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[andrea-cliffe]

Omens, Oracles, and Prophecies: A History of Divination

I’ve recently taken a course through EdX on divination. It is called “Omes, Oracles, and Prophecies,” for anyone interested. I thought I’d share my notes.

This is the Framework for Predictive Systems. It helps us classify and understand similarities and differences amongst predictive methods across time and cultures.

#Random

Inputs stem from naturally-occurring random processes

No systemic predictability

No human beings

“Spontaneous”

Must wait for unscheduled events before making a prediction

One can always debate just how “random” a system really is.

#Randomized

Inputs are results of processes that a human initiates for the purpose of producing a random outcome

Fraud or bias outcomes may occur if input devices do not actually produce random outcomes

Dice-like systems, bones, and “ifa” (involved small objects being moved around on a shaking tray

#Human

Inputs that come directly from the diviner or inputs that come from a source not discernible by anyone besides the diviner

Can be conceptualized as the diviner being a sort of “spokesperson” of the divine

#Non-Random

Inputs come from observations of any process thought to be repeating, predictable, or in some way knowable in a consistent fashion

One must be very careful to distinguish non-random inputs from an end-to-end “deterministic” predictive system

A fully deterministic predictive system is exemplified by the modern understanding of the theory of gravity

I.e. astrology relies on deterministic inputs (positions of planets) to make non-deterministic predictions based on humans’ reading of mystical portents

Predictive System

The box in the diagram labeled this can be thought of as the core instruction set (or algorithm) for making predictions using a particular system.

I.e. “If you observe A, predict B”

Almost no predictive system is this simple, and many rely heavily on the expertise and interpretive skills of the diviner

In more “scientific” predictive systems, we can clearly understand how observed inputs come together to form a predictive system.

I.e. F=ma is a predictive system: if we can observe mass and acceleration, then we can predict what force is

Unlike F=ma, other divination systems are sometimes a bit unknowable at this stage–someone observing from the outside looking in cannot always know how exactly the predictive system works

Sometimes, this is because it has a high level of complexity that requires years of training to understand

Observe

The first step to making and analyzing a prediction

The input that comes from the prediction system and is fed into the algorithm

In ancient prediction systems, this varied from the flight of birds to how a bone cracks, while in modern prediction systems, this varied from the observation of a planet’s location to the results of a survey asking someone who they intend to vote for in an upcoming election

Make Prediction

Once the observed inputs are processed through the predictive system, the practitioner will make a prediction

The definitiveness and clarity of the prediction varies from system to system

In the case of F=ma, there is no “wiggle room” in the prediction

In other cases, systems incorporate ambiguity, intentional or otherwise

Evaluate Accuracy

Evaluating the accuracy of the prediction

Was the prediction correct or not?

Often there can be a deeper level of complexity since there can be confusion when the prediction was accurate, but the process was not based on accurate facts

Make Changes

More of a recursive step than an ultimate goal–an idealized prediction system is never finalized, but is constantly making changes based on any observations that show imprecision in the prediction

Systems may also change and evolve without evaluating the accuracy of their predictions

Types of Divination

History of Astrology

History of Aztec Rituals

History of Casting Lots

History of Comets in Divination

History of Egyptian Statues in Divination

History of Haruspicy

History of Ifa

History of Maya Spacetime

History of Oracle Bones

The Oracle of Delphi

History of Roman Augury

History of Tarot

History of Tasseography

[andrea-cliffe]

History of Tasseography

How to Seek a Prediction

Find an expert interpreter of patterns formed in purposefully-initiated random processes that imprint patterns on their remains

Equipment

Random remains of a natural process, for example leftover coffee sediment in the bottom of a cup of thick coffee (e.g. Turkish)

Personnel

Expert reader of special kinds of patterns, either professional or amateur

Description

A set of divination methods that utilize interpretation of random patterns found in coffee remains, wine sediments, tea leaves, and molten substances like wax and lead

One of the most widely practiced forms of tasseography is Turkish coffee reading, widely practiced in the Balkans and Turkey

Upon drinking Turkish coffee over a nice, intimate conversation, fortunes are told, by human interpreters, based on patterns found in the leftover coffee sediments in the cups

