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CBSE (UGC)-NET: Political Public Policy Approach, Public Administration Study Material

Journalists, for example, Laurence Lynn and Peter de Leon have pushed this methodology. In this methodology, open arrangement making is seen as a 'political process' rather than a 'specialized process' The methodology stresses the political communication from which approach infers. Lynn sees open strategy as the yield of government. As indicated by him, open strategy can be portrayed as the yield of a diffuse procedure made up of people who associate with one another in little gatherings in a structure ruled by formal associations. Those associations work in an arrangement of political organizations, standards and practices, all subject to societal and social impacts.

 As per Lynn, people in associations work under an assortment of impacts, and to comprehend approach making it is important to comprehend the conduct of and communications among these structures, people holding specific positions, gatherings, associations, the political framework, and the more extensive society of which they are every one of the a section. Hence, rather than including specific systems, strategy making in this methodology involves adjusting to and figuring out how to impact political and authoritative situations.

 Lynn utilizes 'directors of open strategy' who work under an assortment of impacts. Open officials seek after their objectives inside three sorts of limits: Those forced by their outside political conditions; those forced by their associations; and those forced by their very own identities and psychological styles. Under this methodology, supervisors utilize suitable intends to accomplish their objectives. They work along these lines on the grounds that their own positions are in question.

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CBSE (UGC)- NET: Administration of Justice (Theories of Punishment), Law Study Material

Discipline as indicated by lexicon includes the punishment of agony or relinquishment, it is curse of punishment. Reprimand or chastisement by the legal arm of the state. On the off chance that the sole reason behind discipline is to make physical torment the miscreant, it fills little need. Nonetheless, if discipline is, for example, drives him to understand the gravity of the offense submitted by him, and to apologize without a moment's delay for it, it might be said to have accomplished its coveted impact.

 There are numerous hypotheses of concerning the support of discipline. Unmistakably the theory of discipline will influence the genuine measures of obligation set around the law.

 As SALMON watches, the finishes of criminal equity are four in number, and in regard of the reason so served by it, discipline might be recognized as

 ·         Obstacles

·         preventive

·         reformative

·         retributive

 Hypotheses

 ·         Obstacle hypothesis: Punishment is before everything hindrance and the main end of the law of wrongdoing is to make the scalawag a model and cautioning to all who are similarly invested with him. As per this hypothesis, offenses are aftereffect of a contention between the interests of the miscreant and those of society. The point of discipline is to break down the irreconcilable situation by making each offense. Profit has vargain to the guilty party (renowned expressions of Corne).

·         This hypothesis has been criticed on the ground that it is inadequate in situations where wrongdoing is submitted under serious mental pressure. In such cases to rebuff the transgressor to prevent him is good for nothing.

·         Preventive hypothesis: Punishment is, preventive or crippling. Its essential and broadly useful being to hinder by fear, its auxiliary and extraordinary object is wherever conceivable and practical, to keep a redundancy by transgressor by the disablement of the wrongdoer. The best method of disablement is capital punishment, which by and by, in time of peace, is bound to the wrongdoing of murder, however it is lawfully feasible for treachery and certain type of robbery and pyromania. A comparative optional reason exists in sub punishments as detainment and relinquishment of office, the suspension of driving licenses and in the old punishment of outcast. The point of this hypothesis isn't to rehash the wrongdoing the wrongdoing yet this hypothesis takes no note of criminal. It likes to cripple the transgressor from perpetrating any more wrongdoing however it disregards one of the essential question of the criminal law, i.e.. To change the criminal.

·         Reformative hypothesis: A wrongdoing is perpetrated because of the contention between the character and the thought process of the criminal. One may perpetrate a wrongdoing either in light of the fact that the enticement of the intention is more grounded or on the grounds that the control forced by character is weaker. The obstruction hypothesis by demonstrating that wrongdoing never pays isolate the thought process. while the reformative hypothesis appears to fortify the character of the man with the goal that he may not progress toward becoming casualty of his own allurement. This hypothesis would view discipline as healing or to play out the capacity of solution. As per this hypothesis wrongdoing resembles an ailment. This hypothesis keeps up that you can fix by murdering. A definitive point of reformists is to endeavor to achieve an adjustment in the identity and character of the guilty party, in order to make him a valuable individual from society.

·         Retributive hypothesis: Retributive discipline, in the main sense in which it is allowable in any sound arrangement of overseeing equity, is what serves for the fulfillment of that feeling of retributive ire which in every solid network is strived up by shamefulness. This was once in the past in view of hypothesis of vengeance. tooth for tooth and tit for tat. Today, then again, this hypothesis depends on the possibility that discipline is the important soluble base to kill the shrewd impacts of wrongdoing. The thought behind the retributive discipline is that of the reclamation of the ethical character, the appraisement of the aggravated still, small voice of society itself and the upkeep of the sovereign intensity of the state which progresses toward becoming bothered when a wrongdoing is submitted and causes discipline to set issues of right. In spite of the fact that the arrangement of private vengeance has been smothered, the senses and feeling that lay at the foundation of these sentiments are yet present in human instinct. Consequently, as indicated by this ethical fulfillment that the general public gets from discipline can not be disregarded.

·         Then again, if the criminal is dealt with indulgently or even amidst extravagance, as the reformative hypothesis would have it, the soul of retribution would not be fulfilled and it may discover its way through private retaliation. As indicated by this hypothesis tit for tat and tooth for tooth is regarded to be a total and extremely adequate manage of normal equity. In the last, we can without much of a stretch say that the main intelligent derivation from the reformative hypothesis, whenever taken itself, is that they ought to be relinquished in gives up as no fit subject for corrective order. The impediment and handicapping speculations then again, view such guilty parties as being pre-prominently those with whom the criminal law is called upon to bargain.

·         The utilization of simply reformative hypothesis, in this way would prompt surprising and unacceptable outcomes. The ideal thought of criminal equity depends on neither reformative nor the obstruction standard solely, however the consequence of contain between them. In this it is the obstruction primary which has transcendent impact. It won't be strange to specify here that Gandhi ji despise the wrongdoing and not the miscreant, is only a philosophical declaration and can't outfit a down to earth direct in the organization of equity.

