between the posterior-most muscles of the thigh, lie two large ‘lymph-hearts’, as described by Beddard. These are between one quarter and one third of the total length of the frog. A further lypmh-sac sits between these lymph-hearts and the skin of the femoral region, and they are thus probably analogous to the femoral lymph-sacs of other frogs.

I find it interesting that Beddard (1908) did not mention any glandular formations in the dorsal region. As is evidence from many images (see below), these frogs are able to secrete a white, sticky, noxious substance from their skin (which they actually have to use during amplexus, as the male is too small relative to the female to mount her properly, and so he sticks himself to her with his glandular glue… kinky).

[x]

These glands do not apparently take up a great deal of the cutaneous tissue, and so I suppose are of no consequence to the size of the frog, especially relative to its enormous muscles.

The diet of these frogs consists almost exclusively of hymenopterans and isopterans (ants and termites). Neither of these insect groups are particularly fatty, so it is little surprise that their bodies appear to contain no large fat deposits - fatty bodies extend from the gonads up to the lungs and heart, but these comprise only a tiny fraction of the frog’s mass, and don’t contribute to the round shape. Instead, their bodies are extremely muscular, allowing them to be adept burrowers, ideal for their fossorial lifestyle.

So TL;DR: rain frogs are little balls of muscle (maybe the largest muscle mass relative to body mass of any vertebrate? science just doesn’t know).

Ref:

Beddard, F.E. 1908. On the Musculature and other Points in the Anatomy of the Engystomatid Frog, Breviceps verrucosus. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 1908:11-41 [x]

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Sugar: The Most Evil Molecule! Is Sugar As Bad As It Sounds?

Millions of years ago, humanity's ancestors evolved to wring more calories from sugary fruits by storing excess sugar as fat, an adaption that's culminated in many peoples' palettes preferring calorie-rich sweets. Sugar consumption can cause obesity and insulin resistance, factors that can lead to the development of diabetes, and causes the body to release insulin, a hormone that can aggravate cancer. And its contribution to societal ills doesn't stop there; As an industry, sugar has even contributed to slavery, colonialism, and Nazi death chambers.

— Science History

Photo of Enslaved Peoples Forced to Work on a Sugar Plantation.

It was called “Survival of the Fattest.”

Roughly 15 million years ago, the shaggy, ape-like ancestors of human beings faced a crisis. The climate was getting colder, which killed off the fruit trees our ancestors needed for food. They faced sure starvation.

Then, a little mutation changed everything. The mutation affected the way our bodies use sugar. Specifically, it allowed us to convert sugar into fat more easily.

Now, at the time, this mutation benefitted us. As fruit trees died off and fruit got scarcer, the mutation allowed us to wring more calories from food by converting it to fat to store for later. This extra fat was often the difference between starving and surviving. Hence the term, “survival of the fattest.”

But we don’t live in that ancient environment anymore. And that once-beneficial mutation seems to be fueling terrible health epidemics today—including skyrocketing rates of obesity, diabetes, and even cancer.

And that’s not all. Sugar shaped the modern world in other awful ways, too, from slavery to the Holocaust. People talk sometimes about blood diamonds—a natural resource whose extraction causes huge misery. Well, today we’re going to give the phrase “blood sugar” a whole new meaning.

From the Science History Institute this is Sam Kean and the Disappearing Spoon—a topsy-turvy science-y history podcast. Where footnotes become the real story.

For most of history, sugar came from sugar cane, a plant native to New Guinea. Cane is technically a grass, although a grotesque one. It grows in big woody stalks like bamboo. Those stalks produce a remarkably sweet juice that, when you slice the cane open, you can suck right out. It’s like balsa wood soaked in simple syrup.

From New Guinea, sugar cane slowly spread to India by 350 BC. There, people first crystalized sugar by extracting the sweet juice and evaporating the liquid.

