arttheory2024

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W&A: 7.3 Final Post

Expanding this blog to include this course’s assignments was just as enjoyable and informative as for Art Theory. I became more adept at trusting my own understanding and opinions on art and it became easier to research and engage with material to back up my thoughts and ideas. The continued practice in engaging and analyzing artworks I was previously unfamiliar with was a great help from this course. It is one thing to be able to know previous information to parrot back about a piece, but another to completely go in blind and begin dissecting and discussing an artwork with no prior reference or influence. It was encouraging to discuss women artists and their rightful places in the art history canon and to expand my knowledge of the struggles and adversities faced by them throughout time. Understanding and attempting to use the different methodologies from this course was also a great learning opportunity and another element that increased my confidence in critically engaging with art history materials. 

I hope opportunities to continue this blog and the learning that comes with it occur.

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W&A: 7.1 Yoko Ono's Cut Piece

How does your reaction to and understanding of the artist and audience change as the piece progresses?

This was a tense and borderline uncomfortable 8 minutes (that seemed to last way longer). The audience really caught me by surprise; I assumed there would be more levity and tension throughout the duration of the piece. Instead, there were instances of laughter from the participants that I was not expecting. I assumed there to be a certain hushed silence or reverence present. It was interesting to notice which audience members knelt down completely to be level with the artist and those who crouched in order to cut pieces of the clothes and remain above her. The strength of the artist became more apparent as the scene went on; she remained unflinching until the end. If strangers came up to me with scissors I would not be that steadfast. The knowledge that those scissors could hurt her was very present in my mind as I watched the performance. As she became more vulnerable and exposed as time went on, there was a marked shift in dynamic between artist and the audience, finally coming to fruition with the last male audience member removing such a large piece of cloth and the piece ending. 

What do you think Ono was trying to express? Is Cut Piece a feminist work?

I think Ono was trying to express ideas about the female body in regards to greed/entitlement and autonomy. There is a charged element to undressing a female body in a public sphere and on top of that, each audience member takes with them the part of the clothing that they cut. It says a lot about each participant, the amount that they choose to remove from Ono. One woman removed a small button while another removed a stretch at Ono’s shoulder to expose her. This can translate into the notion of taking trophies or exemplifying the efforts women go through to exist in society; continually removing pieces of themselves for the benefit of others. I think for these reasons, Cut Piece is a feminist work. It brings to light the function of bodily autonomy for women and calls into question a societal sense of entitlement to other people.

References

Yoko Ono, Cut Piece, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zbQBD06N0Hs

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W&A 6.2: Psychoanalytic

Suzanne Valadon, Joy of Life, 1911

When examining Suzanne Valadon’s “Joy of Life” within a psychoanalytic framework, initial assessment would classify the painting as a potential “primal scene”; the male figure approaching the women in the outdoor environment precludes a specific Freudian sexual encounter. The potential of this primal scene places the viewer (and Valadon herself)  in the position of projecting their own ideas and emotions regarding sexuality onto the painting. The phallic nature of the trees surrounding the women further emphasizes this point. However, the body language of the male figure suggests a potential castration anxiety in regard to approaching the women; this male displays hesitancy in his crossed arms and may fear the ability of the women to emasculate him through rejection. Some of the female figures are outright oblivious or ignoring the male, while one in particular appears receptive and encouraging of his advancement. 

Moving beyond Freudian psychoanalytic into a Lacanian interpretation reveals even more detail. Lacan had ideas about the impact of the gaze and how this affected children’s perception of the world and themselves. In Valadon’s painting, there is no gaze directed at the viewer; the male figure’s gaze is solely on the women while the women are each gazing away from everyone else. In a Lacanian sense, this could represent a feeling of isolation and rejection from parental figures that Valadon may have experienced. Rather than being inclusive and welcome into the so-called joy of life, Valadon closes the dynamic of the figures off to herself and the audience. 

Psychoanalytic interpretation of art can be useful when analyzing typical universal themes that deal with sexuality, desire, or human dynamics. The theories provide a sense of cohesion to the human experience where harmful experiences in childhood can become relatable and pathologized. However, many concepts of psychoanalysis are unable to be scientifically proven and remain speculative in nature. This calls into question the legitimacy of these theories to proclaim ideas about art and human psyche in general. In regard to Valadon’s “Joy of Life” specifically, I think using a psychoanalytical framework was a successful exercise in evaluating male/female relationship dynamics.