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CBSE (UGC)-NET: Political Science Study Material Comptroller & Auditor General

CAG: Safeguards for Impartiality

 ·         He shall be removed in the same manner and grounds as a Judge of the Supreme Court.

·         He is the custodian of the Public Purse, controlling the entire financial system of the Cou ntry-the Union and the States.

·         Dr. B R Ambedkar said it to be the most important office under the Constitution.

·         Every person, before entering upon the office of the Comptroller and Auditor General of India (after appointment to the post) shall take oath before the President in the form prescribed in the third Schedule of the Constitution.

·         The salary and the service conditions of the CAG shall be determined by the Parliament by law and until so determined, shall be as specified in the second Schedule of the Constitution.

·         The salary and other benefits cannot be varied to his disadvantage after his appointment except in Financial Emergency.

·         The CAG of India shall be ineligible for further appointment under the Government of India or Government of any State after he has ceased to hold his office.

·         The conditions of service of other persons serving in the Indian Audit and Accounts Department shall be prescribed by the President after consultation with the CAG.

·         The CAG can be removed only on an address from both the Houses of the Parliament on the ground of proved misbehavior or incapacity.

·         His salary and allowances are charged upon the Consolidated Fund of India and are non-votable in the Parliament.

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Labor Laws Study Material, CBSE (UGC)-NET Industrial Dispute

How might you classes a debate into a mechanical question. Clarify unlawful strike and lockouts mechanical question

 Difference between a business and its workers, typically spoken to by an exchange association, over some part of the terms or states of business. A question is frequently trailed by modern activity, as a strike or a work to run the show.

 A debate emerging from the arrangement ct another aggregate understanding or the amendment of on existing concession to expiry.

 A mechanical debate should fundamentally be a question in an industry. A modern question has three fixings

 ·         There ought to be genuine and significant question or distinction.

·         The question or contrast must be among bosses as well as laborers.

·         The question or contrast must be associated with work and non-business, or with the states of work of any individual.

 Classifications of Disputes

 ·         The accompanying question have been arranged as modern debate

·         charge of wrongful end of administration

·         Mandatory retirement representative

·         Claim for restoration of expelled laborers.

·         Question associated with least wages

·         Question with respect to installment to be made under generation reward plot

·         Claim fro remuneration for wrongful expulsion.

·         Debate with respect to elucidation of standing requests

·         Debate identifying with bolt out or true blue and bona fide conclusion of business.

·         Non execution of honor and claim for pay payable by laborers to the business for misfortune caused by strike

·         Request of a representative identifying with his affirmation on a post holding in an acting limit

 strike and lockout are two corecive meaure turned to by the workers and tge managers individually, for convincing the businesses or representatives to acknowledge their requests or conditions or administrations.

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Indian National Movement-States People Movement and Indian Left Movement, History Study Material

States People Movement

 ·         The states which organized Praja Mandal were Mysore, Hyderabad, Baroda and Kathiawar.

·         In 1927, these movements were organized at a national level called All India States People Conference (AISPC).

·         The main leaders were Balwant Rai Mehta, Mani Lai Kothari, G R Abhyankar.

·         In 1927, in order to enquire into the centre-state relations, the Harcourt Butler Committee was appointed .

·         In 1929, under the leadership of J. L. Nehru Congress passed a resolution endorsing the demand of AISPC.

·         The States People wanted to be treated like Indian citizens.

·         J.L.Nehru at Lahore session said, "the Indian states cannot leave apart from rest of India, the right to determine...must lie with the people of states."

·         In 1935 Act, the Indian state were brought under direct constitutional relationship with British India and states were to send their representatives to federal legislature but the problem was that these representatives were nominees of Princes and were not democratically elected.

·         Therefore the AISPC urged for a responsible government.

·         The AISPC started agitation against 1935 Act.

·         It staged agitations at Rajkot, Jaipur, Kashmir, Hyderabad, and Travancore.

·         The Nizam of Hyderabad braded if as 'anti Muslim' movement, where as Maharaja of Kashmir called it 'anti Hindu'

·         The Travancore's ruler held that the Christians wanted to overthrow the Hindu king.

·         In 1938, at Haripura Session, Congress reiterated its policy that movements in the state should not be launched in the name of Congress but should rely on their independent strength.

·         In 1939, at Tripuri, the Congress decided to get totally involved with the state agitation.

·         In 1939, AISPC elected J.L. Nehru as President at the Ludhiana Session.

·         In 1945, at Udaipur and in 1947 at Gwalior, J.L. Nehru again presided AISPC.

·         In 1942, there was no discrimination between AISPC and Congress.

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CBSE (UGC)- NET: Computer Terminology A to L, Computer Science Study Material

PC Terminology: A to L

 ·         Access Method: The Algorithm by which a thing of physical information is distinguished and found, and the schedules outer to the application program by which the thing is put away and recovered.

 ·         Access Path: The course taken through the sensible structure of the database, as far as the information connections utilized by the framework, with a specific end goal to find a coveted consistent information unit.

 ·         Access Time: The time interim between the moment the run-unit requires a unit of information to be exchanged to or from its client work zone and the moment the task is finished.

 ·         Dynamic Domain: The gathering of qualities relating to that area which are really spoken to at some moment.

 ·         Airea; A named legitimate subdivision of the addressable storage room in the database, which may contain events of records, sets and parts of sets of different sorts; and which can be mapped onto capacity media.

 ·         Cluster: A dimensional accumulation of information things all of which have indistinguishable attributes.

 ·         Low level computing constructs: Assembly dialects were produced to make programming simpler.

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CBSE (UGC)-NET: Trade Unions, Management Study Material

In India, exchange associations doest a not appreciate a solid circumstances for different reasons. Would you be able to represent the significant snags in exchange associations?