Turkish coffee reading serves a rather social purpose in today’s society

Assumed to have descended from the palaces of the Ottoman Sultans, many adults take elongated breaks in the evenings and on weekends for 2-3 hours to have a heartfelt conversation followed by a ritual of coffee tasseography

The diviner utilizes the information acquired throughout the preceding conversation to develop predictions about the current state of one’s life and one’s future

The coffee is drunk from only one side of the cup and the two chat

When only sediments are left, the cup is turned over onto the saucer and turned three times clockwise while making a wish

A querent wishing to hear about their romantic life puts a ring on top of the overturned cup, and one more interested in a financial future puts a coin on top instead

As sediments dry out, they slowly form shapes in the cup and on the saucer than get interpreted as representing real-life concepts and objects like eagles, mountains, the number six, or the letter B

The diviners interpretation of the shapes in the sediment forms the backbone of the reading, and they are mostly utilized the reassure a person whose fortune is being told that a certain portion of their wishes will come true immediately, and some will only come true after they overcome certain challenges

The general rule of thumb for diviners is to never deliver only good or only bad fortunes to avoid making the person too happy or too sad

Once all the shapes in the cup are interpreted, it’s time to interpret the shapes on the sauces–which generally is believed to hold information about whether the wish made initially will come true or not

The divination is only over after the querent goes and washes their own cup, while thinking of their wish intensely 

Whether performed by childhood friends or professional fortune tellers, coffee tasseography is a popular way to destress and socialize in modern Turkey, where friends can catch up on each others’ lives and hear about each others’ aspirations and worries in a cordial setting

[andrea-cliffe]

History of Tarot

How to Seek a Prediction

Anyone can consult an expert 

Equipment

Tarot cards

Personnel

Specialized expert reader of tarot cards

Description

The tarot is a card oracle, most often consisting of a deck of 56 Minor Arcana and 22 Major Arcana, also known as Trumps

The Minor Arcana have numbered cards and face cares arranged in suits, much like modern playing cards

Major Arcana have evocative names like The Fool, Death, and The Wheel of Fortune

Oracular readings are made by drawing one or more cards, often placing them in a spread, and interpreting their symbolic meanings in relationship to the querent

While tarot is not the only card oracle, it is by far the most common, and the term “cartomancy” most often refers to the use of the cards of divination

The cards that evolved into modern tarot cards were originally created as a set of playing cards, much like the simpler decks used in poker and bridge

They were in use from the mid-15th century through the late 18th century, when they began to be used for cartomancy

Early tarot decks were hand-painted

Some tarot readers continue this practice today, but most decks are now mass-produced

Modern tarot decks come in a variety of styles

Most are similar to the Rider-Waite deck, created and published by A.E. Waite and William Rider in 1910, with illustrations by Pamela Smith

They draw on medieval and Renaissance European symbolism to hide meaning within the illustrations

Other decks incorporate a broad range of influences, ranging from Kabballah to Zen Buddhism to modern internet culture

Differing decks often have different orders (e.g. Coins instead of Pentacles), or even different symbology and interpretations for the same card

Tarot reading is a personal experience, relying heavily on interpretation by the diviner

Shuffling a tarot deck is similar to shaking up dice before you roll them, in that it presumably randomizes the outcomes to follow

Given the seemingly deterministic systems prescribed for laying out the randomized cards it’s important to remind ourselves that interpreting the cards lain out still relies heavily on the conversation between human querent and diviner, much in the same ways that systems like Ifa and Turkish coffee divination do

The use of tarot in divination ceremonies is still common today

Most small cities will have at least one fortune-teller who uses tarot to advise querents about their day-to-day lives and major decisions; large cities will have several

Many of these fortune-tellers combine cartomancy with scrying and other methods

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History of Roman Augury

How to Seek a Prediction

Entreat an augur with access to birds–or you may need to also find a special bird

Equipment

Birds, plus possibly equipment to measure/observe their behavior (e.g. a wooden frame)

Personnel

An augur trained to interpret the behavior of birds

Description

Ancient Roman divination was tied to the concept of auspices, which literally means “looking for fortunate signs in birds” in Latin

