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The Contributions of Teens and Young Adult Rappers towards Solving Global Challenges

Our world is changing with each new sunrise. There are so many existing parameters that define this inevitable change and are directly or indirectly interconnected. Many people can recognize these dynamics in our day-to-day life. However, perceiving these changes is not of greater importance as much as perceiving their repercussions. However much the future is blurred, it is possible and necessary to lay down a course for change.[1] As humans, it is obvious to recognize the developmental effects of these changes. On the contrary, most of these changes have threatened to extinct the earth. Therefore, the most significant existing challenge is a fatal change against which no one grants the least concern.[2] Teens, young adult rappers, and musicians are critical elements in the solutions to today's most complex global challenges.

Today's world is more unpredictable and chaotic than in past historical periods. The chaotic nature of the universe is a progeny of climate change, war, crime, violence, gender disparities, extreme levels of poverty, economic crisis, water scarcity, food crisis, overpopulation, urbanization, and energy security, among others.[3] The future well-being of the human race depends on how they handle the challenges of today. As citizens of the entire globe, humanity is bound to succeed or fail. But what if these future threats could be tackled, or at least given clear solutions? Won't the human race endure through millions of years? Recognizing the drivers of change is the first step towards a grand victory.

Rap music has found itself into the fourth decade in the global and American culture. It has drawn billions of people.[4] Rap music has pulled many into the global debate and transformed how lived experience is analyzed. Rap is an essential factor for determining the public opinions of the masses, who are usually marginalized by politics and traditional surveys. Rap speaks for the many neglected voices that cannot be heard despite their existence. Rap music has soared to the height of shaping political and social ideologies such as poverty, feminism, and ethical issues. It likes deeper ideologies which is the main agent of propagating rap messages. Bonnette takes us through the deeper influence rap has on society at large. She corresponds her argument on the political influence of rap music to its impact on the audience. Bonnette slams us with an alarming realization of the powerful nature of rap music. She suggests that rap music is the best genre of music to indulge in finding solutions to the current global challenges. All musicians who indulge in its propagation equally serve as better tools for initiating solutions finding to the world's challenges. Apart from old rap kings like Nash, Jay z, 50 Cent, and Kanye, to mention a few, teens and young adult rap musicians stand better chances of being reliable sources of finding solutions to the global challenges since the magnitude of the energy motivating rap can never fail.

Society is entailed by able teens, men, and women with the potential to ignite the flame for charring global nuisance. Among these teens, men and women are rappers and musicians. We will explore how the world can vest its optimism on the potential of these individuals in aiding the world to overcome some of its devastating challenges.

Discussion

Music is the most influential element of society today. For many years, music has been a tool for preaching peace and togetherness by invoking intense feelings and emotions.[5] Ryan depicts the power of music on humans based on research that revealed the touch of music to an infant still in the womb. Music can paint and bring utopia worlds that can only exist in our imaginations. Music can take us back in history, bind us with the present, and leave us desiring it. Throughout the earth, humanity interacts with each other through music. Hence, it is clear that music traverses all forms of human communication medium when it comes to uniting people all over the globe.

The genre of rap music appears to outshine the rest of the music genre[6]. Rap music is enjoyed by most young and older people in equal measure and cuts across all genders and races. Both the subgenres of rap and the participatory artists have contributed to the distinct nature of rap music and in making it an indispensable facet of society. The transition of rap over the years, from The Sugarhill Gang in the 1970s through Run – D.M.C. to N.W.A. of 1986, has achieved tremendous recognition all over the globe, attracting millions of listeners. The N.W.A., for instance, used thug–gangster style to captivate their audiences through themes touching on police violence, racism, and drug wars, among others. The gang became extremely popular among teens and inspired many of them to be admired and influenced by their themes. Today, rap has revolutionized the entire society, how they feel, walk, talk, carry out themselves, and even how they relate with each other, which the masters of these ligaments being the likes of Drake, Dr. Dre, Kanye West, Eminem, and Jay Z among others. Rap music is progressively enlarging context. In no short time, the entire world will be mesmerized by the mumble rap sub-genre, which is common among teen and young adult rappers such as Lil Uzi Vert, and Edworthy, among others. The promising growth of rap music is sufficient to pull forces from human sources with enormous magnitude to provoke the Lion of change residing within cages of ignorance and irresponsibility. Rap teens and young adults, alongside other musicians, have just the right tools to achieve this objective.

Teens and Young Adult Rappers towards Climate Change

Global Warming is the primary cause of climate change. The earth's temperature is rising, with a forecast of 2 to 11.5 degrees Fahrenheit over the coming century.[7] The solution to climate change calls for participation by every human being on the planet. It requires governments to unite and societies to adopt zero-footprint environmental measures. The essence of mass communion broadens the platform for teen rappers and young adult rappers to impart their influence on the masses concerning climate change, its causes, impacts, and possible solutions. A number of teen rappers have emerged to tell the world that they have what it takes to inject their influence on the world regarding what they consider of more excellent value and importance to the entire human race. One of these teens is Xiuhtezcatl Martinez.

Martinez is a 17-year-old ten from Colorado State, U.S.A.[8] He has weaponized rap to campaign on climate change. When performing a rap on climate change during a school presentation, Martinez discovered that rap was an impetus for aiding humanity to discover solutions to global challenges such as climate change. Martinez stated that rap would be a perfect medium to convey their message to people who wouldn't want to listen to their message but rap hip hop. The teen has toured the world, imparting his plan among many. He was even invited to the U.N. General Assembly on Climate Change. He urged everyone to join hands in combating climate change. He holds the belief that climate change is a human rights issue, but many people are turning away from it and taking it for granted. In his speech, he stated that it was time for people to realize the dangers of climate change before every human society on the planet begins to suffer. His song – speak for the trees – serves as a continuation of his climate activism.[9] Martinez is a clear promise and indication of the power of teen rappers in alleviating and solving global challenges.

Young Martinez Performing for Climate Change

While the majority of people would spend time on the internet listening to their favorite rap songs, only a handful would go political to educate themselves about global happenings. People will follow the threads of their favorite rap king wherever it goes. Jaden Smith, the 21-year-old rapper and actor took to Twitter to urge over 8 million followers to be environmentally cautious by reducing their consumption of meat.[10] He participated in a youth-led demonstration that rocked the world in September and which urged world leaders to act swiftly on climate change. The young adult rapper embraced the power and influence of rap music and turned it to work for the common good of humanity. He empowers rap music to combat climate change and uses his rap-granted popularity to amass the youths towards finding a solution to climate change.

Billie Eilish is a teen musician who has dedicated their talents to combating and lobbying for climate change.[11] In her single "All the good girls go to hell," she poses a metaphor for the future of climate change and expresses her view on the future of humanity should the world keep on ignoring the effects of climate change. She encourages the mass to demonstrate on the streets in bi to poke global leaders from slumbering in the wake of this catastrophe. She stated that there were over a million people in the world who were pleading with global leaders to begin paying attention to climate change and that the earth is constantly and persistently warming up, thereby causing forest scorching, melting of ice caps, wildlife poisoning, and rise of the ocean bed. Her 2020 world tour featured Billie Eilish Eco-Village, in which her fans were able to learn more about climate change and the benefits of saving the world from it.

Rapper Billie Eilish Saying No to Global Warming[12]

Practicality has also been found among young adult musicians of our time. Megan The Stallion is not only a hip-hop artist screaming her voice out for climate change, but she is a doer and prefers to set the example for her fans to follow. In her 'Hottie Beach Clean Up' inaugural, Megan Thee Stallion, together with her fans, gathered to clean the Santa Monica Pier in California to keep the environment clean.