 Reply: Sufficient time has passed since the establishing of exchange associations in India. However, dissimilar to western nations, the Indian exchange associations have not gained the normal ground. They experience the ill effects of various lacunas. They have exchange associations have not gained the normal ground. They have not created on legitimate development of exchange associations. In India businesses every one of these conditions are not completely met. There are different kinds of snags in the advancement of Indian worker's parties. Primarily this fall into two classes inward and outer challenges. The inward challenges are identified with work and the outer troubles relate to industrialists, mediators and authority laws. Following discourse will make the idea of these two sorts of challenges clear.

 Inside Obstacles

 Indian work has certain attributes unconventional to it. A portion of these qualities have ended up being snags in the method for development of worker's parties. Primarily following characteristics of work turn out to be obstructions in the method for worker's guilds improvement and development.

 Transient impulses: The lion's share of Indian work hails from country regions. The groups of the vast majority of them live in towns. Under these situation laborers don't live for all time in urban communities. As and when they get leave or occasions they go to their spouses and kids. Consequently they can't visit take an interest frequently in the confabulations and talks of exchange associations.

 Dominant part of Indian work is ignorant: For any association it is crucially vital its individuals are instructed or not. The informed individuals are a benefit and the unskilled individuals a risk to the associations. Training expands the viewpoint of the people. An informed individual comprehends what is valuable and what is hurtful to him. In view of ignorant individuals and not ready to peruse or compose

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Environmental Science Study Material Noise Pollution

Clamor contamination (or ecological commotion) is disappointing human-, creature or machine-made sound that upsets the movement or adjust of human or creature life. The word commotion originates from the Latin word sickness meaning nausea.

 The wellspring of most open air clamor worldwide is transportation frameworks, including engine vehicle commotion, airplane clamor and rail clamor. Poor urban arranging may offer ascent to clamor contamination, since one next to the other mechanical and private structures can result in commotion contamination in the neighborhood.

 Different wellsprings of indoor and open air commotion contamination are auto alerts, crisis benefit alarms, office hardware, industrial facility apparatus, development work, groundskeeping gear, woofing puppies, machines, control instruments, lighting murmur, sound diversion frameworks, amplifiers, and boisterous individuals.

 Clamor wellbeing impacts are both wellbeing and social in nature. The undesirable sound is called clamor. This undesirable sound can harm physiological and mental wellbeing. Commotion contamination can cause irritation and hostility, hypertension, high feelings of anxiety, tinnitus, hearing misfortune, rest unsettling influences, and other hurtful impacts. Moreover, stress and hypertension are the main sources to medical issues, though tinnitus can prompt absent mindedness, serious gloom and on occasion freeze assaults.

 Endless introduction to clamor may cause commotion initiated hearing misfortune. More seasoned guys presented to noteworthy word related commotion exhibit fundamentally diminished hearing affectability than their non-uncovered companions, however contrasts in hearing affectability diminish with time and the two gatherings are unclear by age 79. A correlation of Maaban tribesmen, who were irrelevantly presented to transportation or modern clamor, to a normal US populace demonstrated that constant presentation to modestly large amounts of ecological commotion adds to hearing misfortune.

 High commotion levels can add to cardiovascular impacts and presentation to respectably abnormal states amid a solitary eight hour time frame causes a factual ascent in circulatory strain of five to ten focuses and an expansion in stress and vasoconstriction prompting the expanded pulse noted above and also to expanded frequency of coronary course infection.

 Clamor contamination is likewise a reason for inconvenience. A recent report by Spanish specialists found that in urban zones families will pay roughly four Euros for every decibel every year for clamor decrease.

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CBSE (UGC)- NET Center-State Relations Administrative Relations (Part 1 of 2)

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 Managerial Relations: Articles

 ·         256 Obligation of States and the Union.

·         257 Control of the Union over States in specific cases.

·         257A [Repealed. ]

·         258 Power of the Union to present forces, and so on States in specific cases.

·         258A Power of the States to endow capacities to the Union.

·         259 [Repealed. ]

·         260 Jurisdiction of the Union in connection to regions outside India.

·         261 Public acts, records and legal procedures.

·         Question identifying with Waters: 262 Adjudication of debate identifying with waters of between State waterways or stream valleys.

·         Co-appointment between States: 263 Provisions as for a between State Council.

 Intensity of Parliament to enact for at least two States by assent and reception of such enactment by some other State. Enactment for offering impact to worldwide understandings. Irregularity between laws made by Parliament and laws made by the Legislatures of States. Necessities as to suggestions and past assents to be viewed as issues of system as it were.

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Indian National Movement-Round Table Conferences, Communal Awards and Quit India Movement of 1942,

Round Table Conferences

 First Round Table Conference: (twelfth November, 1930 to nineteenth January, 1931)

 ·         Directed by - Ramsay MacDonald (head of Labor Party).

·         89 add up to individuals took an interest in this, 16 individuals were from British Political Party;

·         16 individuals from British Indian States : Sir Mirza Ismail; Sir Akbar Hydari; Maharaja of Bikaner; and 57 individuals from British India.

·         Congress did not took part.

 Critical Leaders Were

 ·         Ruler Beel-Representative of Conservative Party; T.B. Sapru-Demanded an All India Federation (all the three RTCs). B.R. Ambedkar-requested a different network status for the discouraged class. Md. Shafi; M.A. Jinnah; Fajhul Khan Dr Shafaat, Ahmed Khan

·         The gathering was promotion diary sine pass on nineteenth January, 1993

·         Muslim designation: Aga Khan; Jinnah Sahfi; Fajhul Haque

·         Sikh: Sardar Ujjal Singh

·         Hindu Mahasabha: Moonji; Raja Rajendra Nath

·         For territory Status and constitution of India.

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CBSE (UGC)- NET Commerce Study Material: Indian Federal Legislation: 2000-Present

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 ·         Name of the Act-Year-Act No.