An individual who looks for these signs is called an augur

The founding myth of Rome involves Romulus and Remus performing bird augury to decide that Rome should be built on the Palatine Hill

Notably, like most things in Roman religion, the concept of auspices appears to be “borrowed” from other religions, specifically the ancient Greeks

Auspices were taken before major undertaking (public or private) began in Ancient Rome

The birds apparently made random flight patterns and noises, and whether or not they fed when offered food were all interpretable by the human augurs as auspices

The signs relayed by the augurs were often vague and most explanations behind the vague predictions were simply that it was the “will of the gods”

As a result, at least in the case of public auspices, the Roman Senate debated the meaning of the auspices before coming to an actionable decision

Membership in the priesthood of augurs was prestigious

Until 300 BC, membership to the priesthood was restricted to only members of the patrician–ruling–class; the Lex Ogulina allowed for plebeians–commoners– to become augurs

Note that augurs often held other posts outside of the priesthood–for example, Cicero, the famous orator and senator, was also appointed an augur later on in his political career

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The Oracle of Delphi

How to Seek a Prediction

Travel to Delphi, (possibly find a priest to) ask the Oracle (or the priest) your question

Equipment

None

Personnel

The Oracle of Delphi (a middle-aged woman from a nearby area), possibly along with a priest who might be needed to ask the oracle questions and interpret answers on behalf of petitioners, if they do not ask on their own

Description

The Ancient Greeks thought that Delphi (located in modern-day Southwest Greece, at the base of Mount Parnassus) was the center of the world

They called the mountain the omphalos, which means navel

Apollo’s temple, adorned with his famous maxims (e.g. “Know Thyself”) stood in Delphi from approximately the 7th century BCE until 390 CE

Apollo was purported to speak to those who sought him out through a mouthpiece, the Oracle of Delphi (also known as the Pythia or the Sibyl)

The Oracle was a middle-aged woman chosen from Delphi or a nearby area

She is described as wearing the clothes of a younger woman and sitting on a three-legged tripod

Once a month, men lined up to ask the Oracle a question

Before a petitioner could ask a questions, he had to first cleanse himself by bathing and then sacrifice a goat to Apollo

Many details of the Oracle of Delphi are still unknown, including the specifics of the Oracle’s process for divining an answer

There is speculation that the Oracle’s trance was the result of intoxication, possibly caused by natural gasses that were present in Delphi, though this contradicts some accounts which describe the Oracle as calm

Additionally, some accounts describe the Oracle as giving her responses as poetic riddles, though there is no official written record of the Oracle’s predictions

There is also an unresolved question about whether or not the questions were asked directly to the Oracle or if the questions were relied from the petitioner to the Oracle through a priest

In any case, this was clearly a very human-influenced way of seeking guidance from the gods about one’s future

[andrea-cliffe]

History of Oracle Bones

How to Seek a Prediction

Find an expert interpreter who can crack bones with heat and interpret the cracks’ meanings

Equipment

Animal bone or shell (often a turtle plastron), instrument to apply extreme heat

Personnel

Trained expert in bone burning

Description

Oracle bones–animal bones used for pyro-osteomantic divination rituals in East Asia–are one of the most important types of bone artifacts in Chinese Neolithic and Bronze Age sites and the source of inscriptions representing the earliest written texts in ancient China

Pyro-osteomancy is, in general, a process where random cracks appear in a bone after it is heated by fire, or a hot poker, and the pattern of cracks is interpreted by a human expert

Typically, in ancient China, some inscription is made on the bone after the ceremony, recording what might, or did, happen

Although these inscriptions remain the focus of most research, oracle bone use far predates the inscribed examples and continues after they were a primary medium for writing

The earliest oracle bones in China come from sites in northern China that date to the late 4th millennium BCE

Between the late 3rd millennium and late 2nd millennium BCE, oracle bone divination became increasingly specialized and focused on a limited variety of animal taxa as it was associated with individuals and institutions that held positions of power in early Chinese politics 

Based on the inscriptions on the Bronze Age oracle bones from the site of Yinxu in Anyang, Henan, we know that the burning of these bones was a central part of a system of prognostication that was associated with the decision making by the royal court of the Shang Dynasty