Teen Rappers and Global Conflict

The world can be likened to the Roma Arena, upon which only the strongest and most fearsome fighters walk out alive. Wars and conflicts have rocked the earth, from the South China sea to Southern Russia (Ukraine) and from North America to South Africa. Humanity is living in fear, and tomorrow's certainties are becoming more constricted with every new dawn. Nations are seeking military and economic supremacy, thereby resulting in conflicting interests. Terrorists and organized crime machines have interfered with the peace of Americans, Africans, Asians, and Europeans, prompting the United Nations to rise to the top of lobbying for peace and discouraging global conflict. But can the U.N. and superpower states such as the U.S., Europe, Russia, and China succeed in harmonizing humanity for a common objective of peace? Have these governments been bent on every law of sovereignty in many younger states? In this respect, young rap kings and queens find their share of contribution in lobbying for peace.

 Rap Against Dictatorship (R.A.D.) is a group of rappers in Thailand featuring teens and young adults who have dedicated their rapping talent to combat political oppression and police brutality.[13] King Bhumibol rose to power through the aid of military dictator Sarit. His oppressive regime has caused chaos and deaths among civilians. Angered by the dictatorial regime, R.A.P. decided to counteract this regime through their musical talents. In their rap song called Reform, R.A.D. Criticized the oppressive regime of the Thailand government. The gang's title is also a clear indication of their inclination towards what is the best insert for the entire human race; peace and prosperity.

Emmanuel Jal is a black Sudanese young adult rapper who was recruited to fight in the Sudanese Civil War at the tender age of 12 years.[14] He used his childhood experience of war and violence to transform society through rap talent. His first album, called Gua, Sudanese word for power, and peace in Nuer, was a concoction of American rap, hip hop, and African beat through which he encouraged his fans and nations to adopt peace and evade war and conflict. His book on War Child reflected his childhood experience in the Sudanese Civil War. The book is also a perfect instrument for lobbying for global peace and prosperity. Coupled with childhood experience, Emmanuel Jal is a perfect symbol in the world of rap and the society who have discovered the power of rap talent in shaping global peace.

Young Emmanuel Jal during the Sudanese Civil War[15]

Teen and Young Adult Rappers and Gender Disparities

The woman factor in society has caught the attention of global organizations such as the World Health Organization (W.H.O.) and the U.N.[16] Many women in society stand higher chances of being victimized physically, sexually, or emotionally. Violence against women has raised eyebrows lately, with the United Nations spearheading calls for women's empowerment and eradication of gender disparities at all levels of public and private life. These disparities in the female gender have caught the attention of global organizations and teen and young adult rappers and musicians. They have contributed significantly through songs and actions towards effacing this global disorder.

The 2012 gang rape in India changed society's perception, announcing it to be violent and brutal to the female gender more than it is to the male gender.[17] The woman was gang-raped and died two weeks later from the incident. Despite the many that saw, experienced, or heard about the incident, including top politicians like Shamad, non-other the rap against rape gangs came out with more agility to condemn the act and secure the safety of the Indian woman and the global female gender.[18] Pankhuri Awasthi and Uppekah Jain (pictured below) employed rap style to foster their message in the Indian civilization. They rapped on the hypocrisy of society and its dirty dealings in preventing the female gender from living and enjoying their lives. It took only two weeks for the video to garner more than a million views on YouTube. They further recognized how dangerous the world is for women and put emphasis on the importance of arming themselves to combat this global challenge, even if it meant scaring the thought out of the masculine male gender.[19] In the far hemisphere of the India plate, these two young adult rappers have served as a perfect example of the inclination of rap artists toward solving universal problems, and that misogyny is far behind the civilization of the rap industry.

Uppekha and Awasthi Rap Against Rape[20]

Poverty

Sanctioned by economic inequality, poverty is one of today's most significant global challenges.[21] Many first, second, and third world governments are struggling through poverty, seeking to maintain its levels at the base, or eradicate it completely. While most first-world civilization has made efforts to equalize their economy to host every class of its citizens, most third-world countries are struggling through poverty, thereby inspiring the growth of additional challenges such as crime and conflicts, poor environmental management, and water and sanitation crises. The World Bank estimated global poverty at 20% of the total global population, a number that is way too vast for a tiny economy.

Rap music has been a sole inspiration for teens.[22] Throughout the world, a number of teens have risen to rap on global topics like poverty and economic inequalities. In India, almost one out of every three households in every village lives in poverty. The sorrowful condition inspired the rise of a new rap teen. In New Delhi, a 14-year-old teen by the name of Sumit received global recognition for rapping on the subject of poverty. The English translation of his lyrics illustrates piercing words that provoke people to have second thoughts concerning poverty and its impacts in the societies today. He reported having been inspired by rap music at a tender age of 10 years. Though unprofessional with no global recognition, Sumit is a powerful example of rap music's constructive and motivational energy among teens. Poverty is harsh on them, and without a substantive source of inspiration like rap music, most teens might end up losing track of global challenges awareness.[23] Unlike so, rap music harbors the most intense positive energy used to provoke consciousness of the happenings around humanity.

Socio-economic caste census: One in three households in India lives in poverty[24]

Hip-hop music is an effective tool for reaching marginalized urban youths, educating and inculcating in them critical and analytical skills which they can use to succeed and change the world.[25] They indicate that most students learn better when motivated, of which rap music has such capacity. Rap hip hop has been the only legitimate voice from the urban youths ever since its inception. The teen mounts the inspiration to rap about poverty, racism, homelessness, and drugs through rap music, among other societal challenges. Duncan and Ernest[26] State that most teens and rap song musicians contextualize rap music in warring against poverty and oppression, making hip hop the foundation of contemporary black history. Rap music inspires the rise of rap musicians who have shown proficiency in aiding civilizations tackle most of its threatening challenges.

Conclusion

Conclusively, music scholars have treated music as a truism for African Americans to hear their voices, grievances, outrages, and discontents. Hip hop has currently diversified from political themes to social and economic themes. Raping, disc–jockeying, graffiti, and breakdances, the hip hop rap music has captured the attention of millions of people. Rap hip hop was likened to the many Black movements; a cultural extension of politics among Black communities has ceased to be a political platform for the black Africans and has extended hands to the likes of Martinez and Billie Eilish. Rap has traversed the northern urban communities to find potential in the commercial and social world. It has become the best weapon for slaying global negligence against future uncertainties. Rappers have converted rap music to combat the many global challenges and inspire the rise of solutions to them. While many are on the road to awakening the perception of the world towards such awareness, many are being pulled closer and closer toward such realizations and prompted to join hands towards their solutions. Rap artists have used their Twitter platforms to inspire the masses to find solutions to the many global challenges.

The Canadian rapper Daniel Nwosu and MacDonald created a rap song in 2020 called "Blame the Rapper," in which they emphasized to the world how significant the messages musicians spread and musicians themselves are to the world[27]. Rappers are the medication through voices. They give a take life, but rap musicians can merge as cures to the world with the best channel of energy. Among the few here unmentioned are rappers like Kanye West and Jay Z, who have surfaced to air their views concerning governance in the United States of America. Like Kanye, they have condemned poverty, racism, and state neglects ever since the George Bush administration. All these and many other more concerning rap music and musicians serve to indicate the nature of rap as not only watching from afar but being part and parcel of the solutions of the world. Teens and young adult rappers and musicians have depicted a great desire to change the world. They have gone outside of the comfort of their music – Megan the Stallion – to be practical role models to the people and their fans. Therefore, we should expect solutions to complex global challenges from teens and young adult rappers, alongside other musicians of today.

Bibliography

Angrist, Josh, Pierre Azoulay, Glenn Ellison, Ryan Hill, and Susan Feng Lu. "Inside job or deep

impact? Extramural citations and the influence of economic scholarship." Journal of

Economic Literature 58, no. 1 (2020): 3-52

Ayers, Jordan, and Kevin O'Donnell. "Billie Eilish Gives us a Glimpse of the Future of Pop.

Music: A Review of When We All Fall Asleep, Where Do We Go?." (2020).