 ·         Indian Council of World Affairs Act 2001 29

 ·         Advocates'Welfare Fund Act 2001 45

 ·         Vitality Conservation Act 2001 52

 ·         Insurance of Plant Varieties and Farmer's Right Act 2001 53

 ·         Delimitation Act 2002 33

 ·         Haj Committee Act 2002 35

 ·         Outside Aircraft Exemption from Taxes and Duties on Fuel and Lubricants Act 2002 36

 ·         Multi-State Co-agent Societies Act 2002 39

 ·         Securitisation and Reconstruction of Financial Assets and Enforcement of Security Interest Act 2002 54

 ·         Unit Trust of India Transfer of Undertaking and Repeal Act 2002 58

 ·         Delhi Metro Railway Operation and Maintenance Act 2002 60

 ·         Concealment of Unlawful Acts against Safety of Maritime Navigation and Fixed Platforms on Continental Shelf Act 2002 69

 ·         Rivalry Act, 2002 2003 12

 ·         Control of National Highways Land and Traffic Act, 2002 2003 13

 ·         Aversion of Money Laundering Act, 2002 2003 15

 ·         Seaward Areas Mineral Development and Regulation Act, 2002 2003 17

 ·         Natural Diversity Act, 2002 2003 18

 ·         Cigarettes and other Tobacco Products Prohibition of Advertisement and Regulation of Trade and Commerce, Production, Supply and Distribution Act 2003 34

 ·         Power Act 2003 36

 ·         Monetary Responsibility and Budget Management Act 2003 39

 ·         Focal Vigilance Commission Act 2003 45

 ·         Repatriation of Prisoners Act 2003 49

 ·         Modern Development Bank Transfer of Undertaking and Repeal Act 2003 53

 ·         Wiped out Industrial Companies Special Provisions Repeal Act, 2003 2004 01

 ·         Traditions and Central Excise Laws Repeal Act 2004 25

 ·         Aversion of Terrorism Repeal Act 2004 26

 ·         National Commission for Minority Educational Institutions Act, 2004 2005 02

 ·         Parel Investments and Trading Private Limited and Domestic Gas Private Limited Taking over of Management Repeal Act 2005 14

 ·         The Weapons of Mass Destruction and Their Delivery Systems Prohibition of Unlawful Activities Act, 2005 21

 ·         Ideal to Information Act 2005 22

 ·         Waterfront Aquaculture Authority Act 2005 24

 ·         College of Allahabad Act 2005 26

 ·         Bihar Value Added Tax Act 2005 27

 ·         Extraordinary Economic Zones Act 2005 28

 ·         Private Security Agencies Regulation Act 2005 29

 ·         Credit Information Companies Regulation Act 2005 30

 ·         National Rular Employment Guarantee Act 2005 42

 ·         Insurance of Women from Domestic Violence Act 2005 43

 ·         National Tax Tribunal Act 2005 49

 ·         State Emblems of India Prohibition of Improper Use Act 2005 50

 ·         Debacle Management Act 2005 53

 ·         Manipur University Act 2005 54

 ·         Andhra Pradesh Legislative Council Act, 2005 2006 01

 ·         Commissions for Protection of Child Rights Act, 2005 2006 04

 ·         Oil and Natural Gas Regulatory Board Act 2006 19

 ·         Delhi Laws Special Provisions Act, 2006 22

 ·         Cess Laws Repealing and Amending Act, 2006 24

 ·         Miniaturized scale, Small and Medium Enterprises Development Act, 2006 27

 ·         National Institute of Fashion Technology Act, 2006 28

 ·         Association Duties of Excise Electricity Distribution Repeal Act, 2006 30

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Study Material for Environmental Science, Soil Chemistry, CBSE UGC NET: CaLL: O99993I8556

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 Soil chemistry is the study of the chemical characteristics of soil. Soil chemistry is affected by mineral composition, organic matter and environmental factors.

 Until the late 1960s, soil chemistry focused primarily on chemical reactions in the soil that contribute to pedogenesis or that affect plant growth. Since then concerns have grown about environmental pollution, organic and inorganic soil contamination and potential ecological health and environmental health risks. Consequently, the emphasis in soil chemistry has shifted from pedology and agricultural soil science to an emphasis on environmental soil science.

 Environmental soil chemistry

A knowledge of environmental soil chemistry is paramount to predicting the fate, mobility and potential toxicity of contaminants in the environment. The vast majority of environmental contaminants are initially released to the soil. Once a chemical is exposed to the soil environment a myriad of chemical reactions can occur that may increase or decrease contaminant toxicity. These reactions include adsorption/desorption, precipitation, polymerization, dissolution, complexation and oxidation/reduction. These reactions are often disregarded by scientists and engineers involved with environmental remediation. Understanding these processes enable us to better predict the fate and toxicity of contaminants and provide the knowledge to develop scientifically correct, and cost-effective remediation strategies.

 Concepts

·         Anion and cation exchange capacity

·         Soil pH

·         Mineral formation and transformation processes

·         Clay mineralogy

·         Sorption and precipitation reactions in soil

·         Oxidation-reduction reactions

·         Chemistry of problem soils

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Study Material for Economics Changes in Production Structure of the Economy , CBSE UGC NET: CaLL: O99993I8556

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 Changes in Production Structure of the Economy

 As an economy grows, its production structure changes. It moves from agriculture towards manufacturing and structure changes. It moves from agriculture towards manufacturing and services. It is understandable. You might have noticed that relatively well-off families spend proportionately less on food items and more on manufactured items. You may also note in your family that, as income increases, expenditure on items other than food increases more than proportionately. But, you should note that normally absolute amount of expenditure does not, broadly speaking, decline; in fact, increases but less than proportionately. It implies that production structure should shift away from agriculture. Moreover, many agricultural products, which used to directly reach the households, will now reach after some processing and through long channel of distribution. Bread, noodles, sauces and juices are good examples. It means activities of manufacturing and trade will increase. So, let us see how the production structure has changed.