We can further infer that the other examples of oracle bones that are not inscribed represent divination practices in various contexts in early China, and represent the significant role that divining practices had in helping people make sense of the dynamic and unpredictable world within which they lived

[andrea-cliffe]

History of Maya Spacetime

How to Seek a Prediction

Visit a priest/calendar expert

Equipment

Mayan calendar

Personnel

Priest trained in interpreting meaning of dates

Description

The Maya Civilization of southern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, and western Honduras developed as early as 2000 BCE, but the major kingdoms rose and fell between 300 BCE and 1250 CE, though even the Classic Maya (c.250-900 CE) cities were never part of a unified empire like the 15th century Aztecs

Maya kingdoms instead formed alliances and regional city-states that competed and cooperated with each other over the course of nearly three millennia

In Maya belief, supernatural beings had the power to intervene in human affairs on Earth, only certain humans were able to interact directly with the upper and lower spirit worlds and forces, and these individuals were either royalty who served as intermediaries between gods and humans or specially trained priests and other ritual specialists with the appropriate knowledge, tools, and ancestry

One way the Maya attempted to understand the will of gods was through astronomy

Astronomer-priests recorded their observations of the movements of celestial bodies and other sky events and their calendar dates over extended periods of time in bark paper or deerskin books called “codices” that were passed down over centuries

Over time, these evolved from observation of data to theory in the form of astronomical tables designed to allow priests to predict future similar events

The priests would then link the occurrence of an astronomical event with a terrestrial event (e.g. an eclipse occurring around the time of a king’s death) and use these connections to help predict what the gods had in store for them when the next astronomical event of that type occurred again

The Mayan systems’ reliance on celestial phenomena is reminiscent of the purely astrological predictive systems popular today, in that the deterministic motion of celestial bodies is linked into an otherwise human interpreter oriented predictive system

[andrea-cliffe]

History of Ifa

How to Seek a Prediction

Consult an Ifa Diviner

Equipment

Special bowl-like tray and a set of palm nuts to use as markers

Personnel

An Ifa diviner with at least 15 years of training, having memorized all the passages of the Odu needed to interpret Ifa device outcome

Description

Ifa divination is practiced by the Yoruba people of southwestern Nigeria and West Africa

The exact origin of Ifa divination is unknown, but it appears to pre-date Christianity and Islam in West Africa and it continues to be an important part of Yoruba culture in Nigeria and for Africans in America

For the over 50 million Yoruba people who live in Nigeria and around the globe, the world (aye) is governed and controlled by the numbers orisa who inhabit the world, but have access to the habits and occurrences in the upper world (orun [heaven]) and the underworld (lle)

Orunmila, the god of divination, is regarded as one of the numerous deities and Ifa if his divination process

The occurrences, events, and activities are revealed to humans through this elaborate divination process

Through Ifa, the role of the diviner (known as a babalawo) is to help an individual or community to see what is in store for them in their day-to-day lives

The training to become a babalawo is an intense process

There are in principle 256 chapters in the divination process, called Odu, each one contains elaborative narratives of mythic stories related to history, events, ritual practices, etc

Importantly, the Odu is an oral tradition, and thus the babalawo-in-training must memorize all or most of the 256 Odu in order to be qualified to be a babalawo

A divination session between the babalawo and the inquirer involves paying homage to Orunmila and the other ancestral babalawos who had performed successful divinations in the past, saluting the principal powers of the cosmos, invoking the mystical mothers, without whose help the rituals will not be efficacious

The diviner then engages the inquirer, who takes a coin or paper, touches his forehead, whispers their prayers and requests, and asks for the secret behind their problem to be revealed, along with an appropriate solution

Next, the diviner takes palm nuts from a divination bowl, tries to grab from their other hand most of the palm nuts, and then–with the remaining one or two palm nuts–marks the result in their activity in the powder in the divination tray

This process is repeated until the diviner can make four sides on the divination tray

The result of this randomizing process is the Odu divination sign that the babalawo then recites