Bernstein, Anna, Rachel Cohen, Timothy J. Duggan, María Encarnacion Carrillo-García,

Lorraine Kerslake, Marek C. Oziewicz, David Robinson et al. Literature as a Lens for

Climate Change: Using Narratives to Prepare the Next Generation. Rowman &

Littlefield, 2022.

Bonnette, Lakeyta M. Pulse of the people: political rap music and black politics. University of

Pennsylvania Press, 2015.

Borooah, Vani K., Dilip Diwakar, Vinod Kumar Mishra, Ajaya Kumar Naik, and Nidhi S.

Sabharwal. "Caste, inequality, and poverty in India: A re-assessment." Development

Studies Research. An Open Access Journal 1, no. 1 (2014): 279-294.

Coker, Christopher. "Cultural ruthlessness and the war against terror." Australian Army

Journal 3, no. 1 (2005): 145-163.

Conrad, Rachel. "Youth Climate Activists Trading on Time: Temporal Strategies in Xiuhtezcatl

Martinez's We Rise and Greta Thunberg's No One Is Too Small to Make a

Difference." The Lion and the Unicorn 45, no. 2 (2021): 226-243.

Cundiff, Gretchen. "The influence of rap and hip-hop music: An analysis on audience

perceptions of misogynistic lyrics." Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in

Communications 4, no. 1 (2013).

Duncan-Andrade, Jeff, and Ernest Morrell. "Using Hip-Hop Culture as a Bridge to Canonical

Poetry Texts in an Urban Secondary English Class." (2000).

Gilsdorf, Kirsten. Global challenges and their impact on international humanitarian action.

Geneva, Switzerland: Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA),

2011.

Karaduman, Can Ibrahim. "Global challenges for the world." Obronność–Zeszyty Naukowe

Wydziału Zarządzania i Dowodzenia Akademii Sztuki Wojennej 2 (10) (2014).

Keyes, Cheryl Lynette. Rap music and street consciousness. Vol. 560. University of Illinois

Press, 2004.

Kolip, Petra, and Cornelia Lange. "Gender inequality and the gender gap in life expectancy in

the European Union." European journal of public health 28, no. 5 (2018): 869-872.

Kurup, Premnadh M., Ralph Levinson, and Xia Li. "Informed-decision regarding global

warming and climate change among high school students in the United Kingdom." Canadian Journal of Science, Mathematics, and Technology Education 21, no. 1

(2021): 166-185.

Mérieau, Eugénie. "Thailand in 2018: Military dictatorship under royal command." Southeast

Asian Affairs 2019, no. 1 (2019): 326-340.

Roychowdhury, Poulami. "The Delhi gang rape": The making of international

causes." Feminist studies 39, no. 1 (2013): 282-292.

Santiago, Nicholas. "The climate warrior": an interview with Xiuhtezcatl Martinez." Harvard

International Review 37, no. 4 (2016): 56-59.

Tembo, Nick Mika. "Reading Emmanuel Jal's War Child as a spiritual autobiography." Nordic

Journal of African Studies 28, no. 4 (2019): 21-21.

Thomas, Caroline. Global governance, development and human security: the challenge ofpoverty and inequality. Pluto, 2000.

[1] Coker, Christopher. "Cultural ruthlessness and the war against terror." Australian Army Journal 3, no. 1 (2005): 145-163.

[2] Karaduman, Can Ibrahim. "Global challenges for the world." Obronność–Zeszyty Naukowe Wydziału Zarządzania i Dowodzenia Akademii Sztuki Wojennej 2 (10) (2014).

[3] Gelsdorf, Kirsten. Global challenges and their impact on international humanitarian action.

Geneva, Switzerland: Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), 2011.

[4] Bonnette, Lakeyta M. Pulse of the people: Political rap music and black politics. University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015.

[5] Angrist, Josh, Pierre Azoulay, Glenn Ellison, Ryan Hill, and Susan Feng Lu. “Inside job or deep impact? Extramural citations and the influence of economic scholarship.” Journal of Economic Literature 58, no. 1 (2020): 3-52

[6] Angrist et al., “Inside job or deep impact? Extramural citations and the influence of economic scholarship.” 3 – 52.

[7] Kurup, Premnadh M., Ralph Levinson, and Xia Li. "Informed-decision regarding global warming and climate change among high school students in the United

[8] Conrad, Rachel. "Youth Climate Activists Trading on Time: Temporal Strategies in Xiuhtezcatl Martinez's We Rise and Greta Thunberg's No One Is Too Small to Make a Difference." The Lion and the Unicorn 45, no. 2 (2021): 226-243.

[9] Santiago, Nicholas. "" The climate warrior": an interview with Xiuhtezcatl Martinez." HarvardInternational Review 37, no. 4 (2016): 56-59.

[10] Bernstein, Anna, Rachel Cohen, Timothy J. Duggan, María Encarnacion Carrillo-García, Lorraine Kerslake, Marek C. Oziewicz, David Robinson et al. Literature as a Lens for Climate Change: Using Narratives to Prepare the Next Generation. Rowman & Littlefield, 2022.

[11] Ayers, Jordan, and Kevin O’Donnell. "Billie Eilish Gives us a Glimpse of the Future of Pop Music: A Review of When We All Fall Asleep, Where Do We Go?." (2020).

[12] Ayers, Jordan, and Kevin O’Donnell. Billie Eilish Gives us a Glimpse of the Future of Pop Music.

[13] Mérieau, Eugénie. "Thailand in 2018: Military dictatorship under royal command." Southeast Asian Affairs 2019, no. 1 (2019): 326-340.

[14] Tembo, Nick Mdika. "Reading Emmanuel Jal’s War Child as spiritual autobiography." Nordic Journal of African Studies 28, no. 4 (2019): 21-21.

[15] Tembo. "Reading Emmanuel Jal's War Child as a spiritual autobiography." 2019): 21-21.

[16] Kolip, Petra, and Cornelia Lange. "Gender inequality and the gender gap in life expectancy in the European Union." European journal of public health 28, no. 5 (2018): 869-872. Kingdom." Canadian Journal of Science, Mathematics and Technology Education 21, no. 1 (2021): 166-185.

[17] Roychowdhury, Poulami. "" The Delhi gang rape": The making of international causes." Feminist studies 39, no. 1 (2013): 282-292.

[18]Jain Uppekha and Awasthi Pankhuri, “Rap Against Rape.” Directed by Mohit Sharma. April 19th, 2015. 4:27, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hxiwXQS4yQM.

[19] Cundiff, Gretchen. "The influence of rap and hip-hop music: An analysis on audience perceptions of misogynistic lyrics." Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications 4, no. 1 (2013).

[20] Jain Uppekha and Awasthi Pankhuri, “Rap Against Rape.” Directed by Mohit Sharma. April 19th, 2015. 4:27, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hxiwXQS4yQM.

[21] Thomas, Caroline. Global governance, development and human security: the challenge of poverty and inequality. Pluto, 2000.

[22] Ibd.,

[23] Keyes, Cheryl Lynette. Rap music and street consciousness. Vol. 560. University of Illinois Press, 2004.

[24] Borooah, Diwakar, Mishra, Naik, and Sabharwal. "Caste, inequality, and poverty in India: A re-assessment. 2014.

[25] Duncan-Andrade, Jeff, and Ernest Morrell. "Using Hip-Hop Culture as a Bridge to Canonical Poetry Texts in an Urban Secondary English Class." (2000).

[26] Duncan and Ernest. "Using Hip-Hop Culture as a Bridge"

[27] Ibd.