 We know that hundreds of thousands of activities are always in operation in any modern economy. Many activities emerge and some of them die down; some of them even re-emerge, may be, in a modified form. But, it is difficult to discuss in terms of each single item. We often aggregate them on the basis of similarity of products or nature of activities.

 Our Central Statistical Organisation uses nine broad categories, called sectors. Six of them are further subdivided in two/three/four subcategories. Industry as a sector does not occur in it; industry is accommodated in ‘mining (and quarrying), manufac-turing and electricity’ In total, there are 18 categories, sectors and sub-sectors, in which total economic activity of the country is presented in the National Accounts Statistics.

 There are, however, two three-fold classifications in which economists discuss changes in production structure. One is agriculture, manufacturing/industry, and services and the other is primary, secondary and tertiary. Besides cultivation of crops, agriculture includes livestock and animal husbandry. But forestry and logging and fishing are clubbed with agriculture to make a broad sector of ‘agriculture, forestry and fishing’ If we add the sector of mining and quarrying to this sector, we can call it ‘primary sector’ as these activities are associated with nature.

 The manufacturing sector is further subdivided into registered and unregistered manufacturing, depending upon whether manufacturing units are registered under Factories Act 1948. Industry may include manufacturing and mining and quarrying. On the other hand, if we club the sectors of electricity, gas and water supply and construction with manufacturing, we can call it ‘secondary’ sector.

 This is just a matter of convention. There may be differences between countries and within a country changes in classification may occur over time. We did not have exactly the same classification always. While new products gain entry with each major revision of national accounts, some swapping of activities is possible. For example, earlier LPG gas was included in the sector of electricity, gas and water supply, now it is part of manufacturing. While we shall highlight some salient features of production structure or composition of output, it would be interesting for you to do your own exercises and develop your own views on contributions of different sectors.

 Absolute Contribution of Different Sectors

It is easy to see that agriculture production has been continuously on increase and has increased about fourfold. Since our Table does not include all the years, we do not find any drop in agricultural production. There are many periods when agricultural production actually fell. Whenever we notice a fall in the gross domestic product, a major reason is likely to be a fall in agricultural production as its contribution to GDP had been substantial. We were most severely hit in agriculture in the consecutive years of 1965 − 66 and 1966 − 67. These years, however, gave us green revolution. We are now quite comfortable with the overall performance of agriculture. Yet, we had had two-three years of setback in each of the decade. We should remember that agriculture gives us food, milk and meat and gives to industry the raw material needed particularly for consumer goods industries. Compared to agriculture, other sectors included in primary sectors are small; the contribution of primary sector is found to have risen only four times.

 Manufacturing which contributed about Rs. 12, 500 crore in 1950 − 51, contributed to the tune of Rs. 2, 00, 000 crore in 1999 − 2000, almost sixteen-fold increase over the period. Annual construction activity also rose ten times. Construction does not mean only houses but also roads and railway lines, dams, and canals, bridges and flyovers, etc. And also huts. Electricity, gas and water supply were in nascent stage in the wee hours of Independence, contributing less than Rs. 500 crore at 1993 − 94 prices. Its contribution rose 60 times in 50 years. Overall contribution of the secondary sector rose fifteen-fold.

 Trade along with hotel and restaurant business rose fourteen-fold over the period while transport along with storage and communication rose eighteen-fold. Financial and business services including insurance and real estate also rose fifteen times while community, social and personal services, including public administration and defence rose only eleven-fold. Thus, in the second half of the twentieth century while the contribution of primary sector to GDP rose to four fold that of secondary and tertiary sectors rose by fifteen fold each.

 Relative Contribution of Different Sectors

Relative contribution of a sector depends on its own performance as well as that of other sectors. As a result, despite positive contribution, a sector may lose relative position. Thus, while agriculture contributed 50 per cent to the making of GDP in 1950 − 51, it contributes less than 25 per cent at the close of the century despite four-fold increase in its output. The contribution of primary sector came down from close to 60 per cent to less than 30 per cent over the period. The share of manufacturing in GDP has gradually risen from 9 per cent to 17 per cent over the period.

 The share of electricity, gas and water supply, which was hardly one third of one per cent rose to close to 2.5 per cent. The activity of construction, despite good rise in absolute terms, is considered to be slackening; during the first twenty years, while the share rose from 4 per cent to 6 per cent, during the last thirty years it fell back to 5 per cent. Secondary sector as a whole raised its contribution from about 14 per cent to more than 24 per cent. The secondary sector is closely contesting the primary sector as far as its contribution to the GDP is concerned. Let us look at the tertiary sector. The share of contribution of activities of trade, hotel and restaurant business rose from 8 − 9 per cent to 14 − 15 per cent while that of transport, storage and communication rose from 3.3 per cent to 7.3 per cent over half the century. The contribution of financial and business services increased from 6.7 per cent to 12.7 per cent while that of community and personal services increased from 9.4 to 13.4 per cent. It may be noted that, among the sectors within tertiary sector, in 1950 − 51, the contribution of community and social services dominated the scene but it gradually gave way to trade but in the nineties sector of financial and business services emerged as close contestant. However, it may be pointed out that public administration and defence, which contributed to the tune of 3 per cent in 1950 − 51, are now contributing more than 6 per cent. Within the broad category of community and social services, the share of public administration and defence has risen from ⅓ to ½ over the period

 Growth of Different Sectors

we can also derive a table giving us the rate of growth of different sectors. We have computed only compound annual growth rates (Table 3.7). We should take these rates with a pinch of salt as they crucially depend upon initial and final figures. Roughly speaking, agricultural situation during sixties and seventies can be said to be bad as the rates of growth fell below that of population. Foodgrains dominate in our agriculture and we cannot afford to import it. Even if we import some agricultural produce, being a large country, we ought to produce enough foodgrains ourselves. During the nineties, the growth of foodgrains production is somewhat slackening. So long as it does not create bottleneck for raw material for industry and supply of foodgrains does not fall short of domestic demand, we can afford a little lower growth rate in future. The rate of growth of primary sector has always been lower than that of secondary and tertiary sectors, which is a major reason for decline in its share.