The client listens and interprets, and then the babalawo gives a solution

Sometimes a consensus is reached in which the babalawo and client agree to do another session in order to determine if they got the exactly correct answer

The process clearly relies plenty on human interaction, as well as the randomized patterns seen in the palm nuts in the Ifa bowl

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History of Haruspicy

How to Seek a Prediction

Consult a trained expert, either as royalty or as a commoner (who paid with a sacrificial sheep)

Equipment

Instruments to sacrifice a sheep and extract its liver, clay tablets with divination instructions/manuals

Personnel

Haruspex

Description

The people of Ancient Mesopotamia believe their futures to be largely predetermined by the gods

Over the thousands of years that the Babylonian, Akkadian, Sumerian, and other Mesopotamian cultures thrived, their priests and astrologers developed ever-more-sophisticated methods for peering into their predetermined futures

Haruspicy is divination by means of inspecting animal entrails

The animals, often sheep, were sacrificed in ceremonies where the Sun god could influence the appearance of the “exta,” or entrails

For a large fee, trained diviners (called baru or haruspex) could answer a querent's yes-or-no questions by looking for the Sun god’s answers in the entrails

Presumably, some features of the entrails were purely natural, and some were caused by random mutations–but all were interpreted by a human expert haruspex

Also known as “extispicy”, haruspicy in various forms goes back to at least the third millennium BC, and it is still practiced in some parts of the world today

Mesopotamians were also great observers of the deterministic sky, deeply interested in astrology

Often both haruspex and astrologers were asked for predictions about the same questions, and there may have been interesting interactions amongst these predictive traditions

Training for a haruspex would have been highly specialized, as the actual process of divining was very elaborate

By the time the Barutu, or “Art of the Diviner,” manual for extispicy was “published” (copies known date from about 600 BC and earlier), it took up 135 clay tablets written as 60 lines of cuneiform each

Like a modern medical manual, the Barutu and earlier, simpler instructions, often inscribed on clay models of organs (typically sheep’s livers), details various conditions that the diviner may find on extracted organs, indication which of these conditions were positive (auspicious) or negative (inauspicious)

A haruspex examining an organ’s features would add up the positive against the negative signs, and depending on which of the two prevailed, he would judge the reading to be either favorable or unfavorable

Since it was unlikely that an extispicy would ever yield 100% positive or negative results, a diviner might perform a second extispicy to reduce uncertainty

In this sense, the baru acted like a modern scientist, seeking to replicate the results of an earlier experiment to assure veracity

 The Barutu manual actually contains some purely theoretical predictions, in that they refer to anatomical oddities that had never been observed 

[andrea-cliffe]

History of Egyptian Statues in Divination

How to Seek a Prediction

Seek out a priest, or wait for one to arrive, likely by boat

Equipment

Special statue, possibly with movable head for “nodding”

Personnel

Priest trained in decreeing oracles

Description

Oracles appear relatively late in the long span of Egyptian history

The first representations of a sacred boat containing an oracular statue of the god Amun date to the early New Kingdom (reign of Amenhotep I, around 1525 BCE)

While there are some earlier textual references, neither the Old Kingdom (Pyramid Age, around 2686-2181 BCE), nor the Middle Kingdom (age of great Egyptian literature, around 2055, 1650 BCE), seem to place much reliance on decrees from oracles

It is the New Kingdom, and the following Third Intermediate Period (about 1069-664 BCE) and Late Period (about 664-332 BCE) where we find the most frequent mention of oracular decisions, both royal and “private”

There was no singular god responsible for all oracular decrees

The Egyptians appealed to many forms of the god Amun, Amun-Re, and other deities, state and local; even the defied king Amenhotep I was consulted by many resident of Thebes

Throughout Egyptian history we see an ebb-and-flow in perceptions of the divine nature of the pharaoh

At times the populace relied upon the king and the pharaonic court system, at other times direct appeals to the gods for assistance were far more common

Methods included approaching the statue of the god, borne in his sacred bark upon the shoulders of priests, during festival processions

Or, people could submit “yay or nay” inscriptions to the deity for a definitive decision; the bark or statue would walk forwards (yes) or backwards (no)