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W&A 6.1 Freedom for Women?

Did modernism actually offer women freedom? 

The answer to this question is, unsurprisingly, incredibly nuanced and layered. A variation of a cut and dry answer may be found if you look in very specific areas of modernism, but to evaluate the concept as a whole reveals uncertainty. Two extremes can be found within modernism in terms of treatment and advancement of women. The movement as a whole was rife with dividement over women. Russian Avant-Garde movements equated women with men while Italian Futurism outright attacked feminism (Chadwick, 2020) making any concrete decision regarding how much freedom was allowed to women through modernism a strict and narrow case-by-case basis.

I believe that modernism offered women freedom to a degree, but this freedom was more of an “allowance” made by men rather than outright acceptance of the equality and abilities of women. Even within our textbook (Chadwick, 2020), the discussion of most women comes from their relevance and relation to men; each woman artist is someone’s wife, sister, or daughter. Modernism is complicit in the perpetuation of intrinsically linking art and the concepts of women, which evolves into issues regarding the commodification of both (Khachibabyan, n.d.). Despite advancements made during the modern era, women remained inseparable from art and thus met the same fate when commodification occurred; women were further objectified and deemed below men. 

Modernism broadly depended on the concepts of abstraction to flourish, and fashion (specifically women’s fashion) proved a successful vehicle for distributing abstraction in artistic ways. This created a kind of dissonance as certain aspects of fashion, largely considered women’s work such as pattern, decoration, craft, and textiles, were seen as lower art (Chadwick, 2020). These practices weren’t valued until a man allowed them to be elevated. For example, Roger Fry opened up the Omega Workshop where many women created artworks like Vanessa Bell’s Cracow (Chadwick, 2020). The abstract forms and repetitive shapes identify the work as modern, but it is worth considering the art world and society’s critique of the work had it been accomplished outside of the context of Fry’s workshop. 

Furthermore, women were given more agency outside of the creation of works from workshops to be able to purchase art and art objects or fashion. Sonia Delaunay designed simultaneous dresses that emphasized the female form in conjunction with art (Chadwick, 2020). Women could exhibit choice in their dress and exhibit power over their purchasing and self expression. By previous standards, this inclusion of so many women and elevation of lower artforms to higher is an improvement on the freedom of women, but is not nearly enough to, in my opinion, be considered full liberation. 

Vanessa Bell, Cracow, 1913

Sonia Delaunay, Simultaneous Dress, 1913

References

Chadwick, W. (2020). Women, Art, and Society (Sixth) (World of Art) (6th ed.). W. W. Norton. https://tiffin-bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9780500775967 

Khachibabyan, M. (n.d). Modernism and Feminism: Representation of Women in Modernist Art and Literature. Wisdom Periodical. https://wisdomperiodical.com/index.php/wisdom/article/download/71/117/389#:~:text=Sexuality%20and%20gender%20were%20significant,woman's%20rights%20and%20feminist%20movement.

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W&A 5.2: 19th Century Femininity

Edgar Degas’ Impressionist work The Tub (1886) features a nude woman crouching in a small tub bathing herself. The composition is depicted in a top-down, semi birds eye view where the viewer is gazing from an outside ceiling perspective upon the intimate scene. This figure is a non-traditional rendering of a woman; she is a realistic and average looking woman rather than an idealized version designed to mimic classical goddesses. There is a candidacy to the woman that was atypical of the 19th century. The model Degas utilized may have been a prostitute undergoing her natural bathing ritual – this provides an element of passivity in the sense that she is performing the passive, casualness of life (edgardegas.net, n.d.). She is simply going through the natural motions of habit. Degas showcases an unprecedented maintenance of femininity. Regardless of the woman’s profession, she allowed herself to participate as a nude model for Degas, revealing a partial agency to be seen in such a way. The more intimate elements of her body are hidden from view but the vulnerability of the interior private space negates such a covering. 