 Manufacturing sector activity grew at twice the rate of agriculture. The seventies were bad for all sectors. Electricity, gas and water supply accorded a very low rate of growth of 4 per cent per annum during the seventies. So was the case with construction. Secondary sector as a whole did pretty well during the eighties, better than during the nineties.

 The nineties belong to the tertiary sector, which grew at the rate of 7.8 per cent per annum. All service sectors are growing faster in the nineties than they did in the eighties wherein performance was better than that in the seventies in terms of growth. There are, one can see, a couple of exceptions to this observation.

 The overall movement seems to be away from primary/agricultural complex to secondary and tertiary sectors. The drop in the share of agriculture is shared between secondary and tertiary sectors; and as time passes the share of tertiary sectors is increasing faster than the share of secondary sectors.

 Changes by Other Segregations of Production

Three important divisions of activities are often discussed by scholars so far as production structure is concerned. One is the division regarding location of activities, location being divided between rural and urban areas. The second is on the basis of ownership of production establishments, division being made between public and private. The third one is about organised and unorganised sectors.

 Division between Rural and Urban Areas

Agriculture is the industry of the country-side and manufacturing is the industry of the town, said Adam Smith, father of Economics. As a habitation diversifies its economic activities, it changes its status from rural to urban at some point meeting certain definitional marks. In India, in last fifty years, the number of towns has increased from 2800 to 3600 and population living in them has increased from a little over 6 crore to 26 crore. The proportion of population living in urban habitation is now well over 25 per cent, which in 1950 − 51 used to be around 16 per cent. On the other hand, the number of villages is now about six lakh and a village may have more than one hamlet. The number of rural habitations is over 10 lakh. Not only agricultural and pastoral activities are carried out in rural habitations, manufacturing (handicrafts), trade (retail), transportation (bullock carts and tractors) are also part of rural activities and rural folk benefit from them.

 We do not have regular annual series of production output of the activities according to rural-urban division. The CSO has made available such a division for the years 1970 − 71, 1980 − 81 and 1993 − 94 but only at current prices and for net domestic product. With the help of these figures, we gather some broad idea about the shift in activities. From the perusal of these statistics, one would notice that in 1970 − 71 only 62.5 per cent net domestic product was generated in the rural area where more than 80 per cent population resided (and worked) while in the urban area population residing (and working) was less, 20 per cent, the net domestic product generated was 37.5 per cent.

 Thus, per capita net domestic product in the urban area was 2.45 times that in the rural area. When we look at the data for 1993 − 94, we gather that while population proportion in rural area has reduced by about 6.7 per cent points, its contribution to net domestic product has reduced by 8.6 per cent points but just the reverse could be said to be the case with the urban area. But the loss of 6.7 points in 80.2 points is not the same as gain of 6.7 points in 19.8 points. Therefore, net accretions to the two areas on per capita basis show that per capita net domestic product in the urban area is 2.39 times that in the rural area. Though this ratio is not deteriorating over time, it is high enough to make people move to urban areas even if unemployment rate is somewhat higher in urban areas.

 Division between Public Sector and Private Sector

 Ever since there has been the state, there has been public sector. But the presence of public sector in production, beyond public administration and control, was very little before Independence. It has been increasing over time as we pursued a policy of state intervention in various sectors for variety of reasons. There is not one broad sector of economic activities where public sector is altogether absent. We have firm data on contribution of public sector in different production sectors since1960 − 61. A cursory look suggests that the importance of public sector had been on increase with the passage of time in practically all sectors. The share of public sector, which was barely 9 per cent even in 1960 − 61, has increased close to 27 per cent though of late the speed of rise has slackened.

 Public administration is purely a public sector activity and in fishing, it has just shown its presence. In agriculture its presence has increased but it predominantly seems to be irrigation as this activity is accounted for within the sector of agriculture. Its contribution in forestry and logging sector is drastically reducing. Most of the mining activity is under public sector and it is now around 80 per cent. Even in the sector of manufacturing its share has gradually increased from around 7 per cent in 1960 − 61 to around 20 per cent in 1998 − 99. The share in construction activity has increased from less than 5 per cent in 1960 − 61 to almost 16 per cent in 1998 − 99.

 It is in trade that public sector has withdrawn since 1980 − 81 when it participated to an extent of 8.5 per cent. Its role in transport has also plummeted to some extent yet it plays a great role. The railways are completely with the Government of India. In road transport, state corporations play a significant role at least in passenger transport. In financial sector too, the presence of public sector rose significantly; it rose from 6.5 per cent in 1960 − 61 to 17 per cent thanks due to nationalisation of 14 major banks. A further dose of nationalisation in 1975 − 76 led to its further rise to 27 per cent by 1980 − 81. Even 6.5 per cent in 1960 − 61 should owe a great deal to the nationalisation of Imperial Bank as the State Bank of India.

 Division between Organised and Unorganised Sectors

Organised sector includes all public sector establishments and private sector establishments registered under one or the other act, such as Company Act, Factory Act, Societies Act or Cooperative Act, etc. They are supposed to maintain accounts. Net domestic product was found divided between organised sector and unorganised sector in 25: 75 ratio in 1960 − 61. With passage of time, the proportion of organised sector went on increasing, with some fluctuation, and reached around 30 per cent by 1980 − 81. Since then, its share has been rising and it is expected to be around 40 per cent by the close of the century. Within organized sector, manufacturing accounts for 40 per cent and community and personal services, 30 per cent while trade and finance may account for 25 per cent.

 Industrial Structure of Employment

All able-bodied persons should work. Children should not be allowed to work. Old, sick and infirm should not be permitted to work. Even if production is almost mechanised, there is a man behind the machine. People who are employed and people who employ as well as people who are self-employed are all treated as workers. Their numerical strength is known as work force. People who are willing to work at the prevailing wage rate but are not employed, are treated as unemployed. Despite the general feeling that a large number of people are unemployed, the percentage of people who are unemployed is not very large (However, in the composition of the unemployed, a large number comes from the educated lot). The reason is that poor people cannot afford to be unemployed.