Some scholars believe that “nodding” indicated that certain statues had moving parts, manipulated by the priests, making this a potentially very human-influenced divination system

As far as selecting the next pharaoh was concerned, both Thutmose III and Ramesses IV separately recounted how the god Amun perused the hall at Karnak Temple, Thebes, in his bark, before settling in front of the chosen prince before all the courtiers

Oracular decisions came down on matters both large and small

In the case of royalty, the god might bestow his blessings on the legitimacy of pharaoh, or the decision to mount a military campaign or the best route for a trade expedition

For the elites and common people, advice was sought on whether goods and services had been adequately paid for, whether a promotion was likely, or if a neighbor had encroached upon one’s farmland, after the waters of the annual Nile flood had obscured the field boundaries

Since the king was the one responsible for ordering the inscription of oracular decisions on temple walls or papyrus documents, it is extremely unlikely he would ever have recorded a decision that went against him

Perhaps the closest we come to a decision running counter to pharaoh’s preferences is the magical tale of “King Khufu and the Magicians” (Papyrus Westcar), written during the Middle Kingdom

The last part of the text seems to foretell the end of Khufu’s line (Fourth Dynasty, Old Kingdom), and the rise of new kings who would form the Fifth Dynasty

[andrea-cliffe]

History of Comets in Divination

How to Seek a Prediction

Wait for a comet to appear

Equipment

Naked eye

Personnel

Any human who attributes meaning to the appearance of a comet

Description

Suddenly, and unexpectedly, the apparent perfection and regularity of the Heavens are disturbed by an unknown interloper: a comet.

For thousands of years, myriad civilizations around the globe saw comets as supernatural signs–sometimes as portents of good news, and other times as harbingers of doom

For cultures striving to understand the world around them, the capricious, seemingly random, unpredictability of comets is what imbued them with meaning: where else could comets be coming from, if not from the divine?

There are many famous comets in Western history:

44 BCE: An appearance of a comet soon after Julius Caesar’s death was taken as a sign that Caesar had become a god

12 BCE: The appearance of the “Star of Bethlehem” during the birth of Jesus is often interpreted as a comet (perhaps Halley’s comet)

1066 CE: An appearance of Halley’s Comet was supposedly a good omen for William the Conqueror and the Norman’s conquest of England at the Battle of Hastings (or, alternatively, a bad sign for the defeated King Harold and his Anglo-Saxons)

The change over time in humanity’s feelings about comets offers a great example of the same phenomenon taking on very different meaning within the predictive systems

Before Newton worked out his predictive theory of gravity, comets were almost universally thought to be signs from the gods, appearing to be random phenomena

Once Edmund Halley made the bold claim, using calculations based on Newton’s theory, that the “Great” Comet of 1682 (now called “Halley’s Comet) would return 75 years later, and that claim was posthumously verified, comets were effectively demoted in some people’s view to being great demonstrations of the near-fully deterministic nature of gravity, rather than supernatural messengers

[andrea-cliffe]

History of Casting Lots

How to Seek a Prediction

Find a special randomizing device, use it, and interpret the outcome following an associated pre-established predictive system

Equipment

Any purposeful randomizing mechanism–could be throwing dice or knucklebones, turning to a random page of a book, a computerized random number generator, etc.

Personnel

Depending on the system, could be anyone (such as with knucklebone tossing) or a trained expert who would interpret the random passage in a book

Description

Casting lots (also known as sortition, cleromancy, or sortilege) is a process used since the beginning of recorded history to divine the future

No matter the physical devices used, the idea of casting lots is always the same: reveal the will of the gods via human interpretation of the outcome of a purposely randomized process

Throwing dice is a good example of a randomizing process; the principle behind casting lots is each resulting combination will, owing to supernatural influence, reveal some aspect of a hidden future world

Tossing knucklebones (also called astragalomancy) was the ancient equivalent of throwing dice today–using animal knucklebones with marking analogous to pips on a die added

Predictions based on knucklebone divination start with the petitioner tossing the bones, followed by either the petitioner or an expert diviner looking up a corresponding predetermined prophecy for the values shown on the bones

In order to use the Gospel of the Lots of Mary, a petitioner would flip through the book and randomly choose a passage of text (also called an oracle)