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Equality for Animals

Many of us believe we are obligated to treat nonhuman species in a manner that would appear wrong if done to us. We kill animals for food, confine them, and experiment on them. Moral philosophers are obliged to ask whether there is any relevant justification for these differing treatments. According to Singer, "I shall suggest that having accepted the principle of equality as a sound moral basis for relations with others of our species, we are also committed to accepting it is a sound moral basis for relationships with those outside our species – the nonhuman animals." (Singer, 55). Singer presents the idea that species membership is insignificant in moral treatment and that human behavior and attitude towards animals are entirely based on irrelevant facts.

Singer presents a critical difference between speciesism and sexism or racism. Humans do not subject animals to harsh treatments because they are furred and have a scale but because they differ in species from humans. I agree that education is transgender and that it benefits the female gender as much as it does the male gender. The claim that females cannot be benefited from education does not justify barring them from schooling. Singer borrows this argument to prove the indifferences between human and nonhuman species and that all require equal and just treatment.

Singer states that treating nonhuman species differently does not justify minding their interests and needs. Racists or sexists make a fatal error in thinking that women or black folks are inferior to men and white folks. Even if their factual error were correct, it would not justify the difference in treatment regarding their needs and interests. Singer employs the terms sexist and racism to confine and, at the same time, liberate the term speciesism. They all form the basis of the following arguments and the entire book and are, therefore, vital for our consideration.

The Exposition

Equality rests not in the factual arena of human interests and needs alone. Singer exploits a number of dynamic questions pertaining to equality and human treatment. He conceives that equality does not necessitate that human be treated any differently from nonhuman species. He contends this thinking. Equality does not depend on physical strength, intelligence, moral capacity, or similar facts. Equality, according to Singer, is a moral thought. There is no justification that the mere difference between the abilities of two people should be used to justify how each person should be treated.

According to Singer, "Racists violate the principle of equality by giving weight to the interests of members of their race when there is a clash between their interests and the interests of those of another race." (Singer, 58). This exposition outlines the main point of argument and indicates the unstable nature of equality. It can be seen that defining equality entails a vast basis of consideration. In regard to equality, Singer's objective rests with other philosophers, such as Bernard Williams, who depicts that the need for equality has no basis on factual equality among us (Williams, 1970). Conclusively, Singer states that we cannot fail to take into consideration the suffering of a being should he paper to suffer. This leaves me with a clear path toward what equality is truly based upon.

I would take Singer's argument on the inclusivity nature of equality for a fact that despite our varied nature and character, creation and disposition, we are all subject to one form of treatment, and that our rights must be respected and our needs and interests considered. Singer tries to outshine the casual trends around the nature of equality and its most factual basis existing today in society. It is these bases that distinguish how humans treat nonhuman species and which have greatly served to misguide human thought and behavior towards nonhuman species.

The Critique

Despite the analysis of the nature of equality and what stands to be factually correct as far as the foundation of equality is concerned, Singer could not justify the inclusion of nonhuman consequences, given that nonhuman species have no interest. According to professor Frey, interests and desires go hand in hand, of which the two are motivated and inspired by desire (Beauchamp & Frey, 2011). But what can be said to be the desire of a dog, perhaps? From this basis, professor Frey found a significant drawback in Singer's arguments. While humans have beliefs that guide their desires, nonhuman species do not. Hence, equality finds no rest on account of fair and equal treatment of the human species.

Another critic of Singer is Carl Cohen, a professor of philosophy at Michigan University. Carl argues that distinguishing between what is right in relation to their interest is what suits all holders of equality (Cohen & Regan, 2001). Equality holders must be in a position to understand and appreciate the rules governing duty and themselves and recognize underlying conflicts between what is just and what is their interests. Cohen contradicts Singer by stating that it is only in the arena of human socialism that equality can be defined since humans have the ability to restrict moral judgment, and it is this concept of moral judgment that defines equality in treatment. Cohen gives a rather compelling argument by comparing what is just between treating mentally disabled people and those who are mentally stable. If moral judgment should be used to justify the course of treatment for the two individuals, then equality has a basis in moral judgment alone, as opined by Singer. What else can I say?

Richard Posner did not lose his grip on Singer's neck. Firmly, he choked off his view of Singer that moral intuition ought to supplement our actions towards nonhuman species. Rather, Posner posits that the soft moral intuition amongst most Americans is that nonhumans feel pain when hurt and that inflicting pain with no proper reason is unjust (Singer,61). He refutes the inclusion of intuition in logical arguments, stating that many philosophical facts will be at stake when intuitions are included in logic (Posner, 2000).

All these critics bore a deep hole in what is actually the building principle of equality. I cannot despair with the fact that nonhuman species must find equality with human treatment. But can a shark, tiger, snake, stray dog, or monkey provoke our moral intuitions when humans are forced to contend against them to survive?

Conclusion

It is true that the intelligence quotient of some humans is lesser than that of some animals. Some animals have the capacity to make more moral decisions and responsibilities than humans. So then, what status of the moral community should these nonhuman species occupy? Should we consider their interests equally with ours? Which is morally fit to experiment on a grown chimpanzee or a mentally unstable human? Speciesism presents a far much discrete point o argument in answering the main thesis. The subject of equality cuts across all living things on the planet.

From Singes' inclusion of animal rights and its perspective on the nature and fundamentals of equality, I tend to agree that equality appears more objective than subjective. The arguments have indicated that there are a lot of factors that need to be considered when deciding between what is just, fair, equitable, and lawful. Morality seems to smear each one of them. But moral intuition, as we have seen in the critic section, can fail to hold for defining the fundamentals of equality. The debate continues. But it must be recognized that what is the optimal good of all living things can sometimes meet necessary contradictions. We as humans cannot hold entirely on the basis of treating every animal fairly as we would ourselves. Some cases and encounters with nonhumans beg the crippling of mortality for the safety of justice.

References

Beauchamp, T. L., & Frey, R. G. (Eds.). (2011). The Oxford handbook of animal ethics. Oxford

University Press.

Cohen, C., & Regan, T. (2001). The animal rights debate. Rowman & Littlefield.

Posner, Richard A. "Animal rights." (2000): 527-541.

Singer, P. (2011). Practical ethics. Cambridge university press.

Wasserstrom, R. (1964). Rights, human rights, and racial discrimination. The journal of

Philosophy, 61(20), 628-641.

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I-35 Bridge- Ethical Obligation

I-35 Bridge Ethical Case Study

Abstract

This case study is about a bridge in Minnesota that collapsed and resulted in the death of thirteen individuals and one hundred and forty-five more individuals were admitted to the hospital for injuries from the same incident. The incident took place on August 1st, 2007. The overcapacity due to the heavy traffic on the bridge during the time of collapse is considered the main cause of the collapse (NTSB). However, the investigators stated inattentive inspection and design error to be some of the other causes of the collapse. One of the gussets plates of the bridge had an uneven thickness which went unnoticed by officials during inspection; however, the accident could have been prevented if there had been more cooperation between the state of Minnesota and the engineering firm in coming up with a better design procedure and review which was noted by the investigation to be improper. The recommendation is that officials conduct a comprehensive inspection regularly, and the detected errors should be rectified by the officials immediately. The recommendation is referred to the Minnesota Department of Transportation (MnDOT). Adherence to comprehensive analysis and action to problems will help prevent similar future accidents. Moreover, this paper will detail means of preventing ethical failures related to decisions and emphasize the need to prioritize the wellbeing of citizens to the high maintenance cost to ensure at most safety in engineering structures. Therefore, improving the manual book and inspection course is important to maintain engineering structures.

Problem statement

The I-E35W Bridge collapsed under the pressure of heavy traffic in 2007, resulting in many injuries and deaths. Bridges are considered one of the best architectural accomplishments of the past century; bridges have become a fundamental part of society, especially when people are required to cross a place where it would be almost impossible without the bridge. Therefore, the collapse disaster of a bridge is a very critical issue for society. The collapse of the I-E35W was attributed to a lack of maintenance and structural deficiencies (NTSB). Despite the federal government marking the bridge as structurally deficient, the government still delayed its replacement until 2020. The ethical violation of bridge inspection can be attributed to the cause of the disaster.