So what did people do with sugar crystals in ancient times? Not what you’d expect. Some people back then used sugar as medicine. That’s because it caused physiological reactions like a racing heart. Other cultures classified sugar as a spice—something you’d sprinkle on meat or fish for a little kick.

But that view of sugar started to change when sugar drifted from India into the Arab world. The Arabs began using sugar in ways we’d recognize today—in pastries and jams and treats. The English word “candy” comes from an Arabic word, as do “syrup” and “soda.” An Arabic poet in the 800s even introduced the notion—which some of us follow better than others—that we should eat savory food first at meals and sweet treats at the end.

The Arabs eventually introduced their love of sweets to other Muslim groups, including the Moors, who conquered much of Spain and Portugal in the 700s. And Europeans loved sugar even more than the Arabs did. There was just one problem.

Weather-wise, most of Europe is cool and dry. But sugar cane thrives best in heat and humidity. So Europeans who craved sugar had to import it. Plus, sugar crystals took ridiculous amounts of labor to produce. As a result, sugar was extremely expensive in Europe for centuries—a luxury good that only the rich could afford.

So how did sugar transform from a luxury good into the cheap, mass-produced food of today? Through Christopher Columbus.

After Columbus stumbled into the Americas in 1492, he realized that the climate in the Caribbean was perfect for sugar—hot and humid. Columbus actually brought the first sugar cane plants to the Americas on his return voyage in 1493. Not long after, Columbus’s son Diego set up the first sugar plantation in the New World, in Jamaica.

After that, sugar became a major driver of colonization—right up there with gold and silver. Merchants in fact called sugar “white gold.” Sugar also fueled slavery, from Brazil up to Louisiana. At first, European colonizers enslaved American Indians to toil on plantations. Eventually they kidnapped and enslaved millions of Africans.

All that sugar then got shipped back to Europe, where people dumped it in coffee, in tea, in chocolate—products too bitter to consume in their natural state. Other sugar got fermented and distilled into rum. Demand for sugar products skyrocketed—as did the profits. When we think of slavery on plantations today, most of us probably think of cotton or maybe tobacco. But those crops were always sidelines compared to sugar. On some Caribbean islands, 90 percent of enslaved people worked in sugar production.

And it was utterly brutal work. Sugar cane stalks are heavy, reaching twenty feet tall, and they have to be hacked down with machetes. Those rusty blades were a huge hazard given how hard and fast enslaved people were forced to work. Heck, even the leaves on sugar cane stalks are surprisingly sharp and dangerous. They can slice your skin right open, or even blind you.

The work only got worse after harvesting, when sugar production started. Because they ooze sugar juice, cane stalks spoil quickly, often within a day. enslaved people had to hurriedly drag them to refining stations, which operated twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week.

At the refining station, huge vats of sticky, boiling sugar juice bubbled over, and spattered and often scalded people. Even worse were the wooden rollers that crushed the stalks and squeezed the juice out. These rollers weighed hundreds of pounds, and were often driven by cattle or horses or windmills. As a result, the rollers were not easy to stop.

This caused serious and sometimes fatal injuries for enslaved people who were forced to do this work. It contributed to the fact that the average lifespan of an enslaved person on a sugar plantation was just eight years.

Meanwhile, people in New York, in London, in Paris, kept guzzling their sugary coffee and tea, happily oblivious—or willfully oblivious—to the human cost of all that sweetness.

After the demise of cheap slave labor in the 1800s, the price of cane sugar rose. As a result, people began looking for other sources of sugar. One alternative that emerged was sugar beets, which can grow in colder climates. And here’s where the Nazis enter the story.

The Nazis poured tons of money into subsidizing the German sugar-beet industry. This was partly to win support among farmers; and partly to boost German agriculture. But it was also partly because Adolf Hitler was an absolute sugar fiend.