The interpretation of the oracle (which was often very vague and general) was up to either the petitioner of the expert they might consult

While the Gospel of the Lots of Mary are specific to early Christianity, this kind of sortition book was very common in the Greco-Roman world, with another popular example being the Sortes Astrampsychi

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History of Aztec Rituals

How to Seek a Prediction

Consult a trained expert (applicable for both commoners and royalty)

Equipment

Sortilege (e.g. throwing dice), gazing deeply into reflective surfaces, and observations of nature, including the motions of stars and planets

Personnel

Trained expert

Description 

Aztec civilization, which consisted mostly of the Nahua people, believed that, in a primordial time prior to the “Fifth Age”, in which we currently live, their gods obscured humans’ ability to see the past and the future as clearly as the gods could

Old legend say the nature of this obscuration was if the gods “breathed on a mirror” that would otherwise show the true nature of the world around in the past, present, and future

Experts suggest the gods purposely clouded the mirror for fear that otherwise humans would know as much about their own future that the gods did

Divination through ritual process is an act that goes far back in time in native Mesoamerican tradition and is even described in the creation myths as something the gods did prior to their creation of the world

The Maya and the Aztecs both believed that some people within their societies had a closer relationship with the gods and supernatural domains than others, and thus had increased access to information about the future or advice from gods

These human prediction experts were: 1) ritual specialists, known as “day-keepers” or “soothsayers”; 2) astronomer-priests who observed and recorded astronomical information on the movements of celestial bodies across the sky; and 3) members of the royal family who could conjure dead ancestors or patron gods for advice or favor and were intermediaries

Day-keepers still exist today in many native Mesoamerican communities, and they interpret a 260-day ritual calendar using divinatory codices as a guide to determine the fate or auspiciousness of specific day sign-number combinations in the calendar

Day-keepers were consulted when a child was born, before its naming ceremony, since one of an Aztec person’s names was always based on their day of birth and many characteristics of their lives are predetermined by this date/name

In many Mesoamerican traditions, dreams are also considered to be a type of communication with the supernatural world

The same was true of events occurring in the natural world that Aztecs believed were omens with predictive meaning

Aztecs had certain common beliefs about the everyday predictive power of random, natural events, but some things occurred that people thought were strange enough to warrant a consultation with a ritual specialist for a higher level prognostication

I.e. the omen of the fiery comet or the bird with a mirror on its head that were observed and recorded and correlated with the arrival of Europeans

While all social classes consulted diviners and “soothsayers,” special high-ranking ritual experts from the noble classes were consulted by royalty in matters of state

In addition to the interpretation of dreams, omens, and the calendar, soothsayers also used various techniques involving external stimuli for prognostication

By creating randomized patterns with everyday materials (i.e. casting maize kernels or beans across textiles or into water), diviners interpreted patterns as portending particular future events

Interpreting randomized inputs (i.e. throwing dice) is part of a class of prediction more generally known as sortilege

They also used scrying or peering into reflective surfaces (mirrors, crystal, water), observation of the movements of animals or insects or observations of color changes in water to predict positive or negative outcomes and even to diagnose illness

Similarly to ancient Maya, Aztecs also made careful observations and records of visible astronomical events over extended periods of time that were used to predict future like-in-kind events or to back-calculate eclipses or other celestial phenomena that could then be correlated with socio-political or natural events that impacted life on the earthly plane

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History of Astrology

How to Seek a Prediction

Interpret the positions of the moon and planets relative to constellations made of stars

Equipment

Anything from naked eye observation to specialized software

Personnel

Astrologer

Description

Derives from the Greek word astrologia

The study of heavenly bodies in an attempt to explain and understand the mysterious and complex relationships between the Universe as a whole an human beings

The first documented evidence of Western and Near East astrology came from Ancient Mesopotamia (around 2000 BCE)

Astrological systems were developed independently in Ancient China, Mesoamérica, and India

While modern-day astrology primarily focuses on individual-level predictions (horoscopes), astrologers in ancient times often took a more big picture focus as they attempted to use the stars the divine the will of the gods for all of humanity