By painting such a private scene, Degas inherently casts both himself and the audience as a voyeur. The idea of bathing, an act meant to involve the singular person behind closed doors, is one of the ultimate concepts of private space. Degas invades the scene and imbues it with his own agenda (to depict the average woman); as a male artist it is in question whether this depiction of an intimate female ritual is his place. The woman is still objectified by Degas as an exemplification of women as a whole. There is no posturing or performance within this scene; a freedom that women of the 19th century were not given outside of private spaces. Audiences (whether male or female) are also voyeurs in the sense of intruding upon the woman in a moment of vulnerability. The viewpoint being behind the figure’s back further emphasizes this aspect. 

References

EdgarDegas.net (n.d.), The Tub 1886. https://www.edgar-degas.net/the-tub.jsp

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W&A 4.1: Gender Differences

Despite depicting the same story/theme/scene, Gentlisechi and Caravaggio’s paintings are remarkably different. When examining each artists’ life and experiences, these differences become clear. 

Artemisia Gentileschi was a woman artist in the 17th century who had to compete with the notions that women were incapable of expressing artistic genius in the same manner as men (Week 4, 16th and 17th Century Case Studies). She was provided with various opportunities to further her art and career due to her father’s station as a painter, but one of her father’s assistants raped her in 1612 resulting in a trial to regain her honor. It is with this event in mind that her rendition of Judith Beheading Holofernes may be viewed as an outlet of her frustrations regarding the rape and the trial. She paints Judith as an active participant in Holofernes murder in a potential display of the force she personally knows is needed when attempting to overpower a man. There is strength and intent shown in both women of the painting; this is clear through the tension and weight behind the maid holding Holofernes down as well as the tense lines of Judith’s arms holding the knife and head (Chadwick, 2020). This is a non-traditional depiction of the female gender within 17th century art as women were not thought of as having such agency. The triangular composition suggests action and keeps the viewer's eyes on the details of the event at all times. The inclusion of the bright blood contrasting the white sheet in a downward cascade suggests an air of finality – as if Holofernes is already dead by the time we (the audience) have been allowed to see this scene. 

In contrast to Gentileschi, Caravaggio was a man with a penchant for violence (nearly her opposite in all manners). He was foul tempered and had homosexual tendencies (Adams, 2018) which make his focus on the anguish of Holofernes more understandable in his version of Judith Beheading Holofernes. Nearly all of the strength and tension of the work resides within the figure of Holofernes, emphasizing typical gender stereotypes and roles of the time. Men were expected to be more volatile and commanding in presence compared to women. There is a look of pain and strong emotion on Holofernes' face, while Judith appears mildly disinterested. Additionally, possibly to retain her femininity, Caravaggio depicts Judith in a pose that is not forceful enough to behead someone. There is a lack of tension in her arms and body position to drive the knife. In the same manner, Judith is shown in white and with no blood on her despite the violent nature of the scene; this could be another attempt by Caravaggio to preserve the female image of her. The composition of this piece is more of a straight line, a less dynamic manner than Gentileschi’s triangular one. Holofernes’ blood is in projectile in this work, rather than running in rivulets it strikes across the canvas emphasizing the violence. 

Artemisia Gentileschi, Judith Beheading Holofernes, 1611-12

Caravaggio, Judith Beheading Holofernes, 1598-9

References

Adams, L. S. (2018). The Methodologies of Art (2nd ed.). Taylor & Francis. https://tiffin-bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9780429974076

Chadwick, W. (2020). Women, Art, and Society (Sixth) (World of Art) (6th ed.). W. W. Norton. https://tiffin-bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9780500775967 

Women and Art. “Course Notes”, Week 4: 16th and 17th Century Case Studies.

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W&A: 3.2 Cremaster Cycle

How does Barney's work address contemporary masculinity?

The Cremaster Cycle addresses contemporary masculinity through a cyclical combination of reality and fantasy, biology and mythology. The entire concept of the work resides in the idea of the biological state every person begins as, after conception, where their gender has yet to be determined (called sexual differentiation). This is regarded within The Cremaster Cycle as the perfect state. A main theme of the works includes the challenges presented within the concept of masculinity (or what happens after differentiation has occurred) as well as how individuals may choose to deal with these challenges. This is evident through some of the Cremaster characters refusing to move forward in the life process (seen in Cremaster 2) or those who fully embrace, sometimes to an alarming degree, masculinity (shown in Cremaster 3). Both refusal of choice and damnable hubris are shown to be ineffective against the strength of the flow of destiny and life. Barney exhibits a delicate balance between the inevitability of consequence as well as the cyclical nature of learning repeated lessons. 