The stories about Hitler and sugar are legion—and they’re pretty disgusting. With most people, you ask how much sugar they want with their tea. With Hitler, you’d ask how much tea with the sugar. He’d fill whole teacups with sugar cubes, and add just enough tea to make a brown-grey sludge. Then he’d toss his head back and choke the sludge down.

On top of that, Hitler gorged on cream pies all the time, and he ate two full pounds of chocolates or pralines every day. He even dumped sugar into his wine. In his last, pathetic days in a bunker in Berlin, several of Hitler’s teeth were rotting out. He’d nevertheless mash pieces of cake into tiny crumbs, then gum them down to get his sugar fix.

All of which is pretty gross. But there’s a chilling side to the Nazi obsession with sugar, too.

When you extract sugar from beets, certain side products are left over. One side product is a slimy goop called schlempe.

Now, schlempe wasn’t too remarkable by itself. But if you heated this goop in a closed vessel, you could produce cyanide. And it just so happened that the Nazis were in the market for cyanide in the early 1940s. That’s because cyanide was the basis of Zyklon B, the gas used in the death chambers of the Holocaust. The sugar industry, in other words, was a vital cog in the Nazi death machine.

So far we’ve talked mostly about the evil effects of the sugar industry. But the sugar molecule itself also has plenty to answer for, in the way it’s helped ruin our diets.

Now, that judgment might sound harsh. Especially because, for decades now, governments have warned us that saturated fat is the real enemy in our diets.

This demonization of fat began with a famous study from the mid-1900s that seemed to show a correlation between saturated fats and heart disease. The more fat people ate, the worse their hearts looked. It seemed pretty damning.

And admittedly, the connection does make intuitive sense. You eat fat, you get fat. Right?

But however intuitive, that’s just too simplistic. Our bodies aren’t passive storage containers, where we just absorb whatever we eat and tuck it away somewhere. Our bodies are actually active chemical laboratories. We take what we ingest and transform it. And scientists now know that one of the key transformations takes place inside the liver, where sugars get alchemized into fat.

We can see glimpses of this alchemy in other animals. Starches and cellulose are also sugars, albeit in more complex forms. And think about what cows and pigs eat—grasses, grains, and so on. You ever seen a skinny pig? Similarly, cows eat virtually no fat, yet have no trouble packing on pounds. Their livers naturally convert starch and cellulose into fat.

The bottom line is, with mammals, it’s not simply fat in, fat out. Inside our livers, it’s more like sugar in, fat out.

But what about that famous study that shows the links between heart disease and fat intake? Well, in retrospect, it has some flaws. The study looked at the diets of people in seven countries. But it missed countries like France, where people consume large amounts of fat but have low rates of heart trouble. So again, fat in/fat out does not hold up.

Plus, an Italian scientist later scrutinized the study’s raw data. And while there was a correlation between heart disease and eating fat in certain countries, he found a stronger correlation between heart disease and eating sugar.

It’s the same for diabetes. Several studies show that sugar can cause insulin resistance, which can lead to diabetes.

In addition, obesity is a major risk factor for diabetes, and sugar correlates strongly with obesity. In the United States, for instance, 12 percent of the population was obese in 1950. That number creeped up to 15 percent in 1980, the year the U.S. government recommended people stopped eating fat.

Following that recommendation, many food manufacturers removed fats from food and started dumping in sugar instead. After that, obesity rates exploded. They jumped from 15 percent in 1980 to 30 percent in 2000. Today, that number is closer to 42 percent, and 70 percent of American adults overall are overweight. Diabetes rates have tripled since 1980 as well.

Meanwhile, sugar consumption has risen in lockstep. Instead of sugar cane or sugar beets, most people ingest sugar today via corn syrup—and we ingest a lot. According to one report, the average American today consumes the equivalent of 130 lbs. of sugar every year. 130! As others have pointed out, imagine going to the grocery store, picking up a 5-lb. bag of sugar, and guzzling 26 of those. That’s Hitler-level consumption.

Of course, some of you are probably screaming right now that just because sugar consumption correlates with obesity and diabetes, that doesn’t mean sugar caused those problems.