Quite intricate with detailed predictions

Intricacy and alleged detail are not new: ancient astrologers across cultures all sought better and better observations of the stars to improve their predictions

Babylonian sky-priests referenced Enuma Anu Enlil, a collection of seventy tablets containing around 7000 astronomical observations of planets, stars, and terrestrial events from the Old Babylonian period

A classic Chinese work called the Zi Wei Dou Shu, dating back to sometime before 1000 AD, was used by the emperor to tell his fortune based on the interpretations of the imperial astronomers interpreting the 28 Chinese constellations

Astrology is almost unique among ancient systems, because its input is based on a fully deterministic system but is extremely human in how it is interpreted

[andrea-cliffe]

Elements in Witchcraft

There are four concrete elements in modern witchcraft. Earth, air, fire, and water. It is heavily debated if there is a fifth element, spirit. Because of this, I will not include spirit. In this post, I will talk about each element’s correspondences, tools, virtues, astrological signs, and much more.

Earth

Earth is the first element I will write about. This element keeps you grounded and energized. In order to connect with Earth, it is advised to spend more time in nature, garden, keep plants in your home, and practice grounding and meditation. 

Direction: North

Time: Midnight

Season: Winter

Colors: Greens, Browns, and Other Earthy Tones

Tools: The Pentacle, Salt, Dirt, Wood, Plants, and Flowers

Crystals/Minerals: Emerald, Tourmaline, Granite, Bedrock, Jasper, Peridot, Amethyst, Iron, and Lead

Herbs/Plants: Cedar, Cypress, Magnolia, Primrose, Sage, Oak, and Ivy

Astrological Signs: Taurus, Virgo, Capricorn

Virtues: Staying Grounded, Patience, Truth, and Reliability

Air

Air will be the second element I talk about. This element helps you to keep a clear mind and find inner wisdom. In order to connect with Air, it is advised you feel the breeze, hang wind chimes, start a creative project, and journal.

Direction: East

Time: Dawn

Season: Spring

Colors: Yellow, Gold, Pink, and Pastels

Tools: Feathers, Wands, Incense, Brooms, and Bells

Crystals/Minerals: Topaz, Amber, Citrine, Agate, Tin, and Copper

Herbs/Plants: Acacia, Anise, Aspen, Clover, Frankincense, Lavender, Lemongrass, Myrrh, and Pine

Astrological Signs: Gemini, Libra, Aquarius

Virtues: Intelligence, Practicality, Curiosity, and Creativity

Fire

Fire is the third element I will talk about. This element helps with courage and strength as well as passionate affairs. In order to connect with Fire, it is advised you light candles, exercise, go on adventures, and do things you are scared of or passionate about.

Direction: South

Time: Noon

Season: Summer

Colors: Red, Orange, White, Violet, and Black

Tools: Candles, Athames, Swords, Daggers and Light

Crystals/Minerals: Fire Opal, Ruby, Garnet, Red Jasper, Bloodstone, Tiger’s Eye, and Brass

Herbs/Plants: Allspice, Basil, Cinnamon, Juniper, Cardamom, Onion, Peppers, Thistle, and Poppies

Astrological Signs: Aries, Leo, Sagittarius

Virtues: Courage, Enthusiasm, Willpower, Action, and Strength

Water

Water is the last element I will write about. This element keeps your intuition sharp and aids in emotional health. In order to connect with Water, it is advised that you take baths, drink teas, visit a large body of water, watch the rain, or go swimming. 

Direction: West

Time: Dusk

Season: Fall

Colors: Blue, Silver, Turquoise, Navy, and White

Tools: Shells, Different Types of Water, Seaweed, Hag Stones, Chalices, Cups, and Cauldrons

Crystals/Minerals: Aquamarine, Blue Fluorite, Topaz, Tourmaline, Lapis Lazuli, Pearl, Mercury, Silver, and Sodalite

Herbs/Plants: Aloe, Apple, Chamomile, Gardenia, Jasmine, Lemon, Lily, Lotus, Moss, and Rose 

Astrological Signs: Cancer, Scorpio, Pisces

Virtues: Compassion, Love, Flexibility, Forgiveness, and Understanding