Moreover, despite the risks of leaving the bridge operational, the bridge was not closed for public use due to underestimating the outcomes. Therefore the failures associated with this disaster should serve as a lesson to prevent future related disasters. Comprehensive inspection and correction of faults detected should always be adhered to to avoid such disasters.

Background

The I-35W Bridge, since its construction, has served as critical infrastructure for the people of Minneapolis. The bridge was developed as a link between Marcy-Holmes and the Downtown East neighborhoods of Minneapolis. The I-35 became one of the busiest bridges in Minnesota, with an average of over 140000 cars using the bridge daily (Bickal, Jim, and Sara). The bride accommodated the interstate highway 35W across the Mississippi River. According to witnesses and news stations, the bridge is reported to have collapsed during a rush hour in the evening, which resulted in 145 people being injured and 13 fatalities on August 1st, 2007 (Bickal, Jim and Sara). Moreover, the tragedy victims included car owners and construction workers who reportedly drowned; over 100 vehicles were also destroyed.

According to the investigation of The Federal Highway Administration, the Sverdrup & Parcel, an engineering construction company, constructed the I-35W Bridge in the early 1960s. The bridge construction under this case will be regarded in Division 1 of the Standard Specification for Highway Bridges (AASHO) (Holt& Hartman 05). After the completion of bridge construction in 1967, the firm was again taken by Jacob's Engineering Group in the ear 1999; the new management was then responsible for the inspection through the preparation of design documents and performing calculations for the bridge design. The main design for the bridge is a deck truss. This design adopts the truss located underneath the roadway to support the main infrastructure and the traffic. The I-35W Bridge had a center span that tied the two ends forming an expansion of up to 458 feet of steel arch. The little second foundation of the bridge was due to the river traffic below. To compensate for the little secondary foundation, the bridge was fortified with a continuous truss to equilibrate and balance the whole structure; this technique was applied due to its need for fewer parts. However, due to little redundancy, the bridge was categorized under the fracture critical bridge category; this implies that a failure of one part would incapacitate the whole structure (Wald). Despite the risks associated with the structure, it was still adopted due to its cheaper cost and lightweight. The NTSB attributed the cheaper cost of the bridge to incorporating only the necessary parts, which resulted in a cheap and efficient structure.

Engineering Failure

Investigations were performed after the incident to uncover and identify the cause of the tragic collapse. The lead investigators for the tragedy were the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) and NTSB (Holt and Hartman 04). During the investigation, there was numerous hypothesis and speculations about the reason for the collapse. The investigators did a comprehensive review of the bridge since its construction in 1967. During the investigation, the investigation noted an unusual condition of the bridge due to MnDOT inspection. The bridge was recorded to function properly for seven years from 1983. However, at the start of the 1990s, the piece of architecture received a structurally deficient rating by MnDOT. The rating was contributed by bridge-bearing corrosion. The report from NTSB indicated a significant amount of corrosion and wearing down of the bridge, which increased the amount of the bridge collapsing by a significant margin.

Moreover, there was a prior inspection before the incident, which was carried out by URS Corporation- a contract-based construction, design, and engineering firm. The firm's duty was to document the design of the bridge; the form reported a compromised specification concerning the effectiveness of the bridge. Moreover, the firm recommended a number of retrofit projects for the bridge. However, most of the recommendations and judgments of the firm were declined. The engineer responsible for the bridge, Dorgan, argued that since the bearings of the bridge could not be replaced by engineers without incurring high costs as the whole bridge had to be elevated, and because the bearings were not reported to be sliding, therefore, he commented that the corrosion and URS corporation's report was a minor issue (Bickal, Jim and Sara).

Moreover, the cracks detected by MnDOT in 1997 were patched up by officials without appropriate maintenance and investigation (Kimball and Williamson). A department formed by the University of Michigan Civil Engineering was contracted to perform further investigations regarding the design and efficiency of the bridge. The investigations revealed the deck truss to have been overburdened. However, even after the investigation, engineers concluded that the government would not replace the bridge since the deck truss had no signs of cracking. Moreover, the FHWA did a review concerning the bridge in 2005. The review rated the bridge's structural stability as 50% effective. Despite a clear need for replacement noted by the state, the bridge was still considered operational, and officials took no action to close or warn against its use by the public (Bickal, Jim, and Sara).

 Being among the state departments with jurisdictions to investigate and review the bridge's original design, the FHWA was able to perform an investigation that uncovered errors in the design of the gusset plate, specifically the U10 node. The investigation revealed that Sverdrup & Parcel and Associates failed to ensure correct quality control procedures and calculations of the gusset plate (NTSB). The investigation revealed that the U10 gusset plate's thickness was only a half-inch. Using other gusset plates for comparison, the report showed that other locations had a massive difference in thickness compared to the gusset plate. Moreover, there wasn't a credible reason for the thin gusset plate design, as the plate recommended thickness was not achieved in relation to the load it was supposed to carry (Holt and Hartman 08). The FHWA conducted more experiments; the tests involved measurement of efficiency design; the report noted that the design requirements for the U10 node were not required to support the bridge.

Moreover, a (D/C) capacity ratio was also the appropriate requirement for the U10 node. To the Federal Highway Administration, if the (D/C) ratio was found to be less than one, the design is termed conservative. However, if the same ratio was noted to be more than one, the design is considered liberal and would consequently need safety regulations. The investigation found the ratio of the U10 node to be more than one (Holt and Hartman 06). This revelation showed the fault in the calculations of the respective firm in measuring and calculating the correct load capacity. However, the NTSB report showed that inadequate design was just one of the causes that resulted in the bridge's collapse. Another factor noted as a result of the analysis was the poor state of the peak section of the structure. The NTSB reported that officials incorrectly assessed the bridge's weight. Being the duty of State Highway and Transportation, it failed to assess the bridge weight capacity accurately.

Moreover, the investigation noted a lack of gusset plate application in two instances- the National Highway Institute (a training course for bridge inspection) and the Reference Manual of the Bridge Inspector. It resulted in an incorrect assessment concerning capacity calculations of the bridge plates. Additionally, it failed to offer appropriate attention to distortions, including bowing the gusset plates during the bridge's inspections (NTSB). After reviewing the incident, both the FHWA and NTSB agreed that the main cause of the tragedy was a creaking gusset plate in the deck truss upper section. The gusset plates connected other trusses (Davey and Wald).

The collapse was attributed to the snapping of some of the plates held together with the gusset plate, which were overloaded by traffic and construction materials. Moreover, the collapse was also attributed to the bridge design's previous addition and renovation activities, which increased the weight of the bridge span (Wilber and Laris). The NTSB's report showed that the construction work on the bridge on the day of the catastrophe added dead weight to the bridge. Moreover, the bridge was filled with vehicles which were about 140000 passing over the bridge at the time of the incident. The heavy traffic and construction materials specifically located close to the south-side section at U10 nodes resulted in the snapping of the main gusset (NTSB, 2008).

Ethical Analysis

The best ethical framework that is applicable and able to analyze actions of MnDOT in relation to ethical lapse is Kantian ethics. This part will analyze how the Minnesota transport department is responsible for an ethical lapse through the analysis of the involved group's actions. The deontological framework focuses on the accepted moral actions based on certain defined moral rules ( Poel and Lamber). Immanuel Kant makes an argument in relation to deontology, insisting that the best framework is the categorical imperative that uses deontology principles. He further states that it is divided into two parts. The two parts are the reciprocity principle and the universality principle.  