 They work on somebody else's farm, shop or factory or engage themselves in some or the other activity on their own account. We should, however, remember that statistics used by us do not include people engaged in activities carried out in homes and hearths by the members of the family/household. The proportion of people working in total population in our country is around 40 per cent. This proportion is higher in the case of male members and those living in villages. There is a variety of ways in which employment data is presented. One classification is sectoral (or industrial) and the other is occupational. They are made for each of basic four categories, viz. rural male, rural female, urban male and urban female. Employment data is available from the census as well as the NSS. The census data for 2001 is not yet available in as much detail as we need them in this chapter. We opt for the NSS data. However, comparable NSS data is available from 1972 − 73 only at an interval of five years.

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Study Material for Computer Science Types of Programs, CBSE UGC NET: CaLL: O99993I8556

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 Computer Science Types of Programs

 The operating system contains several types of programs: a superviser program, a job control program, an input/output management system, language translation programs, library programs, and utility programs.

 1.      Supervisor Program: The supervisor program also called the monitor or executive, is the major component of the operating system. It coordinates the activities of all other parts of the operating system. When the computer is first turned on, the supervisor program is the first program to be used. The supervisor schedules * the order of input and output operations. It also sends messages to the computer operator if an error occurs or if the computer requires additional direction.

 2.      Job Control Program: A Job is a unit of work to be processed by the CPU. Job control commands are used to identify the beginning of a job, the specific program to be executed, the work to be done/and the input/output devices required. The job control program translates the job control commands written by a programmer into machine language. Machine language, the language that the computer is able to execute directly, will be discussed later in this chapter.

 3.      Input/Output Management System: When a user-written program requests information to be transferred into or out of main memory, the input/output I/O management system oversees and coordinates the process. Input and output devices are assigned to specific programs and information is moved between the devices and memory locations.

 4.      Language Translation Programs: A computer can only execute instructions that are in machine language, which consists of Is and Os. In order for the computer to use English-like programs such as those written in Pascal, it must use a language translation program. This program translates the English-like program into machine language. There are two types of language translation programs: Interpreters and compilers.

 5.      Library Programs: Library programs are user-written or manufacturer-supplied programs and subprograms that are frequently used in other programs. They perform commonly needed tasks. Library programs are stored in a system library and called into main memory when needed. They are then linked together with other programs. An example might be a routine that alphabetizes lists of data. When the programmer needs something alphabetized, he or she can merely instruct the computer to execute the needed library routine.

 6.      Utility Programs: Utility programs performs specialized functions. For example, a utility program can transfer data from a tape to a disk, to another tape, or to a printer.

 Application Programs

While system programs meet the computer's needs application programs meet the user's needs. Application programs are the programs that use the computer to solve specific problems. In your school, for example, an application program might average and print your grades. In business, application programs calculate payrolls, performs the accounting for income and expense, and provide reports for managers.

 Software Copy

Many people in the computer industry “including young programmers lose a great deal of money because of illegal copying of software. Software authors and publishers invest large amounts of time and effort to produce good programs. Copying really means that money has been” stolen" from the developers of software. It also means that hard work goes uncompensated.

 Some people who copy software state that television viewers videotape copyrighted television tv. Programs. Home taping of television shows does OL affect the market value of the show. Copying software does affect the profits that publishers and authors receive for producing a program.

 Other people believe that software prices are too high. They object to being called pirates because of their software copying. They insist that they are not selling any programs to make a profit. They only want to save money. Software companies have raised their prices to make up for profits lost because of illegal copying.

 Another reason given for copying disks is that people do not want to spend money on a program that might turn out to be useless, or at least not meet their needs. But today that is not a good excuse. Commercially available software has improved a. Great deal over the last ten years. Computer magazines review software so that buyers will be more knowledgeable about a particular program. Many manufacturers distribute “demonstration” disks which are ablpreviated versions of their software. People interested in this software can use the demonstration disk to determine if ithey want to purchase the entire package.

 Software companies have tried to protect disks against copying with specific disk formats. If a disk copy-protected, software buyers cannot make a backup in case something happens to the original disk; this upsets the buyer. Therefore, most software companies today do not copy-protect their disks. However, the software comes with a licensing agreement that states how the buyer can use the; software, what kind of backups the buyer ban make and so forth. Whenever you purchase so software package, be sure to read the licensing agreement carefully.

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Rural-Urban Continuum, CBSE UGC NET: Sociology Study Material, CaLL: O99993I8556

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 Some sociologists have used the concept of rural-urban continuum to stress the idea that there are no sharp breaking points to be found in the degree or quantity of rural urban differences. Robert Redfield has given the concept of rural-urban continuum on the basis of his study of Mexican peasants of Tepoztlain. The rapid process of urbanization through the establishment of industries, urban traits and facilities have decreased the differences between villages and cities.

 There are some sociologists whose treat rural-urban as dichotomous categories have differentiated the two at various levels including occupational differences, environmental differences, differences in the sizes of communities, differences in the density of population, differences in social mobility and direction of migration, differences in social stratification and in the systems of social interaction.

 A third view regarding rural and urban communities has been given by Pocock who believe that both village and city are elements of the same civilization and hence neither rural urban dichotomy, nor continuum is meaningful. M. S. A. Rao points out in the Indian context that although both village and town formed part of the same civilization characterized by institution of kinship and caste system in pre-British India, there were certain specific institutional forms and organizational ways distinguishing social and cultural life in towns form that in village.

 Thus, according to Rao, Rural Urban continuum makes more sense.

 Ghurye believes that urbanization is migration of people from village to city and the impact it has on the migrants and their families.

 Maclver remarks that though the communities are normally divided into rural and urban the line of demarcation is not always clear between these two types of communities. There is no sharp demarcation to tell where the city ends and country begins. Every village possesses some elements of the city and every city carries some features of the village.