Do any of the theoretical models we've explored this semester help us understand his work, or understand masculinity?

I think the Gender and Queer theories discussed in our textbook (Adams, 2018) shed light on the themes and topics within The Cremaster Cycle. Specifically when considering the sexual differentiation stage that Barney heralds as an ideal state as an extension of the concept of the androgyne, we can begin to more fully consider the potentiality of gender and how the rigidity of the gender binary hinders everyone. The liminal state between genders, and the androgyne (being simultaneously both and neither gender) present a notion of freedom and choice that, when removed from an individual, is shown to cause distress or violence in Barney’s works. Masculinity may function as a box or stifling structure that could benefit from re-evaluation or an allowance of returning to a more androgynous state.

What did you think he was trying to say about gender with the Cremaster Cycle?

I think Barney was attempting to illustrate gender as a series of continual, cyclical choices; that the idea of gender has very specific tipping points of potential where individuals can decide exactly what type of gender or person they would like to become. Sometimes individuals refuse to make a choice, though, which is, inherently, a choice in itself by allowing natural progression to occur without input. This is clear when viewing the Cycle as a whole process. In the first film, the ideal potential before choice is illustrated. In the second, as time forces the cycle to continue, we witness a reticence to BE and a longing for stagnation in identity where there is a desire to return to the first state. Here we witness violence as a potential result of the unwillingness to accept the role of masculinity. The third film may represent the progression of a masculine identity through life as illustrated by the masonic ritual and the ascension from apprentice to master. Present in this film is also the dangers of unchecked masculinity represented by the architect and his hubris. The fourth film really hammers in the inescapability of biology followed by the despair and longing in the fifth film that denotes the end of the masculinization process that began in film 1. 

References

Adams, L. S. (2018). The Methodologies of Art (2nd ed.). Taylor & Francis. https://tiffin-bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9780429974076

Barney, M. (n.d.). The Cremaster Cycle

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W&A: 3.1 Identity

Lorna Simpson, Flipside, 1991

In Flipside, Lorna Simpson effortlessly combines the concepts of gender, identity, and race through art. Looking at each component of the piece reveals a new layer to dissect, and provides a deeper understanding when viewing afterwards as a whole. 

The focus of the first image is on the woman’s hairstyle as her back is turned toward the camera/audience. This style is distinctive of her racial identity while also implicating the concept of womanhood and surrounding stereotypes. The style is her hair’s natural state reflecting her natural identity. Her hairstyle also challenges the notion of longer hair being the norm or a requirement for women. Placing this image in direct side by side with the image of the mask, it can be speculated that Simpson is also drawing a parallel to gender as a concept of a mask or performance/choice. Gender can be something to put on through hairstyles and clothes just like a mask may be worn on or off, or something unique to each wearer. 

Moving onto the mask, it is a clear symbol of race and identity; signaling tribal or collective racial concepts. By facing the mask away from the viewer, Simpson implies potential hiding of identity or, alternatively, a putting on of the mask for means of protection or celebration. Deliberately not showing the face of the mask or the woman represent an “otherness” or a separation from the viewer and the subjects/objects. 

Finally, it is the words at the bottom of the images that creates and sustains the tension and correlation between these concepts. Without them, speculation as to the connection among the two images could become overrun with potential answers. The inclusion of the words highlights the significance of each component; there is emphasis on gender through the usage of feminine language and directly mentioning her hairstyle, and on race through the implication of outsider perspective passing judgement on the woman for her racial identity (and the choices she makes in regard to that identity). The included text now completes the correlations for the viewers.

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W&A: 2.2 Women in Film

Mulvey’s (1975) theories on film impacted my experience as a viewer by highlighting and making me increasingly aware of the selfishness inherent to moviegoing/watching. She encapsulated the immersive nature of films in a way that I had not previously considered. This rendered a newfound, small sensation of guilt at the narcissism I exhibit when collecting film characters that I identify with. While it is reassuring that this habitual ego libido is not singular to my own experience, it is worth exploring the why and the consequences of such actions of film viewers. Aside from the general caveat of using Freud’s theories (which are no longer heralded as truth in psychological circles) as science, a hole/gap in Mulvey’s (1975) theories that I would have appreciated her covering includes any reversal potential. Is it possible for a female gaze to inflict the same concepts of scopophilia onto male characters? Would a woman engaging in the same voyeuristic tendencies merely circle back into being an object of the voyeurism herself? Essentially, can women escape the cycle of scopophilic cinema and reclaim agency?  