The universality principle focuses on the action which ought to evolve into a universal law based on a maxim; a maxim can be defined as a practical-based principle that dictates an action (Poel and Lamber). Applying this principle to this case study, it becomes evident that, being in charge of the structure, the MnDOT was unable to properly assess the structure's condition properly. The report conducted after the incident showed that they knew of the deck truss fatigue signs and cracks present in the bridge. Moreover, the report shows that despite knowing the condition of the bridge, they did not take any action to rectify the situation or warn the public. They assumed the problem. Based on this case, the maxim can be categorized as "Failing to follow small problems safety policy is acceptable." Based on this maxim, it is clear that it violates and contradicts the principle of universality.

Moreover, another violation of the categorical imperative by the MnDOT association is the reciprocity principle; this principle focuses on treating someone else in a moral and equal manner (Poel and Lamber). The reciprocity principle is of the argument that everyone should place it as their duty to respect the personal autonomy of other people by valuing everyone through the treatment of a person as an end instead of treating them as a means. Relating to this case, the MnDOT failed to provide further information to those who crossed the bridge. They purposefully engaged in acts of preventing the condition of the bridge from being known by the public. Consequently, they failed to provide a free option of choice to the bridge users on whether to use or not use the bridge. The reason for failing to provide knowledge of the bridge's condition to the public was to save on refinement costs. Based on the reciprocity principle, their actions are irresponsible and unethical because they risked the lives of many citizens.

Recommendation

Numerous means can be applied to prevent a similar incident to the one that happened to the I-35W Bridge. To assure maximum safety to other bridge structures, comprehensive inspections and immediate action to problems detected should always be performed. Moreover, personnel and officials in charge of such architectural structures as the I-35W Bridge should always ensure that they perform their duties diligently and critically analyze the conditions of the bridges they are in charge of to ensure that they can foresee disastrous situations. Therefore, they should make a critical and comprehensive analysis of the deck truss of their bridges. They should also not underestimate small problems such as loss of useless parts, a small crack, or even truss fatigue. Moreover, they should make it their moral duty to inform citizens of the bridge's condition. This is a reciprocity principle in relation to ethics.

In addition, the gusset plates of different bridges should be investigated to determine their efficiency as this was the main reason for the tragedy of the bridge, report revealed that overcapacity led to snapping of the plates. Moreover, the state should create a team to provide knowledge on inspector training and manual book. Creating such a program will help the inspectors remove any doubts and gain more knowledge on the observation of every element.

Conclusion

Numerous reports from news indicate that the bridge's collapse was among the most horrendous incidents in the United States due to the number of casualties and losses incurred as a result of the collapse. The accident resulted from assumptions and disregard for the standard maintenance procedures by the transportation officials and engineers. Furthermore, there was also a lack of enough training on the officials' manual book and course use. Regarding the problem, the officials and construction companies ought to be more responsible and cautious in adhering to ethical means of performing their tasks. Moreover, the officials should also be accorded proper education on manual book use and structural designs of bridges to ensure accurate assessments. Adhering to these guidelines will ensure that similar future tragedies are prevented.

References

Bickal, Jim, and Sara Porter. "Reporting, Memories From the I-35W Bridge Collapse."  Minnesota Public Radio, 2017.

Davey, Monica, and Wald, Matthew L. "Potential Flaw is Found in Design of Fallen Bride." The New York Times, August 8th 2007, www.nytimes.com/2007/08/08/us/09cnd-bridge.html?

Holt, Reggie, and Hartmann, Joseph. "Adequacy of the U10 & L11 Gusset Plate Designs for the Minnesota Bridge No. 9340." (n.d.): n. pag. Web Archive. Federal Highway Administration, 2008.

Kimball, Joe, and Elizabeth Williamson. "Interstate Bridge Collapses Into Mississippi River in Minneapolis." Washington Post, August 2nd 2007,www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/content/article/2007/08/01/AR2007080102072.html.

National Transportation Safety Board, Highway Accident Report, 2008.

Poel, V. I., & Royakkers, L. Ethics, Technology, and Engineering: An Introduction (1st ed.). Wiley-Blackwell 2011.

Saulny, Susan, and Libby Sander. "Bridge Collapse in Minneapolis Kills at Least 7." The New York Times. 2007, www.nytimes.com/2007/08/02/us/02bridge.html?_r=0. Wald, Matthew L. Faulty Design Led to Minnesota Bridge Collapse, Inquiry Finds. 2008, www.nytimes.com/2008/01/15/Washington/15bridge.HTML?_r=0%5D.

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Plastics in the Pacific Ocean

Plastic accumulation is a serious and critical problem in the world today. Plastics result in accumulation and pollution of the ocean and are responsible for the destruction of life in both the marine and the environment. Statistical data estimates that about 1.15 to 2.41 metric million tons of plastic materials are directed toward ocean bodies through rivers and garbage dumping. Considering that plastic materials record a lower density than water, therefore, once the plastics are in the water bodies, they do not sink (Rhodes 208). Plastics are dangerous due to their strong and buoyant nature in relation to resilience in the marine environment; this results in the plastics being transported and spread over large geographical areas. Some of these plastic materials have been transported offshore by currents to accumulate in large patches finally. Some cover wider areas than Texas state. Consequently, due to degradation and erosion, these plastics degrade into even small-sized microplastics as a result of long exposure to the high salinity marine life, eaves, and the sun (Penghui 577). Therefore, it becomes crucial to develop means and policies that are efficient in reducing or eliminating these plastics. This paper will investigate the effects of plastics and microplastics on the environment and marine life to show the urgency and severity of plastic pollution.

Statistical data reveals that more than 300 million metric tons of plastic products are manufactured every year, which are used in different and numerous applications (Penghui 577). Of the 300 million tons, at least 14 million metric tons of plastic are disposed of in the ocean annually. Moreover, plastics contribute up to 80% of all marine-related waste, which is found from deep-sea sediments to surface waters (Borrelli 1517). Research on the plastics in the marine environment has revealed that marine life is either entangled to ingest plastic waste, resulting in death or severe injuries to the species (Rhodes 263). Furthermore, plastic waste has been shown to contaminate food and consequently threaten food integrity and quality. Also, plastic waste has been proven to lead to climate change and, as a result, disrupt and affect numerous lives.

In order to critically understand the effects of plastics, it is first important to understand their structure and basic characteristics. Plastics are made from an organic synthetic polymer derived from petroleum products that serve a wide variety of needs, including agriculture, building, electronics, vehicles, and packaging (Penghui 578). Of the 300 million metric tons of plastics manufactured every year, half of the total produce is utilized in the production of single-use items, which comprise shopping bags, straws, and cups. Careless disposing of these plastic products leads to numerous biodiversity and environmental harms.

The harms caused by plastic wastes include economic, social, and environmental. Plastic waste is found along the American shoreline; the result of waste along the shorelines is the pollution of tourist attraction sites and populated areas (Rhodes 230). The primary source of plastic-related waste mainly found in water bodies originates from the land. The waste stems from illegal dumping, construction, tire abrasion, industrial-related activities, and inefficient waste disposal procedures. The most significant land-related pollutant to the ocean is aquaculture, nautical activities, and the fishing industry. As a result of the ultraviolet light from the sun, ocean currents, wind, and natural marine factors, plastic products are broken down to form small particles known as microplastics (Nano plastics). This breakdown enables the plastic products to be small enough to be consumed and ingested by marine life.

Despite the adverse effects of plastic pollution on the environment, most government policies and citizens are ignorant of the magnitude of the effects caused by plastic pollution. As a result, there is an evident lack of adequate infrastructure to combat and manage pollution. Examples of these infrastructures include proper systems management for the disposal and recycling of waste products, circular economy infrastructure systems, incineration facilities, and sanitary landfills. The lack of proper waste management infrastructure results in waste products being disposed of in the ocean and rivers (Penghui 587). Moreover, the perpetual illegal global trade for waste materials has been observed to cause a similar effect to pollution in places where there was an inadequacy in waste management systems effective in managing plastic waste products. With evidence that pollution related to plastics is a problem affecting the environment and marine life, It becomes crucial to establish appropriate means as pollution threatens coastal tourism, human health, food quality and safety, marine species health, and general ocean health. Moreover, pollution also plays a key role in perpetuating climate change.