But here’s where we get back to that mutation I mentioned at the start of the show.

The mutation involves an enzyme called uricase [“you’re-ih-case”]. Virtually all animals have some version of the gene that produces it. But roughly 15 million years ago, the gene mutated in our shaggy, ape-like ancestors.

Normally the uricase enzyme interacts with a chemical called uric acid, which is a waste product when we metabolize food. Uricase breaks uric acid down. But the mutated version breaks down uric acid much more slowly. As a result, uric acid builds up in our blood.

Now, the biochemical details here can get pretty gnarly. But without going into too much detail, the mutated uricase enzyme allows uric acid to build up in the blood. And when uric acid builds up in the blood, the liver converts sugars to fats at higher rates. It also causes us to store more fat in the body.

Now again, 15 million years ago, when fruit was getting scarce, turning sugars into fat was a good thing, to prevent starvation. But in a world awash with cane sugar and beet sugar and corn sugar, we really don’t need something telling our livers to store more sugar as fat. This once-vital mutation is now deadly.

Especially when we consider the links between sugar and cancer.

To be clear, sugar doesn’t cause cancer. Cancer arises from genetic mutations that drive cells to reproduce like mad. But once a tumor develops, sugar makes things far worse. Sugar causes spikes of insulin the blood, and insulin essentially acts like crystal meth for tumors. It revs tumor cells up and sends them into a frenzy of activity.

You can see the results in autopsies. When old people die in their sleep, and doctors autopsy them, they often find a small tumor in their breasts or prostate or whatever. It’s still cancer, but the tumor was so sluggish that it didn’t kill them.

Insulin, however, makes sluggish cancers much more aggressive. The tumor grows far more rapidly and does more damage. So instead of people dying with cancer, people who consume too much sugar might die of cancer.

Sugar also helps cancer in other ways. Our bodies actually have a natural defense system to kill cancer cells by denying them food and starving them. But if your blood sugar is too high, cancer cells can evade that system and keep growing.

Sugar also helps cancer metastasize, or spread around the body. When cancer cells metastasize, they detach from the original tumor, enter the blood stream, and reattach in a different organ.

That initial reattachment is precarious for cancer cells, because they haven’t yet built blood vessels to provide themselves nutrients. But again, if blood-sugar and insulin levels are high, the reattached cells can siphon off enough food to survive and reproduce—and eventually kill you.

Given the links between sugar, obesity, and cancer, I’ve heard people grumble that, if sugar suddenly appeared on the market today, there’s no way the FDA would approve it. In fact, there’s a chance that we’ll look back on our sugar consumption nowadays—those jumbo pops and jumbo candy bars—with same horror we look back on Mad Men–era folks drinking martinis for breakfast and washing it down with a pack of cigarettes.

Now, I don’t want to be a killjoy here. Will having a popsicle in the summertime or a candy bar during a movie destroy your life? Of course not. But the human costs of sugar have always been high, and that trend continues today. You might not buy that sugar is the evilest molecule in the world. But I bet you’ll never hear the phrase “blood sugar” again in quite the same way.

[burnlikeme]

@tsukiigami || Uta

Summer means festival season, and tonight is nothing short of electric. It's a four-day long bonanza, and tonight sees Stu and his crew taking the stage to close the night. The crowd's electric and riled already, the act before Gorillaz having done plenty to prepare them despite the heat, the humidity, and the copious alcohol sloshing through them all.

The "green room" is a tent, but at least it's air conditioned thanks to what must be the world's most powerful minisplit. 2D, sprawled on a couch, is finishing up his post-vocal-warm-up tea, knobby knees knocked out and arms flung across the cushions. Without cracking an eye open, the poses the question he's been mulling over for hours now.

"What do you think, Uta? Is it a bad idea for-for the last song of the encore?" Skinny Ape is melancholic, but what a way to walk off afterwards.