In “Vertigo”, the concept of voyeurism is on full, explicit display. The main character Scottie is tasked with following and observing a woman named Madeleine without her knowledge or consent to being watched. She functions as an object to be solved both for the audience and for Scottie. In one particular scene, the establishing shot shows that Scottie has followed Madeleine to an art museum and watches her from behind a set of pillars. The camera cuts sharply from behind Scottie to a point of view shot with the camera at his eye level, thus rendering the viewer/audience both complicit and active participants in the act of objectifying the woman. This is an example of ego libido where audiences project and identify with the male protagonist. Mulvey (1975) discusses this fact that the audience gaze often mimics the male role in film, further enhancing the illusion of there not being a camera at all. Within this illusion, however, the camera still functions as an extension of Scottie and emphasizes his emotional pull and fascination with Madeleine. In the same scene in the art museum, Scottie is seen taking in every detail of Madeleine in comparison to the women in the portrait, viewers may exhibit scopophilia through this making of connections and the pleasure of similarities. 

References

Adams, L. S. (2018). The Methodologies of Art (2nd ed.). Taylor & Francis. https://tiffin-bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9780429974076 

Hitchcock, A. (1958). Vertigo. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d-kcczAff40

Mulvey, Laura. (1975). Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema.

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W&A: 2.1 Titian's "Rape of Europa"

In “Ways of Seeing”, Berger (1972) describes the concept of looking/seeing as a conscious choice or willing act. This is performed through examining objects or art within the scope of their relation to outside interferences (either literal such as the wall surrounding a work, or metaphorical such as considering the culture through which a work was created). This concept lends to schools of thought or frameworks through which audiences of art “look”, like the contextual approaches described in our textbook (Adams, 2018). In discussing Titian’s “Rape of Europa”, author A.W. Eaton (2003) considers a feminist approach to the work. 

Eaton (2003) evaluates the painting as having a diminished aesthetic quality due to its inherent ethical issues regarding the eroticization of rape. This is accomplished through Titian’s enticement of viewers to become complicit in the strengthening of social allowances of rape through Eurpoa’s body positioning and sensuality (Eaton 2003). Titian’s triangular composition continually reasserts viewers’ eyes toward Europa’s exposed body. Feminist thought would have viewers pushing back against the notion that audiences should sexually enjoy the sight of Europa’s abduction and subsequent rape, therefore employing the idea of looking as a choice. By depicting Europa in such a sensual manner, Eaton (2003) points out that Titian plays upon the fact that women, with limited agency, were not allowed to express sexual desire and must express hesitancy to protect their image. This coincides with Berger’s (1972) discussion of a woman's presence and her inherent voyeurism of herself where she is perpetually self conscious of her own external image. 

Historically, this painting has had a variety of reactions from men and women. Naturally, in Titian’s time, this work was commonplace and well regarded; with the emergence of a feminist lens, and a more welcoming artworld for women, opinions can shift to accommodate gendered perspectives on the work. Personally, I think the act of looking can be gendered, and when dealing with such sensitive and polarizing topics such as rape, often has to be. Additionally, I would say that my own assessment of Titian’s painting aligns similarly with Eaton’s (2003). There is an inherent disillusionment occurring when I consider the sheer emphasis Titian places on the eroticism of such an act that is more, to me, about violence than sex. I think there should also be consideration to the identities of the figures in the work; I think it is imperative to consider here that Europa is a mere mortal being swept away by a god. This element heightens the inequality and sense of helplessness from Europa. I feel that the mortal vs immortal element of the work illuminates another layer of commentary on the effectiveness of the piece. My background as a former believer in the concept of God (although different from god depicted here) may inform my understanding of the struggles of a weaker being in the face of an all powerful deity. 