The effect of plastic pollution on marine ecosystems involves ingestion of the Nano plastics and microplastics, the entanglement of thousands of marine life, and suffocation of these species. Research has revealed that marine species such as turtles, fish, whales, and seabirds mistake plastic debris for food. As a result, they consume the waste products, which leads to the death of the species as a result of starvation due to their stomachs being filled with plastic waste, which remains undigested(Borrelli 1515). Moreover, marine life has been observed to become victims of internal injuries, reduced swimming ability, infections, and lacerations. Moreover, invasive marine species are also able to spread as a result of being transported by floating plastics. As a result, marine biodiversity is threatened, and the food web is disoriented. Such changes result in the reduced number of fish, shift migration of marine species, and extinction of endangered marine life.

Moreover, plastic waste pollution also causes a significant impact on human health and food. Microplastics and Nano plastics have been traced in salt, beer, and tap water and are evident in all ocean waters around the world. Moreover, the chemicals used in the manufacture of plastic materials are carcinogenic. These chemicals have been proven to have adverse effects on the human body’s endocrine system, which results in immune, neurological, reproductive, and development disorders (Windsor 1217). The effects of carcinogenic chemicals have been observed to affect wildlife just as much as they affect human beings. Most recent tracing of microplastics also discovered traces of Nano plastics in human placentas. However, despite speculations, more research is required to determine the validity of this occurrence in determining whether this is a prevalent trend in human populations.

Moreover, toxic contaminants, which range from chemicals to microbial have also been observed to reside on plastic surfaces due to extensive exposure of the plastics to saline conditions of seawater. When a marine life consumes such a plastic waste, these toxic contaminants are introduced to the gut system of the species, prolonged consumption of these toxic contaminants leads to their spread over the food web and consequently reaches humans. There is a transfer of contaminants from marine life to humans through consumption of infected seafood, as a result, this makes seafood unsafe for consumption.

Tourism is also severely affected by pollution as a result of plastic waste. Plastic debris occupies tourist sites and consequently reduces the aesthetic quality of tourist sites and destinations, resulting in a decrease in tourism industry (Windsor 1209). Moreover, the pollution causes an economic strain as the cost of cleaning such sites and maintaining them is an additional cost for the site. Research has also revealed that the buildup of plastic debris along a country’s coast results to negative impacts on psychological well-being, physical well-being, wildlife, and economy.

To add to the effects of plastic pollution is its effects on climate change, the effects of pollution results to numerous effects which impact climate change. The production of plastics actively affects climate change. The incineration of plastic wastes leads to a release of harmful gases into the atmosphere which go up in the cloud to act as a blanket which prevents the escape of heat, this consequently leads to increased global temperatures. Moreover, the landfills for damping plastic waste lead to the release of methane gas, which is even more powerful and dangerous than carbon dioxide.

            Therefore, it is evident that plastic pollution is a serious issue in relation to its effect and impact on the environment and marine life. However, there are many things that the government can do to ensure that there is enough policy formation and initiatives to combat plastic pollution in water bodies, specifically the Pacific Ocean. There are already existing legislative frameworks developed that focus on addressing marine pollution with plastic wastes. However, there is a need for the international community, and the governments to strengthen existing legislation to ensure that the set frameworks are effectively adhered to. The 1972 Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping Wastes and Related Materials (the London Convention), the 1978 Protocol to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL), and the 1996 Protocol to the London Convention are three of the most important pieces of legislation related to marine pollution regulations ( the London Protocol). The strengthening of these legislations will allow an effective environment for reducing plastic pollution in water bodies. Most of these legislations tend to be inefficient as their powers are very limited. Giving them more powers and jurisdiction would allow effective monitoring and control of marine activities.

Moreover, the state government of California should explore legislative frameworks in regard to extending producer responsibility. This strategy is very effective as it is a very cost-effective, low-cost solution. Moreover, circular economies that involve reusing and recycling waste materials should also be adopted to control plastic materials in the environment.

Industries, research institutions, and the state government should collaborate to rethink the current policies, redesign products, and come up with appropriate disposal means to ensure that they can reduce microplastic waste from tyres, synthetic textiles, and pellets(Windsor 1207). It is also crucial for society and consumers to turn to sustainable consumption. Such a change will consequently require coming up with means which extend beyond plastic products' life cycle and waste management practices; the practices and life cycle will involve considering the household use of plastic products and their design infrastructure.

Conclusively plastic pollution is a widespread problem in both the environment and marine life. Therefore, governments should adopt efficient policies to ensure that plastic pollution is controlled. Moreover, as the paper shows, plastic pollution affects us in more intricate and complex ways. Therefore, it should be considered with the magnitude of the widespread effects it causes on marine life and the environment. Effective means such as employing circular economies, strengthening the already existing legislation and collaborating with different stakeholders to ensure that the problem of pollution is addressed effectively. Furthermore, consumers and citizens should have personal initiatives to ensure that they have active participation in ensuring that the policies in place to control plastic pollution are feasible.

Work Cited

Borrelli, Stephanie B., et al. “Predicted growth in plastic waste exceeds efforts to mitigate plastic pollution.” Science 369.6510 (2020): 1515-1518.

Li, Penghui, et al. “Characteristics of plastic pollution in the environment: a review.” Bulletin of environmental contamination and toxicology 107.4 (2021): 577-584.

Rhodes, Christopher J. “Plastic pollution and potential solutions.” Science progress 101.3 (2018): 207-260. Windsor, Fredric M., et al. “A catchment‐scale perspective of plastic pollution.” Global Change Biology 25.4 (2019): 1207-1221.

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Judicial Waiver

Abstract

Racial disparities, which are most common in juvenile waiver cases to the criminal court of adults, have found distinct pride in most former research papers. Practices in prosecutorial decision-making concerning these waiver processes have lately raised an eyebrow as far as the existing policies in juvenile waiver are concerned. The outcomes and efficiency of waiving juveniles to courts also attract deeper digging since most current literature pinpoints absurd experiences for most juveniles who have been waived to adult courts, including limitations of successful reference to the primary objectives of the process of waiver. However, the perception of fair trial and treatment resulting from judicial waiver is not what scholars and researchers have made it appear.

Introduction

Statement of the Problem

            The establishment of the juvenile system was inspired by the philosophy of just treatment of punishment. Furthermore, a distinguished system for youths was initiated regarding vital disparities between adults and children (Kurlychek, 2016). Despite this, the juvenile court ideology loses meaning due to expanding the law of transfer. According to Ruddell and May (2012), juveniles waived to adult courts face the risk of extreme measures of justice inappropriate to their age. For instance, despite the supreme court of the U.S emphasizing the unconstitutional life imprisonment of youths in the absence of parole (Whitehead, 2018), most adult courts have issued sentences that go way beyond the life expectancy of young criminals.

Since the 1980s, there have been numerous distortions to the juvenile system philosophy as a result of juvenile courts becoming punitive, with the ease of transferring young criminals to adult courts (Shook, 2014). This is contrary to the juvenile system philosophy, which seeks to act in the juvenile's best interest. However, the mandatory law of waiver policy and direct transfer of files diluted the concentration of juvenile laws since more adolescents found their judgment before the adult jury (Schaefer & Uggen, 2016). But what if all these are baseless accusations?

            There has been a sharp decline in juvenile arrests since 1996, a 73% drop in 2018, which had approximately 730,000 juvenile arrests, marking the historic decline in the number of juvenile arrests in the past 40 years (Puzzanchera, 2020). Of all these arrests, only 1% were waived to the adult system, which reached 47% in 2016 (Hockenberry & Puzzanchera, 2020). What transpired between the two years serves as a clear indication of the significance of judicial waiver.