 RK Mukherjee prefers the continuum model by talking of the degree of urbanization as a useful conceptual tool for understanding rural-urban relations.

 PA Sorokin and Zimmerman in Principles of Rural-Urban sociology have stated that the factors distinguishing rural from urban communities include occupation, size and density of population as well as mobility, differentiation and stratification.

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Characteristics of Development Administration, CBSE UGC NET: Public Administration Study Material, CaLL: O99993I8556

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 1.      Goal-orientation/result-orientation: Achieving progress in social, economic, political and cultural goals.

 2.      Content Orientation: Traditionally, development referred to economic growth. However it was realized that economic development without social equity, political stability and administrative capability is meaningless. Thus, development is multidimensional in content.

 3.      Commitment: Passion for one's work for development; high morale and motivation in work situation to achieve the developmental goals.

 4.      Change Orientation: Development means change. It is anti-status-quoist. It is induced and planned change.

 5.      Progress-Orientation: Development means a desirable and forward movement.

 6.      Time Orientation: Development has reference to the future. The envisioned future is to be attained in a definite time frame. It brings in the need for planning.

 7.      Attitudinal Orientation: Development necessitates an optimistic, empathetic, entrepreneurial and democratic personality.

 8.      Effective coordination: Achieving coordination between the multiple specialised units and programmes involved in the developmental tasks.

 9.      Freedom or capability Orientation: Amartya Sen believes development is indexed by growing freedom or capability of people to participate in the economy; freedom of political expression and participation; freedom of access to education and health; freedom to information and security.

 10.  Interface Orientation: It is the latest approach to development. It believes development is integration of economic development and human development. The two should not be seen as mutually exclusive.

 11.  Client orientation: Meeting the needs of the specific target groups like small farmers, children and so on:

 12.  Citizen-participative orientation: Enlisting popular support and involvement in the formulation and implementation of development programmes.

 13.  Innovativeness: Devising new structures and processes to achieve goals.

 14.  Ecological perspective: Interaction between bureaucracy and its social, economic and political environment.

 15.   Responsiveness: Responding to popular needs and demands, satisfaction of people is yardstick of performance

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Terminology in Psychology, CBSE UGC NET Part 1: Psychology Study Material, CaLL: O99993I8556

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 Terminology in Psychology CBSE (UGC)-NET Part 1

 Absolute threshold: The minimum amount of physical energy necessary to produce a sensation.

 Accommodation: In Piaget’s theory, the modification of existing mental patterns to fit new demands (that is, mental schemes are changed to accommodate new information or experiences).

 Acquisition: The period in conditioning during which a response is strengthened.

 Action potential : The nerve impulse.

 Ageism: Discrimination or prejudice based on a person’s age.

 Aggression: Any response made with the intent of causing harm.

 Agoraphobia (without panic): The fear that something extremely embarrassing will happen if one leaves the house or enters unfamiliar situations.

 Algorithm: A systematic procedure that always provides the right answer for a particular type of problem

 Amygdala: A part of the limbic system associated with fear responses.

 Anxiety: Apprehension, dread, or uneasiness similar to fear but based on an unclear threat.

 Anxiety Disorders: Mental disorders marked by physiological arousal, feelings of tension and intense apprehension without apparent reason.

 Assimilation: In Piaget’s theory, the application of existing mental patterns to new situations (that is, the new situation is assimilated to existing mental schemes).

 Association Cortex: The parts of the cerebral cortex in which many high‑level brain processes occur

 Attitude: The learned, relatively stable tendency to respond to people, concepts, & events in an evaluative way

 Attribution: The mental process of assigning causes to events. In emotion, the process of attributing arousal to a particular source.

 Authoritarian Parents: Parents who strictly enforce their authority over their children

 Autonomic nervous system (ANS): The system of nerves that connects the brain with the internal organs and glands.

 Aversion therapy: Suppressing an undesirable response by associating it with aversive (painful or uncomfortable) stimuli.

 Behavior modification: The application of learning principles to change human behavior, especially maladaptive behavior.

 Behaviorism: The school of psychology that emphasizes the study of overt, observable behavior.

 Biofeedback: Information given to a person about his or her ongoing bodily activities; aids voluntary regulation of physical states.

 Biopsychosocial model: Approach to which acknowledges that biological, psychological, and social factors interact to influence illness and health.

 Bipolar disorders: Emotional disorders involving both depression and mania or hypomania.

 Bottom-up processing: Organizing perceptions by beginning with low-level features.

 Broca’s Area: The region of the brain that translates thoughts into speech or sign

 Case study: An in-depth focus on all aspects of single person.

 Classical conditioning: A form of learning in which reflex responses are associated with new stimuli.

 Client‑Centered Therapy: A humanistic approach to treatment that emphasizes the healthy psychological growth of the individual based on the assumption that all people share the basic tendency of human nature toward self‑actualization.

 Cognition (thinking): The process of thinking or mentally processing information (images, concepts, words, rules, and symbols).

 Cognitive dissonance: An uncomfortable clash between self-image, thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, or perceptions and one’s behavior.

 Cognitive Map: A mental representation of physical space

 Cognitive Therapy: A type of psychotherapeutic treatment that attempts to change feelings and behaviors by changing the way a client thinks about or perceives significant life experiences

 Comorbidity (in mental disorders): The simultaneous presence in a person of two or more mental disorders.

 Compliance: Bending to the requests of a person who has little or no authority or other form of social power.

 Concrete operational stage: Period of intellectual development during which children become able to use the concepts of time, space, volume, and number, but in ways that remain simplified and concrete, rather than abstract.

 Conditioned response (CR): A learned response elicited by a conditioned stimulus.

 Cones: Visual receptors for colors and daylight visual acuity.

 Consciousness: A state of awareness of internal events and of the external environment

 Consequences: Effects that follow a response.

 Conservation: According to Piaget, the understanding that physical properties do not change when nothing is added or taken away, even though appearances may change

 Control Group: Group that receives no special treatment during an experiment

 Correlational Study: Research into the relationships between variables as they naturally occur

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