Titian, “Rape of Europa”, 1559-62

References

Adams, L. S. (2018). The Methodologies of Art (2nd ed.). Taylor & Francis. https://tiffin-bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9780429974076

Berger, J. (1972). Ways of Seeing. https://www.ways-of-seeing.com/ 

Eaton, A. W. (2003). Where Ethics and Aesthetics Meet: Titian’s Rape of Europa. Hypatia, 18(4), 159–188. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1527-2001.2003.tb01417.x

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W&A: 1.4 Faith Ringgold's Quilt

Formal Analysis

Ringgold’s quilt employs a loose linear perspective; the figures and objects recede and minimize as they approach the horizon line. This leads viewers' eyes initially to the focal point of the composition which is the depiction of the Statue of Liberty in the foreground. The diminishing smoke from the Statue’s torch connects the foreground with the background creating a cohesive narrative. The lines of the figure's arms reaching around and “up” in the composition also act as cues for the viewer's eyes to follow and address each figure in the water. Ringgold’s use of color highlights the emotionality of the work; her employment of red/orange in the flames of the ship and the ocean surrounding the figures evokes a likeness of blood and pain. This is further emphasized in her depiction of the figures. There is clear anguish and fear represented by agape mouths and starkly contrasted whites of the figures' eyes against their darker skin tone. 

Iconographic Analysis

In terms of iconography there are two elements present in this quilt that can be discussed; the Statue of Liberty and, to a lesser extent, the slave ship in the background. Addressing the Statue of Liberty first, it is clear that the statue is representative of certain ideals such as freedom, opportunity, equality, and hope. This is the meaning placed upon her by the country in a form of promise to outsiders seeking asylum. The face Ringgold has given the Statue of Liberty employs a stoicism coupled with a protective nature when looking at how the Statue holds the child in its arms. The dimly lit torch may represent a Lady Liberty who is at capacity and struggling to maintain her image and promises of freedom in the face of such anguish of the figures in the quilt. The inclusion of the burning slave ship may represent similar ideas of freedom through the death or destruction of the institution of slavery. 

Faith Ringgold, We Came to America, 1997

References

Adams, L. S. (2018). The Methodologies of Art (2nd ed.). Taylor & Francis. https://tiffin-bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9780429974076

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Women & Art: 1.3 Gender Influences

What are ways that the social and cultural construction of gender affects your everyday life? How are those ideas enforced?

I think social and cultural constructions of gender are, as of yet, unavoidable in their influence. To an extent, I consider myself a person who must constantly, in the presence of others, be “on” in terms of presenting and following the aforementioned societal construct of gender in order to be perceived and respected as I need. My “performance” of gender might require a bit more effort than someone else’s and therefore I would need to be more aware of the subtlety and nuances of social and cultural ideals of gender and the consequences of failing to live up to the preconceived notions behind them. I think these are “enforced” like any other societal and cultural construct, by the people and media we surround ourselves with. Additionally, I think gender construction may be a tad more personal in the sense that some of the expectations we have about gender may be put upon us by ourselves – I know I certainly have an ideal of what kind of man I want to be each day (for better or for worse). 

How can studying gender and art inform our understanding of our world?

When considering and studying gender and art, I think it is imperative to consider what you are seeing in concordance with what you are not seeing. For example, when discussing groups of artists or artworks, consider what is missing or what has been purposefully barred from the arrangement. Are there equal spaces for women/other minorities? By studying gender and art you can train yourself to examine the larger context of objects and situations which can be applied to any other aspect of life. The treatment of women or minorities in the artworld (and how to correct for mistreatment) can be seen in the music or entertainment industry or even just general life experiences (co-workers or friends experiencing discrimination or unfair prejudice). Exploring this kind of interplay within art can be beneficial in priming individuals to recognize patterns of closed opportunities to certain individuals.

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7.3 Final Post (for now)

While the coursework for Art Theory & Criticism is over, I hope to continue to use this blog for art related purposes. Posting each week allowed me to engage differently with the course material; choosing which tags to assign each post was an exercise in and of itself to ensure that my information found the right category. I have learned that writing for myself can translate into being useful to others as well, and that if I am questioning something, it is worth putting it out there. 

Throughout this course and creating this blog, my understanding of art theory has grown exponentially. Prior to this class, I was deeply unaware of the philosophies and guiding principles that work behind the scenes to facilitate and regulate the art that people produce. I think my favorite information to dive into was Dewey’s theory of art as experience. I feel like it encapsulated a lot of the ideas and meanings behind museum spaces and the wholeness of art in general. That content and post genuinely changed my perception of art and has stuck with me since week 3.