Purpose of Study

This research paper seeks to widen the scope of the juvenile waiver issue, particularly in the sense of procedural perception that brackets juvenile defendants waived to adult courts and those tried in juvenile courts.

Discussion

Implication for Procedural Justice

Juveniles get tried as adults in most criminal courts in four distinct court processes. In almost every state, judges authorize judicial waivers from juvenile courts to adult courts for certain cases that meet certain criteria. A prosecutorial waiver, on the other hand, allows persecutors to file charges against a juvenile without needing any judicial approval. Many states have statutory exclusion laws which mandate a specific variety of juvenile cases to be filed in criminal courts. Lastly, other states have enacted 'the age of criminal responsibility to be below 18 years of age (Whitehead, 2018). This implies that all individuals below 16/17 years are expelled from the juvenile system of justice with regard to their age (Griffin et al., 2011). However, campaigns have risen for states to increase the age limit to above the current. Many states still prosecute juveniles of age 16 as they would adults (Juvenile Justice, Geography, Policy, Practice & Statistics, 2018). These statutory laws and policies enhance judicial waiver for juvenile offenders.

            The juvenile justice system and statutory laws of exclusion which exclude youths below 18 years, ensure equal treatment of all juveniles fitting in given criteria. Aided by prosecutorial and judicial waivers, individual situations are enabled by the transfer decision. Both procedures seek to attain equal treatment in a bid to further fairness by means of standardization, given that the second method seeks to enhance fair measures by looking into the personal character of both the crime and the defendant. However, procedural justice that might influence other results is still unclear to the procedural justice perception of the juvenile.

            A number of pieces of literature have argued the importance of fairness to the justice system (Reisig &Mesko, 2014). However, a number of scholars have indicated that an ordinary variation has still not been achieved in which the implementation of just policies results in diversified legal compliance (Nagin & Telep, 2017). Studies have continuously indicated that constant fairness in treatment runs hand in hand with a number of positive outcomes in judicial waivers.; which have outgunned the arguments that juvenile is fairly treated even when individuals have similar negative characters. Unjust treatment provokes anger, depression, and sadness, while just treatments inspire positivity like satisfaction and happiness. The latter is associated with positive attitudes towards rules, legitimacy of rules, and authority. Judicial waivers have served to inspire such kinds of attitudes among a judicial populace.

            While several scholars have demanded the inclusion of other factors in order to best understand the operative pivot of procedural justice among cultures, groups, and societies, the elements prove vital for gender and ethnic minorities to judge the integrity of fair judgment. The individual background plays a significant role in his perception of the unjust ruling. Race and ethnicity play closer on similar grounds (Whitehead, 2018). For instance, most whites have indicted more just treatment perceptions than Black and Latino juveniles (Gau & Brunson, 2010). These differing perceptions are brought about by racial disparities in both outcome and treatment among the involved juveniles. Research has also pinpointed the fact that most black and Latino juveniles receive harsher treatment than white and are waived to adult courts more often than the white juvenile offenders (Gao & Brunson, 2010). We can dismiss this by merely stating that judicial waiver experiences have not received a significant amount of studies since individuals with numerous convictions tend to regard personal convictions as unjust compared to those who have had fewer convictions. Another study revealed that most juvenile defendants who experience unprofessionalism and confusion in the judicial weather are likely to perceive the proceeding as unjust and illegitimate (Whitehead, 2018). The judicial waiver is based on the best interest of all groups of minors.

            Juvenile vs. Adult Courts

Evaluating different aspects of the juvenile system is vital to understanding the negative implication held by certain individuals with regard to their emotions, behaviors, and attitudes. These aspects are, therefore, better discussed concerning procedural justice. Existing literature has failed to explore the fair treatment incurred by juveniles in both courts. This field is very significant owing to the fact that most youths are psycho-socially and cognitively immature. Hence, early encounters with the justice system might trigger a permanent impact on their future beings. For instance, most waived juveniles experience 'additional disadvantages' such as poor paying jobs and job opportunities, both of which result in higher chances of committing the additional offense (Whitehead, 2018). Since their perception, orientation, and personality still undergo reformation as far as the legal system is concerned, they are likely to develop negative attitudes towards perceived injustice in the populace.

            Again, juvenile waivers had intensively declined in number since the mid-1990 when they were at their peak. On the other hand, transfer laws have sored, thereby creating room for criminals to bypass juvenile courts. Recently, some states reversed that by amending their transfer laws objectively to deter judicial waivers from being breached. As a result, the number of judicial waivers decreased by 53% between 2005 and 2015 (Hockenberry & Puzzanchera, 2018). The Juvenile Justice Geography, Policy, Practice, and Statistics vividly ascertain this reduction in judicial waivers on their website on jurisdictional boundaries.

The fair and less adverse nature of the juvenile system impacts the perception of just treatment as opposed to the adult court. Juvenile defendants tried in criminal courts are supposedly said to have far worse experiences compared to those tried in juvenile courts. They stand higher chances of being incarcerated and given longer sentences compared to those tried in the juvenile system. Furthermore, judicial waivers on youths have resulted in more harsh treatment than even adult criminals in what is known as the juvenile penalty. Research also pinpoints the harsher treatment received by waivered juveniles in contrast to their flow among young adults aged 19 to 29. The juvenile penalty may lead to an increased negative perception of the judicial process among transferred juveniles. Judicial waivers might also lead to more hostile incarcerations should the juvenile be held in an adult prison facility, which results in more negative impacts on the perception of justice. (Augustyn & McGloin, 2018). Despite the fact that all the latter finding narrow down to more negative outcomes in waived juveniles, the same can be said for judicial processes also. For instance, once a judge is affected by the stigma associated with the waived juvenile, it is likely that they issue less voice to the youth in their proceedings. Too many negative results in adult court can also be attributed to decreased efforts or attention the defendant's attorney is giving his juvenile client. Additionally, juvenile defendants are likely to perceive prosecutors as unjust given the fact that they are tried in an adult court.

            However, it holds that the variety of features of judicial waivers can decrease the increased negative perceptions of procedural justice. Since the juvenile court was embedded in the philosophy of the state acting within the bounds of the juvenile's interests (Whitehead,

2018), all known procedural havens for adult defendants appeared substantive. Thus, it was this absence of haven that gave rise to the injustices perceived in judicial waivers, and over a couple of years, such protections have been given to the juvenile defendant in his court. A good example is the 'Kent v. United States (1966)', a landmark case that rejected the notion that the ideals of rehabilitation of youth courts indicted arbitrary procedures (Whitehead, 2018). Juveniles were granted the privilege of self-incrimination, the right to counsel and cross-examine accusers. The decisions by the courts have also affirmed the distinct nature of juvenile courts from criminal courts. Juvenile courts were barred from adopting all the rules and requirements of criminal courts. The courts later ruled that juveniles were not entitled to a trial by the jury. Hence, waived juveniles enjoyed more rights and privileges compared to those charged in juvenile courts. The implication of this is a change in perception among juvenile defendants since they are likely to regard the justice system as fair than those charged under juvenile courts. Conclusively, judicial waivers serve greater justice to juvenile defendants compared to juvenile courts.

Conclusion

The judicial waiver has been termed controversial and has attracted questions from all over the globe with regard to its effectiveness in handling and safeguarding the interests of the youths found in an offense. Waiving juveniles has been criticized by many scholars and researchers as being nonconforming to justice and traditional norms. Higher levels of prosecutorial discretion alongside a lack of clear protocols for prosecuting juveniles have made them vulnerable to judicial injustices.

However, judicial waivers can never be taken for what scholars make of them and are so far the best way to prosecute juvenile defendants. For reasons of perceptions, it is clear that judicial waivers entail more privileges than when the juvenile is prosecuted in a juvenile court. Judicial waivers, therefore, serve the basic philosophy upon which they were built – to serve the best interest of the juveniles.

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