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7.2 Today's Art

While reading McLuhan, the most obvious connection/application to today’s art world and society was to Artificial Intelligence being used to create art. McLuhan argues that the medium is the limiting factor of any message; the message is solely inhibited by the capacity or function of the medium. When considering AI art, this is clear through the fact that there are some things that AI art cannot replicate like humans can. Many AI models struggle to depict human hands accurately. When viewing/consuming/using AI art, McLuhan would impress that we should consider the function of AI and how AI itself distorts the art it creates. This can include the various ethical concerns surrounding AI such as stealing art from other artists without credit, or falsifying information through generative images. 

The biggest insight I have gained from reading the authors from this week is to truly not take anything at face value anymore in regards to art or creation. Benjamin’s concept of the Aura drives home the necessity for the encapsulation of the history and context of artworks and a desire to retain their objectivity and uniqueness. Combining this with McLuhan’s idea of the medium being the message, we should continuously be evaluating and re-evaluating the ways we are given information through art. Is the aura of a piece still intact, and if it isn’t, can it still function successfully as a medium? And, like McLuhan insinuates, we cannot go backwards or remove the effects of the new technological advancements happening every day; in order to keep up with them we must learn to see through the veneer of the message and into deep consideration of the medium. 

References

Benjamin, W. (2008). The work of art in the age of its technological reproducibility, second version. In M. W. Jennings, B. Doherty, & T. Y. Levin (Eds.), The Work of Art in the Age of Its Technological Reproducibility, and Other Writings on Media (E. Jephcott, R. Livingstone, H. Eiland, et al., Trans.). The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.

McLuhan, M. (1964). The medium is the message. In Understanding media: The extensions of man.

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7.1 The Aura

Walter Benjamin’s (2008) theory of the Aura describes a cheapening/lessening of the inherent value and specialness of a work of art once it is mechanically reproduced. He considers the Aura of a piece to be its quality of originality in its place in history, culture, and time, as well as the exact physicality of a work. Once a piece is reproduced, it loses aspects of its Aura, whether that be its place in culture/history, or the nature of its physicality (for example, turning an oil painting into a print in reproduction); this negatively affects the way audiences view and interact with a work. 

I can see some truth to Benjamin’s theory when considering merchandise for artworks such as socks, t shirts, or ties with images of famous works on them. There is a distinct separation and difference after witnessing a work of art in that manner. I am not against this kind of reproduction, but can see where Benjamin is coming from when facing this specific example. However, I don’t believe Benjamin’s theory holds much truth when comparing it to contemporary art that was specifically designed for commodities. I think reproductions of Warhol’s work for example do not lose their Aura due to the original works being created with such commercialized care and intent. How can we claim that type of art loses an Aura during reproduction when the authenticity of that work is inherent to its commercial nature? 

I found two articles defending mass produced art as authentic art. They both exemplify easily mass produced works such as photographs and prints, and support these works as art through their aesthetic nature. Vassilev (2023) argues that changing society creates allowances for mass art to function as more historic art forms used to. Chapman (2003) emphasizes the artistry of such works despite their mass reproducible nature. 

References

Benjamin, W. (2008). The work of art in the age of its technological reproducibility, second version. In M. W. Jennings, B. Doherty, & T. Y. Levin (Eds.), The Work of Art in the Age of Its Technological Reproducibility, and Other Writings on Media (E. Jephcott, R. Livingstone, H. Eiland, et al., Trans.). The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.

Chapman, L. H. (2003). Studies of the Mass Arts. Studies in Art Education, 44(3), 230–245. https://doi.org/10.1080/00393541.2003.11651741 

Vassilev, K. (2023). The Aura of the Object and the Work of Art: A Critical Analysis of Walter Benjamin’s Theory in the Context of Contemporary Art and Culture. Arts 12, no. 2: 59. https://doi.org/10.3390/arts12020059

[arttheory2024]

6.2 What is an Author?

Foucault (1969) argues for the death of the author; he likens the conceptual nature of an author to an end-all-be-all authority figure of their works. He argues for an abandonment of “correct” interpretations and for searches of the intended authorial meaning in any work. Art (or any work) should exist outside of the context of the mind of the author and must instead reside within the external context through which it was produced. The concept/namesake of an author facilitates a needless classification that the work or art can survive the removal of. 

While I can understand Foucault’s argument for certain things, it seems limited in its capacity to encompass all authors/artists and works. How does one separate the artist from a self-portrait? For example, Rembrandt created nearly 100 self portraits over his career. Would Foucault regard these works as needing to be removed from the possession and influence of Rembrandt himself? There is an inherent intimacy and purposeful self-ownership in the veracity with which Rembrandt produced self portraits that seems to remove his works from following Foucault’s recommendations. Or would the very act of reproducing his own image onto canvas then remove Rembrandt as an author and fixate his being as more of an object due to the nature of painting? He documented his own aging and changing face throughout his life, which feels to me as an entirely personal and autonomous work. The simultaneity of being both author and object produces some holes in Foucault’s position. 

Some scholars (Moxey, 1998) argue that historical interpretation (especially that of the history of art) requires a degree of authorship to function. Moxey (1998) argues that art history continually struggles with the removal of the author or artist due to the perpetuation of classicism and elitism in regards to rewriting history. If the author/artist of a work is not responsible for the classicism of their time, then it falls on the shoulders of the historian to facilitate these notions. Classicism and elitism may be interwoven into the fabric of the canon of art history and therefore inseparable from both the works and artists who produced them. This idea further solidifies for me that Foucault’s theory/argument is not entirely applicable to certain elements of art history. 

Rembrandt van Rijn, Self-Portrait, 1659

References 

Foucault, M. (1969). What is an Author? 

Moxey, K. (1998). The History of Art After the Death of the" Death of the Subject". Invisible Culture.

[arttheory2024]

6.1 What is Art?

I would argue that the vast majority of individuals continue to evaluate and assess art in terms of emotionality and the feelings/sentiments they experience while viewing it; which is in line with Tolstoy’s Expression Theory (Tolstoy, 2021). There are many aspects of his theory that still hold ground today in how art is understood. In particular, there is emphasis on the transference and audience participation between art/artist and the viewer. This establishment of a relationship between object and audience is still widely regarded as an important aspect of the success/definition of art. This has been shown in the past by audiences (especially in America) hesitancy to accept more absurdist/modern art movements like Dadaism. Marcel Duchamp’s urinal was a hard sell to American audiences/critics due, in part, to a lack of emotional transference. 

An artist who comes to mind when exemplifying Tolstoy’s Expression Theory is Edward Hopper. Hopper’s works deal with the idea of universality (a strong marker of Tolstoy’s theory) amid isolation. He illustrates an emotional depth through subtlety. Hopper himself experienced the isolation he aims to depict; this sincerity bleeds through into the art. Even the negativity of Hopper’s art aligns with Tolstoy because Tolstoy regarded all emotion on the same level (negative or positive) (Freeland, 2003). A prime example of Hopper’s emotionality is on display in his painting The Automat (1927). The figure exudes an array of Human experience and emotion, ranging from loneliness, depression, isolation, contemplation, etc. 

Edward Hopper, The Automat, 1927

In terms of aesthetic beauty and technical skill, I don’t believe Tolstoy’s theory aligns with Kant’s ideas of aesthetic beauty; Tolstoy in particular holds no regard for beauty when evaluating art. His focus is solely on emotional expression and sincerity of that emotion/experience. It would be rather difficult (arguably impossible) to both relax one's perception enough to properly evaluate beauty according to Kant’s ideals (Ginsborg, 2022) and simultaneously project and receive the transference of the intended emotional meaning of a piece of art. Additionally, when considering technical skills in a Platonic sense, Tolstoy’s theory of Expression would imply that art that is able to evoke emotional sentiment is a great use of technical skill and mimicry (Jest Education, 2020). If emotions were a significant form, then art that can express them adequately uses technical skill to do so. 

References

Freeland, C. (2003). Art Theory: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press.

Ginsborg, H. (2022). Kant's aesthetics and teleology. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.), Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy.  

Jest Education. (2020). 3. Plato’s Theory of Forms. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TissHzEG_JY

Tolstoy, L. (2021). What Is Art? (A. Maude, Trans.; T. Lindell & D. King, Producers). Project Gutenberg. (Original work published before 2021)